Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser

1.1.
1.1.1.

ANNEX V: Social Appraisal for Great Himalayan Trail Development Program

Overview
This annex presents the socio-cultural context of tourist development in Nepal. Its primary purpose is to ensure the project does not inadvertently increase inequality or conflict in the districts it operates. The social impact of the project is considered by identifying: i) barriers for the poor and excluded to accessing project benefits; ii) measures to address these barriers; iii) opportunities for stakeholders (especially the poor and excluded) to participate in and influence the projects interventions; iv) how the project will implement in a do no harm and conflict sensitive manner.

1.1.2.

Context Of Poverty, Vulnerability And Social Exclusion In Nepal

The hierarchal Hindu caste system still governs political and economic life in most of Nepal and is particularly marked in remote areas. The practice of untouchability excludes the poorest and most disadvantaged from decision making, community life and economic activity as they are polluted. Nepal is the poorest and most unequal country in South Asia despite decreasing the incidence of poverty from 42% in 1996 to 31% in 2004.1 Uneven poverty reduction: 6% among Muslims and 46% among Brahman/Chhetri groups2, is increasing the Gini coefficient (from 0.34 in 1996 to 0.41 in 2004). Unequal growth and inequality is also a reality with Dalits having a higher poverty incidence at 46% than Newars at 14%. GoN has an inclusive development agenda. Meeting the economic, social and cultural rights of the poorest and excluded members of Nepals society was an insurgency demand that appears in the peace agreement. Article 3.5 of the CPA lists exclusion based on class, language, ethnicity, gender, culture, region and religion. These inequalities are cited as causes and factors of poverty.3 Subsequent development plans and government policies adopt this inclusive agenda. In terms of gender equality, Nepal is a state party to CEDAW (The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women) and has signed the Beijing Platform for Action (BPA). The GoN has set a commendable

1 2

NLSS, 2003/04. CBS, 2005. Poverty Assessment. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu. 3 It needs to be noted that as there are many poor members of upper caste groups the included population is actually quite small. It consists of male Hill Brahmin, Chhetri and Newar groups who are not poor which is less than 18% of the population plus mid-high caste well off male Madhesi and some Janajati.

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser target in the three-year interim development plan (2007-2010) to increase Nepals Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)4 from 0.351 to 0.450. Nonetheless Nepali women currently have significant family responsibilities, low social status and esteem, education and do the lions share of the drudgery and undervalued work. Weekly labour contribution of male and female to noneconomic household activities is 9.7 and 25.1 hours respectively and men undertake more external economic activities 42.6 hours compared to 36.3 for women.5 Only 17% of 2001 census households reported that a female in their family owned a house, land or livestock. Nepali women own 8.1% of total land holdings with the average female land holdings size at 0.53 hectares compared to 0.81 hectares for men.6 These statistics influence womens ability to participate in the economy and development projects, access finance, control resources and achieve financial autonomy. Despite GoN efforts to reform Nepal into an inclusive and gender equal state, it is the informal institutions and customs that continue to systematically hinder the progress of women and other excluded groups. The lack of service delivery, rule of law, weak local governance and policy implementation are other reasons inequality prevails.

1.1.3.

Socio-Cultural Issues and Tourism

Tourism leads to poverty reduction by increasing employment opportunities and income for local people. It can give local people a means to access new information and exposure to other ways of living. Cultural norms can be showcased to outsiders through dance, theatre and the sale of cultural items leading to pride and an affirmation of identity. There are a number of socio-cultural issues to consider in a tourism development project. Women often bear an additional domestic burden from increased tourists. They have to collect extra fire wood and water and undertake more cleaning for the tourists. They have additional agricultural and household duties resulting from their husbands paid employment. However, womens contribution is often unpaid and undervalued as the increased benefits of tourism accrue to others.7 Tourism is associated with migration as those with employment often reside in Kathmandu close to the main trekking companies and they send their children away to better schools rather than educating them locally. As the majority of those employed through tourism are men this increases the female headed household ratio and all the social implications that go with that such as less community participation, food, mobility and security.

The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is a measure of inequalities between men's and women's opportunities in a country in terms of: political participation and decision making, economic participation and decision making, and power over economic resources. 5 2001 census 6 See 2001 census figure or Sharma, S. 2009. Policy Paper on Inequality: Nepal. UNDP. 7 Lama, W. 2000 Community-based Tourism for Conservation and Womens Development.

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser Natural heritage and resources often come under pressure with increased tourist visitations and this obviously impacts upon the livelihood of local people dependent on their natural environment for survival. For example it can increase womens time poverty, as they have to travel further away for fodder and fuel wood as these resources come under pressure. Local prices for goods and services inflate when tourists consume more goods and are willing to pay higher prices for them. Case studies from the Sagarmatha region also reveal that men tend to neglect their traditional and agricultural pastoral activities in favour of chasing tourist revenues and this can exacerbate food security issues.8 Some think tourism turns culture into a fixed event, a showcase, a kind of staged authenticity leading to a commoditisation of culture.9 Tourism can create power and knowledge inequalities within and between communities and between locals and outsiders. Tourists are rich and powerful consuming luxury goods in a way local people could never afford. This display of wealth can lead some locals to render outsider cultural values as superior and desirable and their own values as questionable and up for (re)negotiation.10 The adoption by local people of Western practices and mannerisms and clothing reflects this. Cultural norms and social practices such as reciprocity can break down during intense periods of change leading to community tension. In some cases tourism has led to conflict as fights over land, contracts and other resources associated with tourism revenue flows position kin against kin and turn friend into foe.11 Tourism brings changes to a local community. However, a number of changes are inevitable with time and exposure to other cultures. Change can be a very positive experience for it creates a space to renegotiate socio-cultural norms such as who is included and who is excluded and address entrenched Hindu caste hierarchies and inequalities. Tourism has the potential to motivate women and segregated castes to move into non-traditional occupations by providing them with new skills, economic opportunities, and leadership and managerial positions. For example an untouchable/polluted Dalit employed as a cook for trekkers. However, if tourism is only left to market forces then evidence suggests that inequality widens: while there have always been economic differences between communities in [Solukhumbu] it would appear that the inequalities between them are widening due to differences in tourism involvement.12 Existing community elites with better access to education and capital are better placed to exploit economic opportunities of tourism leading to the perpetuation and exacerbation of existing socio-economic inequality.
8

Sharma, 1995. Culture and Tourism: Defining Roles and Relationships. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal. 9 Ibid. 10 ONeill 1992. Trekking to Tengboche: Sherpas and the Tourist Challenge. Nexus 10. 11 Gurung and DeCoursey 2000. Too Much Too Fast: Lessons From Nepals Lost Kingdom of Mustang. 12 Rogers 2007 cited in Sharma, Analytical Framework for Equitable Mountain Tourism: An analytical Discourse on Political Ecology of Mountain Geography in Everest Region of Nepal. Lessons From Himalaya

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser The GHT projects ability to manage change and risk effectively and inclusively will determine the positive and sustainable nature of results. Community ownership, cohesiveness, trust, communication and support for tourism and sustainable development are crucial, as is defining the roles, responsibilities and rights of all stakeholders. GHT does not want to exacerbate inequality or conflict. GHT has a number of community awareness activities designed to monitor and mitigate negative outcomes and maximise the projects positive outcomes. For example the value chain analysis involves the local community so they are aware of the rigorous research methodology and understand the research outcomes and the justification for the activities and segments selected for interventions. Leadership mentoring will help decision makers understand those they serve and the benefits of collaboration and consultation. The business community and tour operators will be encouraged to establish community linkages with local people and local businesses and the TDCs/DDCs. Additionally the M&E manual includes participatory reviews that bring stakeholders together for dialogue and trust building and so that everyone, including community members, understand the programmes goals and how their contribution fits into strengthening the whole tourism sector.

1.1.4.

Exclusion in Targeted Districts

Lessons learnt from the GHT pilot is that participation of the poor and excluded is important but not enough by itself. Exploring where social inclusion does or does not take place and the reasons or rules of the game behind this exclusion will assist to develop appropriate interventions beyond just counting participation numbers. Table 21 below reflects considerable heterogeneity and the main caste and ethnic groups per GHT district. The difference in caste and ethnic groups and power inequalities within districts is marked. In Humla trekking tourism is controlled by influential people of the Lama caste who reside in the north of the district. Unity amongst Lama Caste people is discernible and they have a tradition of forming strong business relationships at the exclusion of other groups. However, decision-making and entrepreneurship in the South is concentrated amongst Chhetri / Thakuri caste people and interactions between castes operate in hierarchical patron-client relationships. In Dolpa many hospitality roles are fulfilled by men due to restrictions on womens mobility and social norms that associate employment and income as a male domain. Studies from the Khumjung region of Solukhumbu suggest that guided treks produce and promote new social structures that are highly defined along ethnic and caste lines. Sherpas sit at the top of this hierarchy; porters, who predominately come from lower Solukhumbu, sit at the bottom.13 GHT has rich data from Humla and Dolpa where the pilot was undertaken but less information on the other districts. In all districts there are different influential groups who determine who is excluded and who is included. While the value chain analysis will reveal some of the necessary socio-cultural differences there

13

Linnard 2007 People Moving Matters: Theorizing Tourism and Migration on the Nepali Periphery School for International Training Nepal.

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser is need for a more in depth gender and socio-cultural analysis. This will help identify barriers that women and different excluded groups may face in taking advantage of GHT benefits. GHT will undertake such analysis at the time of the baseline survey and ensure that it involves local partners so that their capacity for social analysis and inclusion is increased.
Table 1: Great Himalaya Trail District-Level Social Data

District GEM HDI14 GDP per capita US$ Chhetri15 Gurung Thakuri Brahmin Magar Limbu Sherpa Rai male female Hindu % Buddhist % Islam % Christian % Kirat % Sex ratio Total population Total HHs Average HH size Literacy rate %

Humla 0.308 66 1,014 44 23 14 20962 19633 84,4 15,59 - - - 107 40595 6953 5,84 26,62

Dolpa 0.372 35 1,279 44 23 13 14735 14810 60,35 39,59 0,02 0,02 - 99 29545 5812 5,08 34,66

Manaslu Gorkha 0.348 49 1,219 12 22 18 149274 170731 72,79 25,2 0,91 0,79 0,02 97 320004 57666 5 60

Solukhumbu Kanchenjunga Taplejung 0.356 0.423 45 9 1,455 15 10 32 57670 59123 42,91 29 0,05 82 26,81 106 116793 23499 5 50 1,169 12 10 41 72547 75054 36,52 18,68 0,02 0,54 43,47 106 147601 27136 5,9 57

Sources: HDI 2009 and 2008 Village Development Profile of Nepal: A socio-economic Development Database of Nepal. Intensive Study and Research Centre.

1.1.5.

Conflict Affected communities

A number of GHTs districts are deemed highly conflict affected and these areas have experienced rapid change in terms of exclusion and gender

14

The Human Development Index measures: life expectancy at birth; adult literacy plus gross enrollment ratios; and GDP per capita. There are 75 districts in Nepal. 15 % of population

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser relations. For example, female combatants dressed in military uniform, stopped wearing pote (beads) and sindur (red vermilion) as a marker of marriage and generally promoted rights for women.16 For many communities this was one of the first times women had been allowed to leave their houses and village. The Maoists also tried to outlaw the traditional bista or khala system, whereby occupational Dalit castes received grain annually for the services they provided to higher caste households, rather than pay for their work. While some of these changes ended with the conflict some communities still fear the forced and violent inclusion strategies of the Maoists or resent the idea of inclusion because they associate it with violence and past trauma. Identity politics, where certain identity groups based along caste and ethnic lines threaten traditional power holders with violence, has the potential to fragment Nepal, stifle private sector development and affect tourist movement. Bandhs or strikes associated with identity groups exercising their rights results in vehicular and business stagnation, frustration and resentment. The intersection between armed criminal groups, politicians, local officials and security services results in opportunistic behaviour such as rent seeking, extortion, abduction and other illicit revenue raising situations which significantly affects local law and order, tourism, businesses and development actors. 17 This renders the context for rights promotion and inclusion political and challenging. GHTs do no harm18 conflict sensitive approach will be based upon evidence based analysis, inclusive consultation and participation and good governance promotion. GHT will work collaboratively with stakeholders to ensure appropriate analysis in each district as the GHT pilot found that detailed understanding of local socio-political relationships significantly enhances programme outcomes. The programme will monitor equitable distribution of benefits. GHT partners will be sensitised to gender and social inclusions issues though audits, workshops and participatory analysis. GHT will monitor local areas to ensure that development benefits are not captured by local elites and social accountability tools will be implemented to encourage good governance and give voice to the poor. The additional strategies listed below are also designed with conflict sensitivity in mind.

1.1.6.

Additional Inclusive Actions

Exclusion is a problem of governance and power not just demographics.19 Checks and balances need to be in place in the GHT so that elite capture and an undue concentration of power does not eventuate. Creating a space for all

16

2004 World Bank Social Change in Conflict-Affected Areas of Nepal. Social Development Notes no.15. 17 Bennett, 2010. Peace and Development Strategy: Inclusion Section. World Bank. 18 Conflict sensitivity involves ensuring that activities do not inadvertently contribute to exacerbating existing conflicts or creating new conflicts (do no harm) but rather strengthen, wherever possible, resilience to conflict and contribute to conflict mitigation through development assistance. Draft Conflict Impact Assessment Tool, World Bank, November 2008. See www.conflictsensitivity.org for more information.
19

Bennett, 2010.

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser stakeholders to have a voice in GHT is essential. A community score card and citizen report card will be used to strengthen the voice of disadvantaged groups and ensure those with power are held accountable for decisions made. Social accountability tools such as these improve efficiency and reduce corruption in service delivery and incentivise more equitable participation.20 Marketing material developed for the GHT will show positive images of men and women in non stereotypical gender or caste based industries. There may be some concern that a private sector driven tourism development project will negatively impact on the local culture.21 Private sector tourist expansion can be seen to favour profits at the expense of inclusive change and environmental and cultural preservation. This is a challenge for inclusive, pro poor private sector tourism development. GHT will mitigate these risks through developing Responsible Travel Nepal (RTN) criteria which is a set of operating standards that factor issues such as environmental and social protection into business relationships and practices. GHT will reward those who apply the RTN criteria through marketing and other incentives. GHT can work to improve labour conditions in the employment it creates. Currently there are many patron-client types of relationships, especially for Dalits, involving bonded labour and difficult labour conditions. Through the RTN criteria, GHT can promote decent jobs for all. The business communitys adoption and support for RTN could increase tourism benefits to local communities and has the potential to influence government policies associated with sustainable tourism, business development and wider social development. Defining the poor in GHT districts can include almost everyone as the districts are chosen for their poverty. For example, a wealth survey conducted along the Simikot to Hilsa trail in Humla22 revealed that while the poor can be categorised from landless poorest of the poor to large landholders, even those who are regarded by local standards as the better off elites are still poor by international standards. They live below the international poverty line of USD1.25 per day (although above Nepals poverty line of NRs.6100 in 2001 prices) and are still vulnerable to shocks related to seasonality, lifecycle, health status, geographical location and an inability to draw on social safety nets which can cause them to slip back into the category of poor and landless. Closely monitoring and collected data on MSMEs will ensure benefits are also reaching the poor. Part of the M&E plan is to capture indirect benefits. That is how those who are not directly participating in the programme are also able to benefit so that those too poor to run SMEs can also gain positive impact from increased tourist flows.

20 21

Bennett, 2010. Sharma, 1995. Culture and Tourism: Defining Roles and Relationships. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal. P25.
22

Saville, N 2001. Practical strategies for pro-poor tourism. Case study of pro-poor tourism and SNV in Humla District, West Nepal.

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser While the middle to upper poor will obviously benefit substantially from the GHT project (given they are mule and teahouse owners and this project focuses on market based solutions) the majority poor will benefit from associated labour opportunities, increases in agriculture and handicraft sales, livelihood developments and trail upgrades. The challenge for development projects is that only activities requiring minimal capital can involve the landless poorest of the poor, especially as access to finance is limited to PAF (Poverty Alleviation Fund) savings and credit groups. As the majority of residents from GHT districts are poor, low risk, low investment interventions will be developed as an inclusion strategy. Additionally 50% of MSME small grants will go to women. It will be difficult to get women involved in some of the MSMEs associated with tourism such as campgrounds, guiding and portering due to the mobility restrictions on women and the perception that women outside the house are at risk of rape and other gender based crimes. GHT will draw upon the expertise of the NGO, Empowering Women of Nepal (EWN) that has successfully trained 800 female guides and porters and helped them to secure employment. It may even be necessary to bring some of these female guides to the districts to use as role models and have them present their stories to community groups in order to breakdown gender stereotypes. The programme acknowledges that it will be challenging to get women involved in MSME development and has therefore set a 50% female participation in training target. So at the least women will be trained in business development which will assist them with day-to-day household management even if they do not commence businesses. The project will monitor the success of this target and is aware that consultations with womens husbands and male kin may need to occur and childcare may need to be offered so that women can participate. Using female trainers will also encourage female participation. In the Humla pilot, Dalits were trained in new industries but promptly returned to their traditional industries (where they felt most comfortable) after the training ended. To combat caste discrimination associated with MSMEs, the project will take a multi-angled change management approach. It will educate local people during community meetings and deliver the message that in order for the community to promote tourism all social segments need to participate in new ways in local planning and development and business opportunities. RTN will reinforce this message through its criteria resulting in larger businesses setting a positive example. Key partners will undertake gender and social inclusion audits to strengthen their capacity and commitment to mainstream gender and social inclusion. This will result in action plan development that has key partners monitoring and promoting inclusion. Additional MSME mentoring will be offered to Dalits who are commencing a new business or entering a new industry to help them with troubleshooting and tackling the multiple forms of discrimination and setbacks faced. GHT will collect data disaggregated by sex, caste, age, and ethnicity. Measuring inclusion per district is difficult as no indexes have been developed for this level of disaggregation. So the project will monitor for inclusion rather than measure it. Participatory monitoring of indicators and data collection will

Kristie Drucza Gender and Social Inclusion Adviser assist in building the capacity of decision makers and other stakeholders to manage for results and understand gender and social inclusion issues.