Sound waves Sound is a series of pressure vibrations that move through an elastic medium.

These waves of energy are in the form of variations in the pressure of the air above and below the atmospheric air pressure. The human ear receives these air pressure fluctuations and converts the vibration generated at the eardrum into electric impulses to the brain. What we understand to be recognizable language, music and noise is the result of human brain activity. Sound waves are generated at different frequencies measured in cycles per second, Hertz (Hz). Its alternating compressions and rarefactions may be far apart (low- pitched), close together (high- pitched), wide (loud), or narrow (soft). All perceived sound has a source, path, and receiver. Each source has a size, direction, and duration. Paths can be airborne or structure- borne. Sound has four quantifiable properties: a. Velocity, b. Frequency, c. intensity, d. Diffuseness. Velocity, sound travels much faster through solids than air (and faster through warm air than cool air). Frequency is sounds vibrations per second, or hertz (Hz). This varies according to its purity and pitch. The average human pitch for hearing is about 1000 Hz. Intensity is the power level (or loudness) measured in decibels (dB). Attenuation is the loss of a sounds intensity as it travels outward from a source. Diffuse noise (blanket or background noise level) is sound emanating from a multiple of similar sound sources. There is both a positive function and a negative function to consider in acoustic design. The positive function is to ensure that the reverberation characteristics of a building are appropriate to their function. On the negative side, the task is to make certain that unwanted outside noises are kept out of quiet areas of the building. Measurement of Sound Sound power and pressure levels Sound power and pressure levels are measured over a range of frequencies that are representative of the response of the human ear to sounds.

The unit of measurement of sound is the Bel (B). The smallest increment of sound that the human ear can detect is one-tenth of a Bel, one decibel (dB). This means that the smallest change in sound level that is perceptible by the human ear is 1 dB, so any decimal places that are produced from calculations using sound power or pressure level are not relevant. A calculated sound level of 84.86 can only be 84 dB as the 0.86 decimal portion is not detectable by the ear.

The A scale of measurement gives a weighting to each frequency in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz in the same ratio as can be heard. For example, the human ear is more sensitive to sounds at 1000 Hz than at higher frequencies. The acoustic output power of a machine is termed its sound power level, SWL dB. The manufacturer of the plant (machineries) provides the sound power levels produced by a particular machine from test results and predictions.

Transmission of sound Sound energy converts into structural vibration and passes through solid barriers. A reduced level of sound pressure is established in the adjacent space due to the attenuation of the separating partition, wall, floor or ceiling. Air passageways through the separating partition act as sound channels that have little, or no, sound-reducing property, or attenuation. You validate this effect by partially opening a window when the outdoor sound level is substantial. o Compare the open and closed window performance when a train, lorry or high traffic volumes are present. o A well-air-sealed single-glazed window imposes a sound reduction of 30 dB on external noise but a poorly sealed or open window has little attenuation. Sound reduction by a surface is from the reflection of sound waves striking the surface and by the absorption of sound energy into a porous material. Absorbed acoustic energy is dissipated as heat within the solid components of the absorber. Dense materials are often efficient sound attenuators. The exception is metal. Sound travels easily through metals for great distances due to their molecular vibration. When the imposed sound frequency coincides with a natural frequency of vibration of the metal, resonance occurs and an increased sound level may be generated. This happens in particular when the shape of the metal creates an air space for the sound waves to resonate within, such as in a bell, an empty tank or a pipe. The structural steel within a building, service pipework, air ducts and railways lines can all transfer noise and vibration over long distances. Attenuation materials such as brick, concrete, timber and acoustic fabric are good at absorbing sounds at the higher frequencies. The human ear is most sensitive to sounds around 1000 Hz, making this the critical frequency for the acoustic design engineer.

Noise levels The level of hearing is expressed in decibels from 0 dB, the threshold of hearing, to 140 dB, the threshold of pain. Ears respond to sound frequencies or pitch from around 20 Hz bass to 20 kHz treble. Most people are more sensitive to high rather than low frequencies, but old age reduces the perception of higher frequencies.

Recommended maximum dBA* Hospital and general wards 55 Small consulting rooms 50 Large offices 4550 Private offices 4045 Living rooms 4045 Small classrooms 40 Large lecture rooms 35 Bedrooms 3040 Music studios 30 * dBA are decibels weighted to simulate the response of our ears as opposed to plain dB which do not depend directly on human reaction.

Types of noise Noise The word can be traced back to Old French (noyse). It has a variety of meanings and shadings of meaning, the most important of which are the following: Unwanted sound: Unmusical sound: sound composed of non-PERIODIC vibrations (e.g. the rustling of leaves), by comparison with musical sounds, which consist of periodic vibrations. Any loud sound: In general usage today, noise often refers to particularly loud sounds. In this sense a noise abatement by-law prohibits certain loud sounds or establishes their permissible limits in DECIBELs. Disturbance in any COMMUNICATION system: In electronics and engineering, noise refers to any disturbances which do not represent part of the SIGNAL. The most satisfactory definition of noise for general use is still 'unwanted sound'. This makes noise a subjective term: one person's music may be another's noise. But it also provides the opportunity for a society to come to a general agreement as to which sounds constitutes unwanted intrusions. Types of noise Speech noise: characterized primarily by the three - octave frequency band ranging from 600 to 4800 cps. Speech interference level: Unwanted sound (i.e., noisiness) rather than sound intensity (i.e., loudness) is the major cause of annoyance. Noisiness seems to increase at a greater rate than loudness; whenever the pitch of a sound is raised Furthermore the reaction to noisiness is time - dependent. It has been demonstrated that annoyance levels are higher if unwanted sound persists beyond 200 milliseconds. Owing to the fact that individuals vary in their reaction to noise, we are forced to assess these subjective reactions on a statistical basis Impact noise: consisting mostly of low - frequency sound generated by footsteps, foot shuffling, scraping of furniture, and dropping of objects. Mechanical noise: generated by mechanical and electrical services, and external vehicular traffic. Background noise: Any sound other than the primary sound in question. These are interferences to the primary sound. In office environments back ground noise has a deleterious effect on speech intelligibility. There are various methods used for classifying the types of noise namely: 1. Noise rating 2. Noise criterion 3. Noise exposure forecast 4. Perceived noise level

Noise rating A method for rating the acceptability of indoor environments for the purposes of hearing preservation, speech communication and annoyance, based on curves developed by Kosten and van Os (1962). Noise Criterion A noise rating system introduced by Leo Beranek in 1957 to take into account, the distribution of noise energy in various frequency bands. It has since been superseded by the NOISE RATING method which functions on similar principles. Noise exposure forecast A method developed by the U.S. Federal Aviation Agency to predict the degree of community annoyance from aircraft noise. It is applied to determine acceptable levels for various community zoning regions. Perceived noise level A scale developed originally by K.D. Kryter in 1959 to attempt to measure the perceived noisiness of jet aircraft by observers on the ground. The scale has been adopted by the International Standards Organization for international use. Noise level A measure of SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL, given the symbol L. Various subscripts define the nature of the measurement, most commonly as follows: L10: sound level exceeded 10% of the time (PEAK LEVEL) L50: sound level exceeded 50% of the time (average or mean level) L90: sound level exceeded 90% of the time (ambient level); LNP: NOISE POLLUTION LEVEL Sound & Noise control Sound can be likened to light. Sound control uses reflection and diffusion to enhance acoustics in such spaces as auditoriums and sound studios, and absorption for noise control in more typical spaces such as offices. Reflection: The geometry of the room is important in effective sound control. Large concave surfaces concentrate sound and should usually be avoided, while convex surfaces disperse sound. Diffusion promotes uniform distribution of continuous sound and improves liveness (very important in performing arts). It is increased by objects and surface irregularities. Ideal diffusing surfaces neither absorb nor reflect sound but scatter it. Absorption provides the most effective form of noise control. Sound pressure waves travel at the speed of sound (1100 fps), which is a slow enough velocity that reflections of the original sound-wave form can interfere with perception of the original, intended signal.

Reverberation time is the measure of this problem. Sound of any kind emitted in a room will be absorbed or reflected off the room surfaces. Soft

materials absorb sound energy. Hard materials reflect sound energy back into the space. Annoying reverberation (echoes) occur in rooms more than 30 feet long. Echoes are stronger when the reflection surface is highly reflective and is concave toward the listener. Desirable room reverberation times are: Office and commercial spaces 0.5 seconds Rooms for speech 1.0 seconds Rooms for music 1.5 seconds Sports arenas 2.0 seconds

The average absorption coefficient of a room should be at least 0.2. Average absorption above 0.5 is usually not desirable, nor is it economically justified. A lower value is suitable for large rooms; and larger values for controlling sound in small or noisy rooms. Ceiling treatment is more effective in large rooms, while wall treatment is more effective in small rooms. Each doubling of the absorption in a room reduces RT by 12 If a corridor is appreciably higher than it is wide, some absorptive material should be placed on the walls as well as the ceiling, especially if the floor is hard. If the corridor is wider than its height, ceiling treatment is usually enough. Concave shapes focus sound and convex shapes disperse sound.

Sound Insulation Sound travels through walls and floors by causing building materials to vibrate and then broadcast the noise into the quiet space. There are two methods of setting up the vibration: through structure-borne sound, and air-borne sound. Structure-borne sound is the vibration of building materials by vibrating pieces of equipment, or caused by walking on hard floors. Air-borne sound is a pressure vibration in the air. When it hits a wall, the wall materials are forced to vibrate. The vibration passes through the materials of the wall. The far side of the wall then passes the vibration back into the air. Noise Reduction and Sound insulation Guidelines Choose a quiet, protected site. Orient building with doors and windows away from noise. Use site barriers such as walls or landscape (dense tree lines or hedges, a combination of deciduous and evergreen shrubs, reduce sound more efficiently). Avoid placing noisy areas near quiet areas. Areas with similar noise characteristics should be placed next to each other. Place bedrooms next to bedrooms and living rooms next to living rooms. As the distance from the sound source increases, pressure at the listeners ear will decrease by the inverse square law (as with light). Therefore, separate sound sources by distance.

Orient spaces to minimize transmission problems. Space windows of adjoining apartments max. Distance apart. Place noisy areas back to back. Place closets between noisy and quiet areas. Massive materials (concrete or masonry) are the best noise-isolation materials. Choose quiet mechanical equipment. Use vibration isolation, sound-absorbing duct lining, resilient pipe connections. Design for low flow velocities in pipes and ducts. Reducing structure-borne sound from walking on floors is achieved by carpet (with padding, improves greatly). Avoid flanking of sound over ceilings

Avoid flanking of sound at wall and floor intersections. Wall and floor penetrations (such as elect. boxes) can be a source of sound leakage. A 1-square-inch wall opening in a 100-SF gypsum-board partition can transmit as much sound as the entire partition. Many sound leaks can be plugged in the same manner as is done for air leaks, by caulking.

Transmission loss or Sound transmission Class (STC) Walls and floors are classified by Sound Transmission Class ( STC), which is a measure of the reduction of loudness provided by various barriers. The higher the number, the better. In determining the required STC rating of a barrier, the following rough guidelines may be used: STC Effect on Hearing 25 Normal speech clearly heard through barrier. 30 Loud speech can be heard and understood fairly well. Normal speech can be heard but barely understood. 35 Loud speech is unintelligible but can be heard. 4245 loud speech can be heard only faintly. Normal speech cannot be heard. 4650 Loud speech not audible. Loud sounds other than speech can be heard only faintly, if at all.

The best remedy for reducing impact noise is to cushion the noise at its source.

Rough Estimating of STC Ratings When the wall or floor assembly is less than that desired, the following modifications can be made. Select the appropriate wall or floor assembly. To improve the rating, select modifications (largest number, 1/2 next largest, 1/2 next largest, etc): a. Light frame walls Base design STC Rating Wood studs W/ gypbd. 32 Metal studs W/ 5/8 gypbd. 39 Modification Added STC Staggered Studs 9 Double surface skin 3 to 5 Absorption insulation 5 . b. Heavy walls The greater the density, the higher the rating. Density goes up in the following order: CMU, brick, concrete Base Design STC Rating 4-inch CMU, brick, concrete 3741, 42 6-inch 42, 46 8-inch 47, 49, 51 12-inch 52, 54, 56 Modification Added STC Furred-out surface 7 to 10 Add plaster, 2 to 4 Sand-filled cores 3 c. Wood floors Base Design STC Rating plywd, subfloor with oak floor, no ceiling

25

Modification Add carpet 5/8 -inch gypbd. ceiling Add resilient damping board Add absorption insul. d. Concrete floors Base Design 4-, 6-, 8-inch thick concrete Modification Resilient Suspension Ceiling Add sleepers Add absorption insul. e. Glass float double glaze f. Doors Wood (Hard) Wood (soft) Metal Special acoustical

Added STC 10 10 7 3 STC Rating 41, 46, 51 Added STC 12 7 3 26 32 26 29 30 35 to 38

Absorption of sound The room sound absorption constant, R m2, is found from the total surface area of the enclosing room, S m2, and the mean sound absorption coefficient of the room surfaces, , at each of the relevant frequencies: where =mean absorption coefficient of room surfaces S =total room surface area m2 Mean absorption coefficient, , is found from the area and absorption coefficient for each surface of the enclosing space. All the absorbing surfaces within the space, such as seats and people in a theatre, are included in the overall sound absorbing ability of the room: where A1 =surface area of surface number 1 m 1 =absorption coefficient of surface number 1
2

Materials absorb different amounts of sound energy at each frequency due to the frequency of natural vibration of their fibres and the method of their construction. Stiff,

dense materials, such as brickwork walls, absorb sound by molecular vibration. Highly porous materials, such as glass wool, have large air passageways that allow the sound waves to penetrate the whole of the material thickness quickly. The strands of glass wool are vibrated by the sound waves and the sound energy is dissipated as heat. Dense materials are very efficient at absorbing acoustic energy. The reduction in sound level between the surfaces of a sound barrier is proportional to the mass of the barrier. The absorption coefficients of some common surface materials are given in below.

Table no 1 Absorption coefficients Reverberation time Reverberation time is the time in seconds taken for a sound to decrease in value by 60 dB. This effectively means the time taken for the sound source to decay to an imperceptible level, as a sound pressure of 30 dB is very quiet to the human ear. An echo is produced by sound waves bouncing, or reverberating, from one or more hard surfaces and this may last for several seconds. A room that has a long reverberation time sounds noisy, lively and it allows echoes. A room having a short reverberation time, less than 1 s, sounds dull and there is no echo. The floor is a suspended wire mesh, and beneath the floor more absorbent wedges complete the coverage of all the room surfaces. The sound source radiates outward and upon reaching the surfaces is instantly absorbed, allowing no reverberation or echo. This is as close to a free field test method as can be achieved because there is no reverberant field caused by reflected sound waves.

Reverberation time of a room is found from

Where V is the volume of the room =mean absorption coefficient of room surfaces S =total room surface area m2

Table no 2 Absorption coefficients prepared from table no 1 Room volume V Floor area (A1) Ceiling area (A2) Wall area (A3) =4 3 2.5 m2 =30 m3 = 12 m2 = 12 m2 = 35 m2

Room surface area A = Floor area + ceiling area + Wall area = 12+12+ 35 =59 m2

For 125 Hz, the mean absorption coefficient is, Where = (Floor area X Absorption coefficient Of Floor material) = (Ceiling area X Absorption coefficient Of ceiling material) = (Wall surface area X Absorption coefficient Of wall surface material)

=0.064

Hot water boilers Types of boilers These can be classified based on the type of fuel used: Solid fuel Oil Natural gas Liquefied Petroleum Gas Electric Solid Fuel boilers The combined room heater and boiler shown below is an improvement, having an enclosed fire and a convected outlet to heat the room in which it is installed. The water jacket is of sufficient capacity to provide hot water for storage and for several radiators. These appliances will require re-stoking every few hours. Independent boilers are free standing, automatically fed by hopper and require only a flue. A chimney structure is not necessary, provided there is a flue (exhaust pipe) The integral fuel store contains small granules or ` peas ' of anthracite and will require minimal attention with a burning capacity of several days. Automatic control is by thermostat in the water way to regulate a fan assisted air supply for complete combustion. These boilers are designed with sufficient capacity to provide hot water and central heating for most domestic situations. Flue pipes may be used to connect a solid fuel burning appliance to a chimney. They must not pass through a roof space, partition, internal wall or floor. Flue

Oil boilers Fuel for boilers is manufactured by processing crude oil. The crude is distilled and condensed to produce a variety of commercial brands including gasolenes, kerosenes and gas oils. They require pre-heating before pumping and atomising for burning. These oils are limited to large-scale plant that has high level chimneys to discharge the pollutants and dirty flue gases characteristic of their high sulphur content. An oil storage tank may be located externally. Unless the tank is underground or provided with a fire resistant barrier, it must be sited at least 1.8 m from the building. Where the oil storage room is within a building, it should be totally enclosed with walls and floors of at least 4 hours ' fire resistance.

Natural Gas Properties of natural gas: o Methane 895% o Ethane 45% o Propane 10% o Pentane 05% o Butane 05% o Nitrogen 35% o Carbon dioxide 05%

All the gases above are combustible except for nitrogen. Natural gas is not toxic, but incomplete combustion will produce carbon monoxide, hence the importance of correct burner and flue installations. A distinctive odour is added to the gas, as in its natural state it has no detectable smell. Natural gas has many advantages over other fuels, including: clean and efficient burning, no storage (delivered through pipe lines), less maintenance, relatively economic and a minimum of ancillaries.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas These gases are liquefied in containers to about 1/200 of their volume as a gas by application of moderate pressure for convenience in transportation and storage. They are marketed as two grades, propane and butane, under various brand names. Both grades are heavier than air, therefore periphery walls around storage containers are unacceptable. If there were a leakage, the vapour would be trapped at low level and be unable to disperse. Calorific values differ considerably from natural gas, therefore appliances are not interchangeable. Siting of storage vessels should be away from buildings, boundaries and fixed sources of ignition as a precaution in event of fire.

Electricity Electrically powered boilers have the advantage of no maintenance, no flue, over 99% efficiency and no direct discharge of noxious gases. Electricity is converted to heat energy in water by an electrode boiler and stored in a pressurized insulated cylinder at about 180o C. The water is circulated by a pump programmed for daytime use to heat emitters in the building. Careful design of the storage vessel is essential to maintain sufficient thermal capacity for the heating requirements.