PROJECT MANAGEMENT (An Overview)

A Paper prepared by:

Engr. (Mrs.) Nnoli Akpedeye MNSE, MNICE, PMP, FMP

for the Compulsory Refresher Course for Prospective Corporate Members

1.

Introduction

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. A project is a finite endeavour (having specific start and completion dates) undertaken to create a unique product or service, which brings about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in sharp contrast to processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent functional work to repetitively produce the same product or service. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management. The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while honouring the project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time and budget. The secondaryand more ambitiouschallenge is to optimise the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives. As a discipline, Project Management developed from different fields of application including construction, engineering and defense. In the United States, the two forefathers of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famously known for his use of the Gantt chart as a project management tool, and Henry Fayol for his creation of the 6 management functions, which form the basis for the body of knowledge associated with project and program management. The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern Project Management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects; and the "Program Evaluation and ReviewTechnique" or PERT, developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) At the same time, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (nowAACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE has continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first ever integrated process for portfolio, program and project management (Total Cost Management Framework).

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In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interests of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project management are common even among the widespread application of projects from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), containing the standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout the profession. The International Project Management Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB). The focus of the ICB also begins with knowledge as a foundation, and adds considerations about relevant experience, interpersonal skills, and competence. Both organizations are now participating in the development of an ISO project management standard.

2.

The Traditional Project Management Approach

There are several approaches that can be taken to managing project activities including agile, interactive, incremental, and phased approaches. Regardless of the approach employed, careful consideration needs to be given to clarify surrounding project objectives, goals, and importantly, the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders. A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Project initiation stage; Project planning or design stage; Project execution or production stage; Project monitoring and controlling systems; Project completion stage.

Not all the projects will visit every stage as projects can be terminated before they reach completion. Some projects probably don't have the planning and/or the monitoring. Some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times. Many industries utilize variations on these stages. For example, in bricks and mortar architectural design, projects typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as "waterfall development", i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development can work for small tightly defined projects, but for larger projects of undefined or unknowable scope, it is less suited. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes specially true as software

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development is often the realization of a newor novel product, this method has been widely accepted as ineffective for software projects where requirements are largely unknowable up front and susceptible to change. While the names may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically followcommon steps to problem solving "defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."

3.

Project Development Stages

Traditionally, project development includes a number of elements: four to five stages, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology used, the project development process will have the same major stages: Initiation, Planning or development, Production or execution, Monitoring and controlling, and Closing.

Initiat ion

Plannin g & Design

Executi on

Monitorin g & Controllin

Closi ng

Fig 1: Project Development Stages

3.1. Initiation The initiation stage determines the nature and scope of the development. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them. The initiation stage should include a cohesive plan that encompasses the following areas: Study analyzing the business needs in measurable goals. Reviewof the current operations. Conceptual design of the operation of the final product. Equipment and contracting requirements including an assessment of 'long-lead' items.
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 Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget. Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project. Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule. 3.2. Planning and Design After the initiation stage, the system is designed. Occasionally, a small prototype of the final product is built and tested. Testing is generally performed by a combination of testers and end users, and can occur after the prototype is built or concurrently. Controls should be in place, which ensure that the final product will meet the specifications of the project charter. The results of the design stage should include a product design that: Satisfies the project sponsor, end user, and business requirements. Functions as it was intended. Can be produced within quality standards. Can be produced within time and budget constraints. 3.3. Executing Executing consists of the processes used to complete the work defined in the project management plan to accomplish the project's requirements. Execution process involves coordinating people and resources, as well as integrating and performing the activities of the project in accordance with the project management plan. The deliverables are produced as outputs from the processes performed as defined in the project management plan. 3.4. Monitoring and Controlling Monitoring and Controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan. Monitoring and Controlling includes: Measuring the ongoing project activities; Monitoring the project variables against the project management plan and the project performance baseline; Identify corrective actions to properly address issues and risks; Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented Over the course of any project, the work scope changes. Change is a normal and expected part of the project development process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to showwhat was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to showall changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, as-builts. The requirement for providing them is a norm in fabrication/construction contracts.

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When changes are introduced to the project the viability of the project has to be assessed again. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted end result may not justify the proposed investment. 3.5. Closing Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof. Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons learned. Close out phase consist of two parts: Close project: to finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase Contract closure: necessary for completing and settling each contract, including the resolution of any open items, and closing each contract applicable to the project or a project phase.

4.

Project Control Systems

Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-time and within budget. Project control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review, having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Each project should be assessed for the appropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of errors, fixes, and additional audit fees. Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider howimportant the projects are to the financial statements, howreliant the stakeholders are on controls, and howmany controls exist. Auditors should reviewthe development process and procedures for howthey are implemented. The process of development and the quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an independent auditor as part of an audit.

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5.

Project Management Triple Constraints

Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as scope, time, and cost. These are also referred to as the Project Management Triple Constraints, where each side of the triangle represents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting the others. A further refinement of the constraints is a hexagon, which separates product quality as a distinct constraint, and also includes risk and customer satisfaction. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project. The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers to what must be done to produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often competing constraints: increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope. The discipline of Project Management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.

scop e

scope

co st

quali ty

quality

schedu le customer satisfac tion

ri sk

cost

schedule

Fig 2: Project Management Triangle & Hexagon

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6.

Project Management Knowledge Areas

The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines the five traditional project development phases as Process Groups. PMI also defines nine Project Management Knowledge Areas as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Project Integration Management Project Scope Management Project Time Management Project Cost Management Project Quality Management Project Human Resource Management Project Communications Management Project Risk Management Project Procurement Management

6.1. Project Integration Management Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities needed to identify, define, combine, unify and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project Management Process Groups. In the project management context, integration includes characteristics of unification, consolidation, articulation and integrative actions that are crucial to project completion, successfully meeting customer and stakeholder requirements and managing expectations. The Project Integration Management processes include: Develop Project Charter developing the project charter that formally authorizes a project Develop Preliminary Project Scope Statement developing the preliminary project scope statement that provides a high-level scope narrative Develop Project Management Plan documenting the actions necessary to define, prepare, integrate, and coordinate all subsidiary plans into a project management plan Direct and Manage Project Execution executing the work defined in the project management plan to achieve the projects requirements defined in the project scope statement. Monitor and Control Project Work monitoring and controlling the processes required to initiate, plan, execute, and close a project to meet the performance objectives defined in the project management plan Integrated Change Control reviewing all change requests, approving changes, and controlling changes to the deliverables and organizational process assets Close Project finalizing all activities across all of the Project Process Groups to formally close the project.

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6.2. Project Scope Management Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Project Scope Management is primarily concerned with defining and controlling what is and is not included in the project. The Project Scope Management processes include: Scope Planning creating a project scope management plan that documents howthe project scope will be defined, verified, and controlled, and howthe work breakdown structure (WBS) will be created and defined Scope Definition developing a detailed project scope statement as the basis for future project decisions Create WBS subdividing the major project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable components Scope Verification formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables Scope Control controlling changes to the project scope.

6.3. Project Time Management Project Time Management includes the processes required to accomplish timely completion of the project. The Project Time Management processes include: Activity Definition identifying the specific schedule activities that need to be performed to produce the various project deliverables Activity Sequencing identifying and documenting dependencies among schedule activities Activity Resource Estimating estimating the type and quantities of resources required to perform each schedule activity Activity Duration Estimating estimating the number of work periods that will be needed to complete individual schedule activities Schedule Development analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and schedule constraints to create the project schedule Schedule Control controlling changes to the project schedule.

6.4. Project Cost Management Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the approved budget. The Project Cost Management processes include: Cost Estimating developing an approximation of the costs of the resources needed to complete project activities Cost Budgeting aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to establish a cost baseline Cost Control influencing the factors that create cost variances and controlling changes to the project budget.

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6.5. Project Quality Management Project Quality Management includes the processes and activities of the performing organization that determine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. It implements the quality management system through policy and procedures, with continuous process improvement activities conducted throughout, as appropriate. The Project Quality Management processes include: Quality Planning identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and determining howto satisfy them Perform Quality Assurance applying the planned, systematic quality activities to ensure that the project employs all processes needed to meet requirements Perform Quality Control monitoring specific project results to determine whether they comply with relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory performance.

6.6. Project Human Resource Management Project Human Resource Management includes the processes that organize and manage the project team. The project team is comprised of the people who have assigned roles and responsibilities for completing the project. While it is common to speak of roles and responsibilities being assigned, team members should be involved in much of the projects planning and decision-making. Early involvement of team members adds expertise during the planning process and strengthens commitment to the project. The type and number of project team members can often change as the project progresses. Project team members can be referred to as the projects staff. Project Human Resource management processes include: Human Resource Planning Identifying and documenting project roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships, as well as creating the staffing management plan Acquire Project Team Obtaining the human resources needed to complete the project Develop Project Team Improving the competencies and interaction of team members to enhance project performance Manage Project Team Tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues, and coordinating changes to enhance project performance.

6.7. Project Communications Management Project Communication Management includes the processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, distribution, storage, retrieval, and ultimate disposition of project information. The Project Communications Management processes provide the critical links among people and information that are necessary for successful communications. Project managers can spend an inordinate amount of time communicating with the project team, stakeholders, customer, and sponsor. Everyone involved in the project should understand howcommunications affect the project as a whole. Project Communications Management processes include:

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Communications Planning determining the information and communication needs of the project stakeholders Information Distribution making needed information available to project stakeholders in a timely manner Performance Reporting collecting and distributing performance information, including status reporting, progress measurement, and forecasting Management Stakeholders managing communications to satisfy the requirements of, and resolve issues with, project stakeholders.

6.8. Project Risk Management Project Risk Management includes the processes concerned with conducting risk management planning, identification, analysis, responses, and monitoring and control on a project. The objectives of Project Risk Management are to increase the probability and impact of positive events and decrease the probability and impact of events adverse to project objectives. Project Risk Management processes include: Risk Management Planning deciding howto approach, plan, and execute the risk management activities for a project Risk Identification determining which risks might affect the project and documenting their characteristics Qualitative Risk Analysis prioritizing risks for subsequent further analysis or action by assessing and combining their probability of occurrence and impact Quantitative Risk Analysis numerically analyzing the effect on overall project objectives of identified risks Risk Response Planning developing options and actions to enhance opportunities and to reduce threats to project objectives Risk Monitoring and Control tracking identified risks, monitoring residual risks, identifying newrisks, executing risk response plans, and evaluating their effectiveness throughout the project life cycle. 6.9. Project Procurement Management Project Procurement Management includes the processes to purchase or acquire the products, services, or results needed from outside the project team to perform the work. This chapter presents two perspective of procurement. The organization can be either the buyer or seller of the product, service, or results under a contract. Project Procurement Management includes the contract management and change control processes required to administer contracts or purchase orders issued by authorised project team members. Project Procurement Management also includes administering any contract issued by an outside organization (the buyer) that is acquiring the project from the performing organization (the seller) and administering contractual obligations placed on the project team by the contract. Project Procurement management processes include: Plan Purchases and Acquisitions determining what to purchase or acquire, and determining when and how

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Plan Contracting documenting products, services, and results requirements and identifying potential sellers Request Seller Responses obtaining information, quotations, bids, offers, or proposals, as appropriate Select Sellers reviewing offers, choosing from among potential sellers, and negotiating a written contract with a seller Contract Administration managing the contract and the relationship between the buyer and seller, reviewing and documenting howa seller is performing or has performed to establish required corrective actions and provide a basis for further relationships with the seller, managing contract related changes and, when appropriate, managing the Contract Closure completing and settling each contract, including the resolution of any open items, and closing each contract.

Figure 3 shows a detailed breakdown of the PMI Project Management Process Groups mapped to the Project Management Knowledge Areas.

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Project Management Process Groups Processes Knowledge Area

1 Project Integration Management Develop Project Charter. Develop Project Develop Preliminary Management Plan Project Scope Statement Direct and Manage Project Execution Initiating Process Group Planning Process Group Executing Process Group Closing Monitoring & Controlling Process Process Group Group Monitor and Control Close Project Project Work Integrated Change Control Scope Verification Scope Control

2 Project Scope Manaagement

Scope Planning. Scope Definition. Create WBS

3 Project Time Management

Activity Definition. Activity Sequencing. Activity Duration Estimating Schedule Development Cost Estimating. Cost Budgeting Quality Planning Perform Quality Assurance

Schedule Control

4 Project Cost Management

Cost Control

5 Project Quality Management

Perform Quality Control

6 Project Human Resource Management

Human Resource Planning Communications Planning

Acquire Project Team Manage Project Develop Project Team Team Information Distribution Performance Reporting Manage Stakeholders Risk Monitoring and Control

7 Project Communications Management

8 Project Risk Management

9 Project Procurement Management

Plan Purchases and Acquisitions Plan Contracting

Request Seller Responses Select Sellers

Contract Administration

Contract Closure

Fig. 3: Mapping of the Project Management Processes to the Project Management Process Groups and the Knowledge Areas

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7.

The Project Manager

A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects. A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized. Project management is all about making the project happen. It is a discipline of initiating, planning, executing, and managing resources with the goal of completing specific deliverables within budget and time. A successful project manager is one who can envision the entire project from start to finish, and have the prowess to realise this vision. To keep pace with business and IT, project managers need to make their management practices more flexible. Some tips for successful project management include:

7.1. Be Agile Traditional project management methodologies are proving to be too rigid, bureaucratic, and time consuming for today's dynamic business environment. In fact, these methodologies can work against IT departments. Today, project managers need to respond with agility to rising issues and changes. The formal documentation and processes involved in traditional project management can weigh you down. 7.2. Do Not Micromanage The ideal project managers are leaders, not control freaks. Some project managers can be overly analytical and invest too much time in perfecting details, when they should really focus on achieving milestones and the completion of the project. Flexible project management requires a balance of both the left and right brain, hard and soft skills. 7.3. Keep Improving Your Project Management Practice Technology is always evolving to meet the changing needs of users. In the same way, your approach to project management should evolve alongside business and IT processes. Communicate with your team, client, and business partners, as to howyou can improve your project management practices. 7.4. Ongoing Planning The single most important activity of project managers is planning. Planning must be detailed, organised, and require team participation. And like the real world, plans always change and reprioritise with situations. For this, plan, re-plan, and plan.

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7.5. Work with a Sense of Urgency Considering the fact that there ever present limits and constraints on timeline, budget, and resources, it is of utmost importance that the project process is constantly and aggressively being driven towards completion. Regular updates, meetings, and follow-ups are essential. 7.6. Visualise and Communicate all Project Deliverables and Activities In short, the project manager and team must have a picture of the finished deliverables in the minds of everyone involved. This guides everyone in the same direction. Avoid vague descriptions at all costs, be specific, drawdiagrams and pictures, and make certain everyone agrees with it. 7.7. Complete Deliverables Step-by-Step The thought of climbing a mountain in one go can be crippling. But to see it as a succession of steps and peaks is less intimidating and more achievable. In the same way, project managers should not jump into a project with the intent of building all project deliverables at once. Work on each item step-by-step, get process reviews and approvals, and always maintain a sense of direction. 7.8. Healthy Risk Management Every project requires a dedicated risk officer who will be responsible for detecting potential project issues, who has a healthy dose of scepticism. 7.9. Report Concerns or Challenges. The project manager should maintain a live project risk database that tracks all issues and resolutions and ensure that the project has a healthy dose of risk management, not a crippling, obsessive one. Risk assessment, though key to successful project delivery, should not be the projects main focus and priority. 7.10. Open Communication Communication is vital in all aspects of project management. It is essential to adhere to a policy of open communication, encouraging all members to voice opinions and concerns. This cuts through waiting games and significantly reduces the risk of mistakes, saving time and money. 7.11. Never Lose Sight of the 3-Factors: Time, Budget, and Quality While project management practices have changed to be more flexible and open, the foundation remains the same. Project success occurs when it is delivered on time, within budget, with a level of deliverables that are satisfactory to the client. The Project Manager's main role is to keep all team members aware of these big 3 - Time, Budget, and Quality.

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8.

Causes of Project Failure

Researchers regularly conduct studies to find out the leading causes of project failure and the studies reveal a recurring theme. Some of the common underlying causes identified are: Poorly defined organisational objectives. Loose project sponsorship and executive leadership. Project manager untrained. Loose scope containment and project change control. Poorly defined requirements. Lack of consultation with key project stakeholders. No risk management plan. Unrealistic project estimates.

9.

Steps to Successful Project Delivery

Notwithstanding the ever-present risks inherent in project management and project delivery, experienced project managers have advanced the following key steps to successful project delivery: Before you start your project, find a committed project sponsor who has sufficient clout in your organisation. Your project sponsor will prove invaluable in helping you overcome organisational roadblocks as they arise. Analyse who are your project's key stakeholders and communicate with them throughout the project. Your stakeholders can make or break your project. Compile a stakeholder communication plan with the help of your project team and sponsor. Get your sponsor and key stakeholders together to thrash out the measures of success of your project. Howwill you knowif your project has succeeded? What are the key indicators of success? Get everyone on the same page from the outset. Decide upfront the methodology you will use on your project. What project phases will the project proceed through? What will be the key go/no go decision points? What are the expected project outputs for each phase? Drawup a project schedule that clearly allocates project tasks to team members. Identify which tasks depend on others for their successful completion. Communicate schedule progress regularly to all team members and to the project's sponsor. Make sure that project changes don't get out of hand by reviewing and authorising all proposed changes. Evaluate each proposed change for the impact on project cost, quality and schedule. Do not let an unforeseen event sink your project. Find out what risks can threaten your project and build a risk mitigation strategy into your project plan. Issues will also arise from time to time, so you will need to keep track of these and communicate their impact to all concerned.

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Decide at the start which documents your project will generate and when. For medium and small sized projects, keep documentation requirements to a manageable level without significantly increasing the risk to the project. Once your project finishes, use the measures of success that you agreed at the start to evaluate project performance. Was it within budget? Was it on schedule? Did it produce what it was meant to produce, and at the required quality? What can you learn from this? Nowreport your project's performance to your sponsor and the key stakeholders. Followup with the key stakeholders and your project team members and find out howthey felt about the project. Was the project a success from their perspective? Howdid the project impact them personally? From this you will discover what went well and what did not go so well. Apply these lessons to your next project.

Successful projects do not just happen. They require structured planning, the right tools, insightful management and good interpersonal skills. Unfortunately, many newproject managers receive little training in howto do the job. Anyone can learn to drawa Gantt chart, but effective project managers also rely on the savvy that comes from painful experience. Coaching and survival tips from people who have already done their tour of duty in the project management trenches can save project managers from learning such lessons the hard way. The project manager must balance competing stakeholder interests against the constraints of limited resources and time, ever-changing technologies, and unachievable demands from unreasonable people. Project management is people management, technology management, business management, risk management, and expectation management. It's a juggling act, with too many balls in the air at once. However, a project successfully completed, handed over and closed out to the satisfaction of all stakeholders is one of the most exhilarating and gratifying experiences in project management.

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