Exponentials Made Easy

EXPONENTIALS
MADE EASY
OR
THE STORY OF
'EPSILON'
BY
M.
E.
J.
GHEURY DE BRAY
Surely,
all
men
should be Road-menders.'
Michael Fairless
MACMILLAN AND
ST.
CO.,
LIMITED
MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

1921
THE RF ORCE
COPYRIGHT
S76716
GLASGOW PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITV PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD.
:
THE RF ORCE
TO
THE MEMORY OP
DR
IN
S.
P.
THOMPSON
IN
I
REMEMBRANCE OF HAPPY MOMENTS SPENT

DISCUSSING THIS LITTLE BOOK,
DEDICATE
THESE PAGES AS A TOKEN OF
MY DEEP REGRET.
M.
GHEURY DE BRAY.
THE RF ORCE
THE RF ORCE
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction
ix
1
Preliminary
PART
I.
THE SIMPLE MEANING OF SOME AWE-INSPIRING NAMES AND OF SOME TERRIBLE-LOOKING, BUT HARMLESS, SIGNS.
CHAPTER
I.
The Truth about Some Simple Things called

Functions
13
II.
The Meaning of Some Queer-Looking Expressions

.21
III.
Exponentials, and
How
to Tame Them
29
38 43
51
IV.
V.
A Word about
A
Tables of Logarithms
-
Little Chat about the Radian
VI. Spreading out Algebraical Expressions
PART
CHIEFLY ABOUT
II.
"
EPSILON."
Logarithmic
79
-
I.
A
A
First Meeting with
"Epsilon":
Growing and Dying Away

VII 1.
Little
More about Napierian Logarithms
95
THE RF ORCE
viii
CONTENTS
Home
:
CHAPTER IX. Epsilon's
The Logarithmic Spiral

-
PAGE 106
X.
Little about the Hyperbola

:
123
XL
XII.
XIII.
Epsilon on the Slack Rope Hanging Chain
What there
is in
a
146
Case of Mathematical Mimicry
The Parabola
:
160
Where Epsilon
ability
tells the Future Curve and the Law of Errors

:
The Prob-
173
XIV. Taking a Curve to Pieces
Exponential Analysis
Appendix
Polar Coordinates
....
198
242
Answers
Index
244
250
THE RF ORCE
INTRODUCTION
Some time ago
the author came across a certain
little
book, and although he was supposed to know all about the things explained in it, he found a great delight in
reading
it.
In so doing he re-learned several things he
had forgotten and learned a few others he had not chanced to meet before. But the most useful knowledge he derived from reading this truly delightful little book Calculus Made Easy was that, indeed, it is
possible to
make the study
of such
mathematical pro-
cesses as those of the Calculus so easy that one
may
learn
them by
oneself without the help of a teacher,
provided one has in one's hand the necessary guide and

faithfully follows
it
from beginning to end.
There are few branches of mathematics which seem
more puzzling to beginners than the study of imaginaries indeed, many students who are no and hyperbolics
;
longer looking askance at
or at the sign
confess
that the appearance of

gives
in a
mathematical expression
sight of
It has
them a nerve-shattering shock, while the

is
sinh or cosh
the signal for undignified retreat.

is
been suggested to the author that there
no more
THE RF ORCE
INTRODUCTION
and
in
difficulty in exorcising the evil spirit lurking in i
the members of the hyperbolic tribe, and in rendering

these impotent to scare anyone approaching
them with
the proper talisman in his hands, than there was in
taming -~ and
and rendering them
docile.
Trial
showed that this was indeed true. While gathering material for this purpose, the fact became evident that if various secondary stumblingblocks could be preliminarily removed from the path of the unwary, the treatment of the more unwieldy material would greatly gain in homogeneity and continuity. Also, several interesting and elementary properties of " epsilon," not usually met with in text books, were encountered on the way and deemed to be likely
to bring to sharper focus the conceptions a beginner's
mind might have formed concerning

mathematical constant.
this
remarkable
The outcome
the birth of this
of
this
preparatory prospecting raid
into the field of " imaginaries "

little
and " hyperbolics "
is
brother to Calculus
Made
Easy.
This newcomer has no pretension to equal

it is
its elder,
but
setting forth with the desire to be
worthy
of its
kinship,
and it certainly could not choose a better example to emulate. The author gladly acknowledges his grateful indebtedpermission to borrow the matter of the preliminary
ness to Mr. Alexander Teixeira de Mattos for his kind
pages
from
one
of
Henri
Fabre's
most
charming
chapters.
THE RF ORCE
PRELIMINARY.
As an
introduction to this
little
book, the writer
will,
for a first chapter, yield the
pen to another and merely
assume the humble part of a translator a translator whose task is far from easy if he is to retain some of the captivating quaintness of style and of the combined wealth and simplicity of phraseology of the French original. Henri Fabre, that most remarkable personality in the army of Truth seekers, shall tell you here how, in his studies of the insect world, he came to
meet the ubiquitous
e dangling on a spider's web, and how he was compelled awhile to let the mathematician in him step into the entomologist's shoes for luckily for us he was both.
;
* " I
am now confronted with
a subject which
is
at the
same time highly interesting and somewhat

lot that the subject is obscure,
difficult
but
it
postulates in the
'eader a certain
amount
of geometrical lore, substantial I
are
which one
is
apt to pass untasted.
do not address
nyself to geometricians,
*
who
are generally indifferent to
of Mr. Alexander Teixeira de Mattos, the English copyright, from the Souvenirs entomologiques i J. Henri Fabre (Paris Librairie Delagrave London : Hodder & Itoughton New York: Dodd, Mead & Co.). The full text of Mr. Vixeira's translation will be found in the Appendix to the volume ntitled " The Life of the Spider."
lolder of the
:
Quoted by permission
"
THE RF ORCE
EXPONENTIALS MADE EASY

I
facts appertaining to instinct.

for entomologists,
do not write either
who
as such are not concerned with

;
mathematical theorems
I seek to interest
which can find pleasure

"
in
the teachings of
?
any mind an insect.

this chaptei
How
can I manage this
To suppress
to give
would be to leave untouched the most remarkabl

feature of the spider's industry
of
;
it
the fuln
treatment
it
deserves,
with an array of lean

take a middle
formulae, would be a task beyond the pretension

these modest pages.
We
will
com
ign<
avoiding alike abstruse statements and extreme

ance. " Let us direct our attention to the
webs
of Epeira
preferably to those of the silky Epeira and the stripe
Epeira, numerous in
so noticeable
autumn
by
their size.
in my neighbourhood, We shall first observe
ar
th*
the radial threads are equidistant, each making eqt

angles with the two threads situated on either side
it,
despite their great number, which, in the
two score. We method the spider attains its purpose, which is t( divide the space where the net is to be woven into a grea number of equiangular sectors, a number which is nearl; always the same for each species disorderly evolution suggested, one might believe, by wild fancy alone, resul in a beautiful rose pattern worthy of a draughtsman'
silky Epeira exceeds
work of tr have seen * by wha
strange
compass.
"
We shall also
observe that in each sector the variou

I
steps or elements of each turn of the spiral, are paralh

* See Souvenirs Entomologiques,
IXeme
Serie,
THE RF ORCE
ar
PRELIMINARY
upon one another They make, with the two radii which limit them at either end, an obtuse and an acute angle, on the side away from, and towards the centre, respectively, and these angles are the same hroughout the same sector, because of the parallel
to one another,
and
close gradually
as they near the centre.
^position of these elements of the spiral.
More than this in different sectors these obtuse d acute angles are the same, as far as one can rely on le testimony of the eye unaided by any measuring strument. As a whole, the funicular structure is therefore a series of transverse threads which cut ibliquely the various radii at an angle of invariable
:
"
nagnitude. " This is the characteristic feature of the logarithmic

viral.
Geometricians give this
name
to
all
the
curve
/hich cuts obliquely, at a constant angle,

ines radiating
)f
the straight
from a centre, called the

It
pole.
The web
this
Epeira
is
nothing else but a polygonal line inscribed
'in
a logarithmic spiral.
if
would coincide with
spiral
the radii were unlimited in number, so that the
rectilinear
elements
were indefinitely short and the
oolygonal line modified into a curve.

;
'
To
give an insight into the reasons which
make
this
spiral a favourite subject for the speculations of scientific
minds,
let
us confine ourselves to a few statements, the
demonstration of which
may
be found in treatises on
advanced geometry.
4
The logarithmic
spiral describes
its
an
infinite
it
number
always
of
circumvolutions about
pole,
which
THE RF ORCE

it.
approaches without ever reaching
The
central point,
It
nearer at every turn, remains for ever inaccessible.
goes without saying that this property does not belong

to the realm of facts of which our senses are cognisant.
Even with the help
of the
most
precise instrument, our
and would speedily refuse to pursue farther the subdivision of the invisible. It is a volute to which the mind conceives no limit. Alone, cultivated reason, more acute
sight could not follow the spiral's endless circuits,
than our
retina, sees clearly that
which
defies the eye's
power
"
of perception.
of endless winding.
The Epeira obeys as faithfully as possible this law The spires of its web close up more and more as they approach the pole. At a certain
it,
distance from
they stop suddenly, but there, conis
tinuing the spiral,
the thread which was woven during
the
first
stages of the construction of the web, as a
scaffolding to support the spider in the elaboration of

its net,
and, as such, destroyed as the work progresses,
but allowed to subsist in the vicinity of the pole which

it
approaches, like the rest of the spiral, in circuits
which become closer and closer together and hardly distinguishable from one another. It is not, evidently,
of rigorous
it
is
mathematical accuracy, but, nevertheless,

it.
a very close approximation to

its
The Epeira
its
winds
thread nearer and nearer to the pole of

it is
web
as closely as
enabled to do so by the imperdeeply versed in
fection of its tools, which, like ours, are inadequate to
the task
one would think that
it is
the properties of the spiral.
THE RF ORCE
PRELIMINARY
M
spiral.
" Without entering into explanations, let us mention a few other properties of this curious curve. a flexible thread coiled
Imagine
If
upon the logarithmic
we
uncoil
it,
keeping
it
tight the while, its free
end
first,
will
describe a spiral in every respect similar to the
but
merely shifted to another position.

" Jacques Bernouilli, to
for this beautiful theorem,
its
whom Geometry
is
indebted
caused the parent spiral and

thread, to
offspring, generated
by the unwinding
be engraved upon his tomb, as one of his greatest

titles to
fame, together with the motto
resurgo (I rise again, changed

difficulty
but the same).
Eadem mutata With
could Geometry find anything better than
this inspiring flight
towards the Great Problem of the

is
Beyond.
" Another geometrical epitaph
no
less
widely cele-
when questor in Sicily, sought under the veil of oblivion, cast by brambles and wild grasses, the tomb of Archimedes, and recognised it amongst the ruins by the geometrical figure engraved upon the stone aj cylinder circumscribing a sphere. Archimedes was the' first to know the approximate ratio of the circumference to the diameter, and from it he deduced the perimeter
brated
:
Cicero,
and surface area of the circle, together with the surface area and the volume of the sphere. He demonstrated
also that the latter has, for surface area
two thirds
tion, the
of the surface area
and volume, and volume of the cir-
cumscribing cylinder.
Disdaining a pretentious inscrip-
Syracusan geometer relied upon his theorem
alone as an epitaph to transmit his
name
to posterity.
THE RF ORCE

figure proclaimed the identity of the
The geometrical
"
remains underneath as clearly as alphabetical characters.
To bring our
roll
description to a close, let us mention

spiral.
one more property of the logarithmic

curve to
Cause the
centre will
to
upon a
straight path,
describe a straight line.
and its The endless winding leads
the rectilinear trajectory
perpetual variation engenders
uniformity. " Is this logarithmic spiral, with
its
curious properties,
merely a conception of the geometers, who combine number and space at will to open a
field
wherein to practise
mathematical methods
of the intricate,
Is
it
but a dream in the night

It
an abstract enigma intended to feed

?
our understanding
the service of
life
Not
at
all.
is
a reality in
... a plan of which animal architecture

use.
makes frequent
The mollusc,
its shell
in particular,
never
shapes the volutes of
without reference to this

series
transcendent curve.
The first-born of the and copied it, as perfect in primaeval times
knew it,
to-day.
as
it is
" Consider the ammonites, ancient relics of
what was
once the highest expression of living things, when the abysmal slime separated itself from the deep, and dry
ground appeared on the face of the earth. When they are cut along a median plane, the fossils exhibit a magnificent logarithmic spiral as the general scheme of the
building,
multiple
canal.
. .
which has been a mother-of-pearl palace with chambers intercommunicating by a narrow

.
" To-day, the last representative of the cephalopods
with multicellular
shells,
the Nautilus of the Indian
THE RF ORCE
PRELIMINARY
Ocean, remains faithful to the antique design. not discovered anything better than
its
7
It has
distant ancestor.
It has only modified the position of the
communication
spire
canal,
and placed
it
at the centre instead of in its former

it
still
dorsal situation, but

mically, as the
winds
its
logarith-
ammonites did
in the first ages of the
world. "
We
must
not, however,
entertain the belief that
these highly developed molluscs have the
monopoly
of
the
elegant
curve.
In the stagnant waters of our

the flattened
shells,
sedge-lined ditches,
the humble
Planorbes or water-snails, sometimes scarcely larger than

lentils,
are the rivals of the
ammonite and the Nautilus

them,
for
in
high geometry.
One
of
instance
Planorbis Vortex is a marvel of logarithmic winding. " In the shells assuming an elongated shape, the
the
more complex, although still governed by the same fundamental laws. I have before my eyes some species of the genus Terebra, originating from New Caledonia. They are very tapering cones, almost as long
structure becomes
as the hand.
Their surface
is
smooth, quite bare, withsuperb, with
out any of the usual ornaments, folds, knots, or strings

of
its
beads.
The
spiraliform structure
I
is
simplicity for sole ornament.
count a score of
groove delineates
whorls which gradually diminish and are lost in the

delicate details of the point.
fine
them.
" I trace with a pencil any generating line of this cone,
and, relying merely on the evidence of
my
eyes,
somethat
what trained
in geometrical
measurements,
I find
THE RF ORCE
the spiral groove cuts this generatrix at a constant

inclination.
an easy deduction jection on a plane normal to the axis of the

is
"
The consequence
by
shell,
pro-
the
line generating
the cone, in each of
its
various positions,
in ascend-
becomes a radius, and the groove which whirls

ing from the base to the apex
is
converted into a plane
curve which, meeting these radii with an invariable

inclination, is therefore nothing else
spiral.
but the logarithmic
Inversely, the groove on the shell
may
be con-
sidered as the projection of the logarithmic spiral on a

conical surface. " can even go a step further
We
conceive a plane
normal to the axis of the shell, and passing through the apex. Imagine also a thread wound in the spiral-shaped
groove.
If
we unwind
it,
keeping
this
it
tight
without
it
slipping off the groove,
and to
end maintaining
normal to the line, generating the cone, which passes by the point where the thread leaves the surface of the shell, the extremity of the thread will remain on this
plane and describe in
it
a logarithmic spiral.
It
is,
with a greater complexity, a variation of the
eadem
mutata resurgo of Bernouilli

spiral
The
conical logarithmic
changes
similar
itself
into a plane logarithmic curve.

is
"
geometry
found in the construction
of
the other shells whether affecting the shape of an elon-
gated or that of a flattened cone.
The
shells coiled in
. . .
globular volutes are no exception to the rule
all,
down
humble snail, are constructed on a logarithmic pattern. The spiral, famous among geometo the
THE RF ORCE
PRELIMINARY
tricians, is
the general plan copied by the mollusc in
coiling its stone sheath.
" Of this celebrated curve, the spider elaborates but
an elementary frame, which nevertheless proclaims the
The spider works on the same lines as the mollusc having a convoluted shell. " The latter, to construct its spire, takes whole years, and attains in its coiling an exquisite perfection. The
principle of the ideal edifice.
spider, to fashion her
web, takes only one hour at most,

It
so that the swiftness of execution entails greater simplicity
of construction.
abbreviates, so to speak,
limiting itself to the sketch of the curve
which the other
describes in its full perfection.

in the geometrical secrets
It
is
therefore learned
known
to the
the Nautilus, and merely simplifies, in putting

practice, the logarithmic lines beloved
ammonite and them in

snail.
by the
its
What
have in
to be,
is its
guide
Necessarily, the animal

spiral.
itself
the virtual design of
must Never
could chance, however fecund in surprises
have taught
it
the high geometry where our
we suppose it mind
goes astray without a preliminary training.
"
Is
Can
it
be premeditated combination on
its
part
there calculation, mensuration of angles, verification

parallelism,
of
by
is
sight
or
otherwise
all
?
. .
.
incline
to
believe that there
nothing of
that
nothing but
an innate propensity of which the animal has not to

regulate the effect,
no more than the flower has to
THE RF ORCE
10

its petals.
regulate the disposition of

tises
The spider
knowing,
prac-
advanced geometry without

.
without
caring.
The process goes by
itself,
the initial impulse
having been given by an instinct conferred at the

origin.
"
The pebble thrown by the hand,

;
in returning to
the ground, describes a certain curve
the dead
leaf,
detached and carried away by the wind, in performing

its
journey from the tree to the
soil,
follows a similar
curve.
In either case no influence of the moving body

fall
. .
regulates the
nevertheless, the descent
is
per-
formed according to a scientific trajectory, the parabola, of which the section of a cone by a plane has furnished
the prototype for the meditation of geometers.
A figure,
the fruit of a speculative concept, has become tangible
by the fall of a stone out of the vertical. " The same speculations take up the parabola once more and suppose it to roll on an indefinite straight line, and enquire into the nature of the path followed by the focus of the curve. The reply is that the focus
of the parabola describes a catenary, a line of very simple
shape, but for the algebraical expression of which
we
must have recourse

with
all
to a cabalistic number, at variance
systems of numeration, and which digits refuse
to express exactly, however far one
may
Its
:
pursue
value
theii
orderly array.
This number
is
called
e.
epsilon,
being
is
represented
by the Greek
letter
the
following series indefinitely continued
e=1+ + +,, + f ^ ^T2 ^7273" l.2.3.4
*
'
THE RF ORCE
PRELIMINARY
f
11
the reader has the patience to perform the calcu-
ition of the first
few terms of this
series,
which has no
is
mit, since the

ndless,
sequence of natural numbers

e
itself
he will find
= 2*7182818
mind
?
...
"
With
this strange
number, are we now restricted to
he rigid
domain
in
of the
Not at all
the catenary
ppears
the realm of reality whenever gravitation
nd
flexibility act jointly.
This
name
is
given to the
urve formed by a chain suspended by two points not

ituated
on the same
hands
is
it is
vertical.
It is the
shape naturally
aken by a flexible tape the two ends of which are held

i one's
;
the outline of a
sail inflated
by the
rind
it
the form of the milk-bag of the goat reits
urning
died
.
.
from the pasture where

.
udder
and
all
these things involve the
became number
psilon.
"
jet
What
a lot of abstruse science for a bit of string
us not be surprised.
pellet of lead swinging at
he end of a thread, a drop of

>f
a straw, a puddle ruffled
dew trembling at the end by ripples under a puff of
ir,
v
a mere nothing, after
all,
requires a titanic scaffolding
hen we wish to examine

.
it
with the eye of the calculus.

1
We
need the club of Hercules to crush a midget
" Surely our

re full of
methods
. . .
of
mathematical investigation
ingenuity
one cannot admire too
much
.
he powerful brains which have invented

iow slow
'hall it
them
but
!
and painstaking when facing the

?
least realities
ever be given to us to investigate the truth in a

Shall
nore simple fashion

o
mind be
able
?
some time to
without the heavy arsenal of formulae
Why
not
THE RF ORCE
12

" Here the occult
number
epsilon reappears inscribed
on a spider's thread.
On a misty morning, look at the web

Owing become
rosaries
which has j ust been constructed during the night.

to its hygroscopic nature the sticky network has
laden with droplets, and, bending under the weight, the

threads are
of limpid
now
as
many
catenaries, as
many
gems, graceful rows of beads, arranged in
exquisite order,
sun pierce the mist

iridescent
of fairy lights, the
and hanging in elegant curves. Let the and lo the whole becomes with adamantine fire and, in lovely garlands
.
number
is,
appears in
all its
glory
" Geometry, that

presides over
the science of
harmony
in space,
of
all things.
It is in the
arrangement
the scales of a fir-cone, as

Epeira's
in the disposition of the
web
it is
in the shell of a snail as in the rosary

in the orbit of a planet
of a spider's
it is
dewladen thread, as
everywhere, as majestic in an atom as in the world
of immensities. ...
"
And
this Universal
Geometry speaks to us
of
Universal Geometer, whose divine compass has measured

all
things. ...
As an explanation
of the logarithmic
it is
curve of the Ammonite and of the Epeira,
perhaps
.
. .
not in agreement with the teachings of to-day "
but
how much
loftier is its flight
THE RF ORCE
"
PART
I.
HE SIMPLE MEA NING OF SOME A WE-INSPIRING NAMES AND OF SOME TERRIBLE-LOOKING,

BUT HARMLESS,
SIGNS.
CHAPTER
I.
THE TRUTH ABOUT SOME SIMPLE THINGS CALLED FUNCTIONS.

Iathematicians are very fond of the word " function, nd indeed they are to be excused, for every time they
se it
act, is
they avoid a long sentence.

so convenient that
'Ur selves,
therefore
ignificance so as to
The expression, in we shall certainly use it often we must make sure of its exact be quite clear what is meant by it.
is
A
hing
" function " of a certain thing
simply some-
which
varies
weekly
>f
pay
of a
when that thing varies. The workman is a function of the number

;
hours he works per week, since his pay varies with he number of working hours he " puts in " similarly,
he unburned length of a candle is a function of the ime elapsed since it was lit, since it is different for
various intervals of time during 13
which the candle has
THE RF ORCE

14

;
been burning
older
the weight of a healthy child
is
a function
of his age, since his weight alters as the child

;
becomes
difficult
the cost of an engine
is
a function of the size of

it
the engine, etc.
As a matter
is
of fact
would be
to find something which

else
:
not a function of something

is
the length of the pencil with which you write
a function of the
number
of
words you have written
with
it
(supposing no breakage)
the
;
more numerous
the words the shorter the pencil

clothes
the value of the
you wear
is
a function of the wear to which
they are subjected, since as wear takes place their value

will
steadily
diminish.
Everything
it is
practically
is
bound to change possibly in an imperceptible manner as time goes on. So, when we say that y is a function of x, for instance, we mean that the value of y varies when the value of x varies, that is, that the value of y depends upon the value taken by x. This fact we express by the notation
function of the time, since
y = function of x, y=f(x), y=F(x), are read " y equals

what a function
despite
its
is
;
or one of its
y=(j>(%),
many abbreviations y=^(x), etc. All these function of x." You know now
see
it is
you
quite a simple thing
imposing name.
first
One must
a function
notice that the thing in terms of which
is
expressed must necessarily be capable of
taking different values, that is, it must be what mathematicians call a " variable quantity " or simply a " variable," to distinguish it from a " constant," or a
quantity which has always the same value.
In the
examples stated above the number of working hours
THE RF ORCE
I
the
THE TRUTH ABOUT FUNCTIONS

lit,
15
put in " by the workman, the time elapsed since the

the age of the child, the size of the engine,
candle was
number
of
words written by the

In the
the value
pencil, the
wear
is
of
the clothes, are quantities the value of which

to considerable variation. last case
liable
is
it
not
so easy to conceive
how
may
be expressed
numerically, but the
expressed matters
variability
;
means by which the variability is first, a the main facts are correcause a second, this variability must
little,
:
sponding variation of the thing which
is
stated to be a
is
function of the variable quantity, and this thing therefore also necessarily a " variable."
Since,
when we
write
y = a function
of x,
we wish
to
express that the value of y depends upon the value of x, y is called the " dependent variable " and x is called the
" independent variable," that
is,
the variable which can
take any suitable arbitrary value.

above, the
In the examples
etc.,
number
of
working hours, the time elapsed

the age of the child,
:
since the candle
was
lit,
may
have any likely value according to the case

tities
these quan-
on the other hand, the weekly pay, the length of unburnt candle, the weight of the child, etc., depend on the value given to the former quantities respectively, and these latter quantities are therefore the dependent variables.
are independent variables
;
of
But, although the statement that " y is a function x " conveys the important information that the
variation of
y depends upon that

manner
in
of x, it does not tell
us anything about the
changes in value.
It does not tell us
which y varies when x even whether y
THE RF ORCE
16

when x increases, and
Yet, in
so
it is
gets larger or smaller
really
it
a very vague statement.
many
little
cases,
is
useful to be able to write a relation such as
y=f(x)
between two variables

as a rule unless
x and
y,
but
can be done
that
is,
unless
because there
we know how y varies when x varies, we know the " form " of the function, is. an infinite number of ways in which y
can respond to changes in the value of x. In the examples above, for instance, the weekly pay
P of
the
workman
is
the product of the
number
of
working hours put in and his hourly wages, p, being expressed in terms of the same unit, say in
P and p
shillings,
so that not only can we write but we have for the " form " of the function, being the
P=f(N)
P=pN
dependent and
the independent variable.
We
can
of
now find the value of N, provided we know

as the time
t t
P corresponding
I left
;
to
any value
the value of the constant p.

in inches
In
the case of the candle, the length

of
unburnt decreases
burning increases
if
if I is
and
in minutes,
and
this
inches was the initial length of
the candle, while
is
the length in inches consumed in

of the candle,
one minute
size
is
depends on the diameter

of wick, material of
air, etc.,
and trimming
which the candle
made, supply of
and
is
a constant for that
particular candle as long as the external conditions

affecting the
combustion remain the same

l
then
of
t,
it
is
evident that
= L -at,
and
I
this for
is
the form of the

pro-
function enabling us to find
any value
vided we
know
the value of the constants
and
a.
similar expression, namely,
l=Lan,
will express the
THE RF ORCE

Ogth
/
17
of
i.e.
of the pencil as a function of the

if
number n
Lousand words written, say,

le
is
the shortening
wear
corresponding to the writing of one thousand

cases
it is
ords.
In
le
many
impossible to state mathematically

If
form of a function.
is
the weight of a child,

is
ad
his age in
weeks or months or years, there

will exactly represent the
no
tpression
which
numerical
Nation between IT
a.
and A, simply because IF depends
so
many
other things besides

variation
is
A food, state of health,

is,
:c.
that
its
altogether erratic, that
it
for any given A. It is likewise difficult if not impossible to ive a form to the value of a suit of clothes as a function the wear to which it is subjected. Even when we know the form of a function, however,
impossible to calculate the value of
alue of
e are
not able to calculate the value of the dependent
ariable
nless
from given values
of the
independent variable
of the constants
we know the numerical value
ccurring in the expression of the function.
We
cannot
when he works 30, 5 or 40 hours per week, say, until we know what is p, is rate of pay per hour as soon as we know that p is ly 3 shillings per hour, we know that his weekly pay orresponding to the above number of hours is 90/- or
nd the workman's weekly pay
;
4|, 105/- or
ise, it is
51 and 120/- or 6 respectively.
Like-
only
when we know that
.the
candle was
litially
8 inches long and burns 2-4 inches per hour or
01 inch per
minute that we can say that the length

is
miaining after 10, 20, 30 minutes

G. E.
8-0-04x10 = 7-6
THE RF ORCE
18
inches,

8-0-04x20=7-20
;
inches,
8-0-04x30=6-8
the length of the
inches respectively
pencil.
similarly for
In these last two cases, a, the length burned

is
per minute or the length used per thousand words
to
be found by actual experiment.

It
is
also evident that
if
we
give a definite value to a
dependent variable, expressed as a function of another (independent) variable with numerical coefficients, the
value of this independent variable cannot be anything
we
please,
but must be such as to correspond to the
value given to the dependent variable.
The value
of
the independent variable, therefore, depends on the value

of the
dependent variable just as much as the value of

reciprocal,
the latter depends on that of the former.
ence
is
The dependand the function can generally be
expressed in such a
way
that the independent variable
becomes the dependent variable and vice versa. For instance, in the case of the candle mentioned above,
instead of
l=Latwe may
write
t=
The new
function
is
then said to be the " inverse function " of

It is usual to represent the inde-
the original one.
pendent variable by
p, so that
x and
the dependent variable by
y=f(x), the inverse function being
x=f
{t/),
yi simply indicating that the function has another form than the form denoted by/.
In
all
the above cases where the form of the functior
could be stated, one of the quantities,
for instance
has been directly expressed in terms of the other quan

tity x.
Which
of the
two variables
is
the independem
THE RF ORCE

and which
is
19
the dependent one
is
therefore clearly or
is
explicitly stated,
and the variable y
said to be
an
" explicit function " of the (independent) variable x.
For instance, in
while in
t=
t is
an
explicit function of
t.
I,
l=Lat,
it is
I is
an
explicit function of
If,
however,
not clear from the form of the expression

is
which of the two quantities

write lL=at, function " of the other.
the independent variable,

is
although their interdependence
implied, as
is
when we
then one of the variables
an " implicit
quantity
may
be a function of several different
variables.
is pay he works in the week, but also, as we have seen, of the hourly pay p he receives. The length of the candle after burning t minutes is a function, not only of t, but
In the examples given, the workman's weekly of hours a function not only of the number
of the original length
for
Land
Lif
several values are possible
of the rate of
burning a
if
this rate this
take several values.
The existence
is
of
can complex
dependence on several variables
evident from the
form
of the functions considered, since a
change in the
in the second,
I
value of
in the first case, or of
or
a
of
causes a change in the value of
P or
case
respectively.
The relationship would then be expressed in a general manner by the notations P=f(p, N) and l=f{t, L, a)
respectively.
Similarly,
in
the
of
the
pencil,
l=/(n, L, a) would be the general form of the function. A very interesting and useful exercise consists in
" plotting "
that
is,
in
drawing on squared paper
the
THE RF ORCE
20

Giving various suitable values to
graph of a function of which the form and numerical

constants are known.
the independent variable x, one calculates the corre-
sponding values of the dependent variable y, and by plotting the successive pairs of values one obtains (generally)
a curved line which represents the variation in value

of the
dependent variable
itself,
y, that
is,
of the value of
the function
as the independent variable

it
varies
through the range of the possible values
can assume.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
II.
THE MEANING OF SOME QUEER-LOOKING

EXPRESSIONS.
When we
write
a 3 we mean axaxa,
,
that
is,
the
product of 3 factors, each equal to a,
or, better still,
Ixaxaxa,
the product of unity

Similarly,
each equal to a.
the product of
plied
when we
write
by three factors a n we mean
factors each equal to
or unity multi-
by n
factors each equal to a.
Logically, one
would
an expression as a which is read "a to the power zero," it means the product of zero factors equal to a, namely, zero, and a
think that,
,
when we
find before us such
beginner
is
therefore
invariably
puzzled
when
told
that a=l.
According to our second definition above,

multiplied zero times
however,
a means unity
by
a,
and
this is obviously unity, so this definition holds
good
in this particular case.
raised to the
As a matter of fact, anything power zero gives unity as the result of the operation. This follows directly from the rule we have seen in algebra for the division of powers of the same quantity, namely xm[x n =xm ~ n for, if we apply ~ this rule to the case x m /xm =l, we get x m m =x=l. This is true whatever is the value of x, so that, as
:
21
THE RF ORCE
22
a
certain

humorous continental teacher used to tell them with this fact, (cow)=l or
well-established
if
his pupils to impress
(slipper)=l.
So,
result
following a
rule,
we found a
it
which has no meaning

however,
we
try to explain
by
the definition hitherto available.

beginning,
Starting again at the
we
find another result
and following another method, about which there is no possible

one
doubt.
The two
results are evidently equivalent,
being merely a different
way
of writing the other, so

is
that, in the case just considered, x

of of
only another
way
expressing unity. Such expressions, the meaning which can only be found by independent investigation, are often met with in mathematics. For instance,
-=0,
(X
since nothing, divided
by any number you

to
like,
gives always a result equal

infinitely great
nothing
also
^ = an
number, since the smaller the denominator
of a fraction, the larger the value of the fraction, so
that
if
the denominator be very small, the value of the

is
fraction
very large, and when the denominator
is
so
small that
we can
write a zero in
its
stead without peris
ceptible error, the value of the fraction
greater than
any number we can conceive, that is, it is infinitely Once the meaning has been found, we can either substitute its proper and simpler meaning to it or we can use it whenever convenient. Henceforward, for instance, whenever we shall come across such expreslarge.
sions as
(a?+3), (sin
0 3 tan 0),
etc.,
we
shall
know
THE RF ORCE
QUEER-LOOKING EXPRESSIONS
that each
30 that
is
23
equivalent to unity and
may be replaced by 1,
c
3a=3,
sin6>(;+3) =sin6,
(sinfl-3tan<ft) _
cos 2 #
also,
cos2 #'
,
=x(any
expression
we
like)
.
for instance \
a = a[7 smx-\
.
,
A
\
4^tan0
X2
lge</>) /
The same rule of algebra leads us yet to another curious ~ expression; consider a 2/a5 this is equal to a2 5 =a~ 3 or a " to the power minus three," another puzzling result
,
for,
according to our definitions a~ 3 means the product
of
minus three factors each equal to a
this
by
is
quite
another thing than the product of three factors each equal

to
of
a or unity multiplied minus three times

which are meaningless.
If,
a,
both
however, we consider
is is
that
a2 /a5 =l/a 3 we
,
see that
a~ z
only another
way
of writing
1/a
;
and so on
times
the same as l/ 4 and the " minus multiplication " above is

3
,
that, similarly,
a-4
:
explained as meaning a division
unity divided three

is
by
a, so that the second definition of
here
still
susceptible
an interpretation.
(sin
It follows that
,
we
can always replace such expressions as l/x n

l/(sin
l/(a-\-x) 2 ,
0+9) by x~ n (a+x)~ 2
,
O+O)- 1
The
:
in front of
an index therefore means simply

is affixed,
sign " put the

it is,
expression to which this index
exactly as
but without this
sign, as
denominator to a fraction
the numerator of which is 1." Such an expression as l/x n is called the " reciprocal " of x n so that x~ n is the " index form " of the reciprocal of a? n
,
THE RF ORCE
24

also often
,
,
meet in mathematics expressions such which one reads " a to the power over n" etc. Evidently two-thirds," x to the power these expressions cannot be explained by either of the
as
We
a2 3 x mln
/
etc.,
a n quoted above. xmln is not obtained by applying the rule xm Xx n =x m+n or xm \x n =x m n to any particular case, so we must try to find how we arrive
definitions of
at such expressions, in order to discover their meaning.
Now, we have seen

say the
(x2
fifth
in algebra that to raise to
any power,
power, a power of a quantity, such as

10
.
x2
one must multiply the two indices together, so that
f=x2X5 =x
More generally (xm ) n =xmXn
If
we
apply this rule to

also get
2/3
we
get (a 2 l z Y
= a?**=a*.
a 213
is
But we
the same
(*/a 2 ) 3 =a 2
2
It follows that
thing as /a since, by raising both to the cube or third
power we get the same

ally, xmfn
result,
namely a 2
More
;
gener-
fact,
m it is, ir is only another way of writing Zjx m " " which what is called the index form of ^/x
i?
called the "radical form."
the root, 3 and
in
Note that the "order" o1 the above examples, appears as
denominator to the index.
We
have, up to now,
so that
queer-looking expressions, and
what they mean, any more they

;
made acquaintance with three we know now exactl) we shall not be puzzled by then
are
to the power zero," the value of which is 1. x, " to the power minus n," which is exactly th xr n "
same
as l/x n
xmln
"
,
to the
power
over
n"
which
is
exactly
the same as
^xm
THE RF ORCE
QUEER-LOOKING EXPRESSIONS
25
[oreover these equivalent expressions are absolutely
general, instead of
that, for
x we
can put anything we please, so
example,
3 /5
[3^ 3 -(log e 0)+5]

It is
=4/(3^_lo gt.6>+5)3.
way some complicated
will help
very useful to be able to pass readily from one
form to the other, as in this
expressions can sometimes be simplified considerably.
The following worked examples

this is done.
you to
see
how
Example
1.
Simplify 3a~ 2/5 by expressing
it
with a
positive index.
Remember
instance,
that an index only affects the letter (or

it is
bracket) to which
affixed,
2
and nothing
else
for
3a
2
.
means 9a affects the letter a, and has nothing to do with the coefficient 3 in front of a, so that 3a~ 2 /5 is the same as %a~ 2 But a~ 2 =l/a 2
. ,
means 3xa and not Here the index 2 only
9xa
2
,
while (3a) 2
hence the given expression becomes 3/5a 2
That's
all
Example
2.
Simplify a/x~ z that
We know
a=l and that x~z =l/x 3

a/x~s
so
that
=l/^ = xK
Example
3.
Simplify 3 (x
+ 1 )-* X ^(x + 1
1)
2/3 .
2
)
.
We know that /(x+l) 2 =(x-\ We get therefore
Sxix+l^xix+l^^x+tf-^Hx+l)=3/4/^+1.
1 /*
THE RF ORCE
26

.
Example 4. Simplify (2x)~ 3/^x~ 1 It becomes successively

?
J
î-^=(l/8a!)^3/a =(l/&i )
Example
5.
xa?/3
= l/24a*
Simplify
x~ 2 Jx^ X (3^ 2 )
We write #- 2 V^(3^
whichever
)=ar 2 x# 3 2 x l=#*- 2 =af*A

/
or
1/VS,
is
most convenient.
Simplify
Example
6.
2 (2a)
3#r 2 a 2/3 r=. 3
Proceeding as above we get successively
3(l/^ 2 )a 2/3
2(l/(2a)
3
x^
7.
4
_ 3 xa 2 x8a 3 _ 24q+ 3 1Za35 /**^ ~ 2x2 x^

/
2^
4
.
or preferably 12an/3/x 7J2.
Example
Simplify
2 4
)
^m" ^
2
1
1 /2
)
We
get
3 (m-
X (k~
^= 81 (1/m
8
2 4
)
X lft&Pf
2
)
= 81x(l/m8 )x(l//f = 8llm k

2
.
We could also have proceeded as

transformation
:
follows after the first
3 4 (m~ 2 ) 4
X (Ar 1
'2
4
)
= 81 X m~8 x k~ = 81m k
2 8
2
.
Example
8.
Simplify
(2s/mXx- 2 )~ 2
We
2-2
get
(
mi/2x_
2)
x (1/ ^-4) = (1/4) (l/m) (l / 1) = ajt/4wi

\
/
or,
by another way
[2
Xm XJ =zA/im
1/2
as before.
THE RF ORCE
QUEER-LOOKINCx EXPRESSIONS
Example
9.
27
Simplify (2ar t T 1 ^)" a
^(^^f.
)
Deal with each bracket separately.

(2
t
- 2 a- 1 /3 )- a =l/(2^- 2 a;- 1 /3 )-l/2 a (l/^ 2o )(l/a a / 3
= ^ 2o xa/ /2 a
3
Also
(^r) = (3x tW
a
2 2
)
=9xa xa.
So that the whole expression becomes
x2a x a a/3 ^ x2a-aa %-l ^j(fa %2 a x9x a xa~ 9x2 a ~9x2 a

as in
1
*
Both transformations should proceed simultaneously,

the next example.
10.
Example
Simplify
We
S et
m-i/2aa/aP
2
Xm
'/ 2
^ 2^
x(l/a? ap / g )
xm' 8- 1
(l/m
1 /2
x(l/m/3 )(l/3^6 )
1 / 2*
)^
21/2
(a-l)/2
m
>*
l/2
'
^,3W2
x^
3p
1 / 2^
xxv xm a z
1
a-1
1
10p2 +3
'
a? 2
2p
X
:
fc>
This
may
be written
^jj^
>
THE RF ORCE
28

the
following
exercises.
will
Try now
important in themselves, but they

quite familiar with
Exercises
I.
They are no help you to ge
all sorts of indices.
(See p. 244 for Answers.)
Express with positive indices and simplify

(1) (5)
(9)
a' 1
21
(2)
x~\
(i)-W.
3 (10) 2-
(3)
2m- 2
(4) l<t,,-\
.
.*?.
(6)
2 2 (7) (3- ,r)
(8)
(2a" 1 ) 3
.
g.
2~ 1 a x /a- 3
.
a-
2 1 (11) (3a )" X (14) 8
(12) (15)
(13)
a1
'2 .
2
.
(18)
(21) (24) (27)
2/a 2x- 2 '\

120a?-
1 /3
1 (16) Vftx-i/Sx !*. 1 %-*/ 2 4(19)

.
(17)
â~
l l2
2 (20) 2- 1 a /a~ a
(i)-V/3
1
.
(22)
3m- 1/5
(23) (26)
7xcrK
(25)
3-%^.
(28)
S^/ar 3
.
.
2- 2 /a mx-K
2a*la-*ar1
1 a; (29) (2~ a
m- 2
a:
1 2 1 (30) (S-Ve / )"
(31) 3(2(33) 4
)- 2
(32) (3~V#*")"*.
(34)
.
^- 3 a 1 2 /a^ 1 /3.
/
4^-2 (3#
-2a?- 1 /3 ).
(35)
(36) (37)
a'^x-â^xîSdux!)
8^(^V+8"^
4/(m 2 a- 3 )-f-aVm- 3
2ar 2a ^-(#3 ) 1 /2.
2
.
(38) (39)
m-^+Û'îmJcfl2
/^
2 /3
(40) [(a3/2
)*^-*) 3 2 ]
/
1 '2
(41) (3a-
)-^(a
/2.T-
3
).
2 3 2(42) (2^- 1 /3 )- /^-(2- a^ a / ) 1 /
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
EXPONENTIALS, AND
n exponential function
onential "
le
III.
HOW
TO TAME THEM.
an " exwhich one of
of
also
called simply
is
simply an expression in
variable quantities, usually the independent one,
ppears in the index or exponent of
some power
Qother quantity
y=5
le
x
,
y = a Zx
y=(a-l) 1 x
t
y=k~ x +x-\
x
is
re explicit
exponential functions of x, in which
independent and y the dependent variable, as it evident that if x is given various values, y will The above expressions are ike corresponding values.
i
iad
linus
linus
i
power a?," " a to the power a?," " a one to the power one over a?," " h to the power x plus x to the power minus h " respectively, and
" five to the
on.
Exponentials are not quite so easy to deal with as

ther expressions simply because
if
we
are told that
known power, quare or cube, say, we know exactly what to do with his unknown quantity, as x 2 =xXX, x*=xXxXx, and o on but if we are told that a known quantity has to
n unknown quantity
x is
to be raised to a
29
THE RF ORCE
';
30

is
be raised to an unknown power, there

say, has to
no way
of
expressing the question in a definite manner, and 3*,
remain
3*.
If
we have
=x
we have
at
once
x=/2 and
if
the value of
is
obtainable at once
similar
but
we have
= 3*,
and try to proceed along
lines,
we get /2=3, and x has only been even more awkward place.
It
is,
shifted to an
however,
possible
to
bring
an exponential
function to a simpler algebraical form by the use of
Nowadays, every schoolboy knows how knows that the logarithm of the power of a number is found by multiplying the logarithm of the number by the index of the power, so that log(3 x )=a?xlog 3, the exponential becoming an ordinary product, since log 3 = 0-4771, a mere number. If 2 = 3* then log2=#xlog3 or 0-3010=04771 xx,
logarithms.
to use a table of logarithms, and he
and a?=
A77V
We
can use logarithms to perform the
division in the usual way, so that
log a>=log 0-3010-log 0-4771
and
#=0-6310.
!
"
What
not
?
These are already logarithms
" I hear yor

?
exclaim.
" Shall
we take the logarithm of a logarithm

is
!
Why
a
logarithm
only a number.
Treat
it
a.'
number and go ahead
In mathematics rules an
ear
general.
Whenever we have an exponential function we

always state
it
as
an expression containing logarithms
and
this
will
generally be found easy to deal witli
THE RF ORCE
EXPONENTIALS
31
y = 5 x becomes log y=xx log 5, that is, logy =0-699a?; i/=a x becomes log?/=a?xlog y=(a l) 1/x becomes
;
logy=-log(<x 1) and
so on.
As
will
be seen in the
examples below, a
table.
wicked-looking exponential often

of a logarithmic
becomes most tame at the mere sight

It
may be
stated here that logarithms are closely

if
related to exponentials, for
we
write 10^=3, say,
then
x
is,
is,
by
definition, the
common
logarithm of
is
3.
That
the
common
logarithm of any number
merely
the index indicating to which power the
number 10
For
must be raised
instance, the
for
in order to obtain the first
number.
common
logarithm of 7-2
is
the value of
which 10*=7-2.
if
It follows that since 10J

is
= 10,
the
common
That,
logarithm of 10
10* =7 -2
unity.
7-2, is evident, for, since
10*= 7-2, then a?=log
is an exponential, we have, from what we have seen above, #xlog 10=log7-2, and as log 10=1, #=log7-2. Similarly, if 0-00183= 10,
the expression
then
m = log 0-00183.
In
fact,
fc
such an expression as 10 =iV,

at once A*=logiV.
whenever we are given we can always write

is
You
it is
will notice that the

Jc,
number which
10.
raised to the
power x, or m, or
is
always
10
is
selected because
the basis of our system of numeration, and the
logarithms used in connection with it are therefore called " common logarithms," 10 being called the " base " of the system of common logarithms. These
are the ones given in
any ordinary table
of logarithms.
THE RF ORCE
32

will
In such a table, the logarithm of 10

that
is,
be found to be
1,
to have 0-0000 for its decimal part or mantissa.
Instead of 10
number.
of
we could have any other constant For instance, if 7 x = 13, then x is the logarithm 13 in a system of logarithms the base of which is 7
number 7 placed
in this
to avoid this long sentence,
the
(or its abbreviation)

is 7.
we use the notation #=log7 13 way after the name logarithm means that the base of the system
7-2,"
We
it
should have written above log 10 7-2 for " the

logarithm of
is
common
ithms,
but, for
common
logar-
understood that the number 10 needs not

to
:
be appended
^=log a 2V means
exactly as
the abbreviation " log." Similarly " h is the logarithm of in a system
the base of which
is
a, that
is, it is
the same statement
ak =N.
ments Jc=\og a
general,
N
is
The and ak
fact
that these two state-
=N
are always simultaneous,

is
so that one necessarily implies the other,
absolutely
and
of
great importance in
dealing with
exponentials.
used.
It holds
if
good whatever are the symbols
For instance,
auV (1 +#) ^=^l s/(tQJi 9),

then sin 20/ \/ 9 is the logarithm of a?7/\/(tan 9) in a system the base of which is (1+a?), that is
:
sin 20Js/9 = log(1+x) (x
l s/(t2Ln 9).
Or,
to be again incongruous,
if
cat cow =dog,
then
cow=log cat dog.

It follows that, in every
1
system
of logarithms, since
=(base), log 1
= 0, whatever the base may be.

1 is
Also the
if
logarithm of a number smaller than
negative
the
THE RF ORCE
EXPONENTIALS
ase is greater
33
than
to be
lecessitates
N<1 and a>l, N = a x negative, so that iV= where x is x

1,
since,
if
positive
f
power
of a
number
greater than
1.
system
for
logarithms can then be conceived the base of which
any number we
like.
Such a system could be used
alculations just like
common
logarithms, provided
we
iave first calculated a table of logarithms in this system.
^here
tsing
would
be,
however, no particular advantages in
such a system, and
some disadvantages, and
practice
common
logarithms are always used for
alculating.
There ven
Is,
however, another system of logarithms, of
greater
importance
in
mathematics
than
the
ystem
of logarithms in the base 10.

is
Its base, strangely
nough,
not an easy whole number, but an awkward

:
ndless decimal
tot
2-7182818284596...
note that
it
is
a recurring decimal, as one might think from a glance
the
first
nine
decimals.
This
it
number occurs
is
so
requently in mathematics that
represented by
he Greek letter
-1415926535
1
" epsilon,"
is
e,
...
represented
Pi,"
7T.
Why
this particular
just as the number by the Greek letter number was selected we

this
hall see later.
Logarithms in
system are called
Napierian logarithms, from the

ician
of the mathemaJohn Napier, who is generally credited with their nvention. They are also called Natural or Hyperbolic
name
ogarithms, for
tand.
1
reasons which
we
e is
shall
soon under-
In
many
text-books the letter

c
used instead of
e.
g.e.
THE RF ORCE
34
The Natural logarithm

represented by ra
is
of a
equivalent to
= log m e = N,
iV,
and, as
number N is therefore we have seen, this
standing for 2-718, neglecting
the other decimals.
Of course, Napierian logarithms can be used

calculations just like
in
for
common
logarithms, or logarithms
besides,
any other system.
They have,
many
impor-
tant properties
with which we shall become better
acquainted later on.
When
fully as
the
used together, the
common and Napierian logarithms are common logarithms should be denoted
shown above, log10 N, say, to avoid confusion. calculating, when only common logarithms are used, the notation may be simplified by omitting the suffix 10, so that log means the same as logÂ7 The Napierian logarithms are of such importance in mathematics, however, that whenever the notation log A is employed without a suffix, except in actual
In
7"
calculation, the Napierian logarithm
is
always intended.
easily
:
The Napierian logarithm

be calculated from
or
its
of
any number can

4-8, then,
common
if
is,
logarithm, as follows
suppose we want log e 4-8;

2-718*
log 10
a?=log e
^=4-8
But
= 4-8, that 2-718 = 0-4343 an
a?xlog10 2-718 = log10 4-8.
easy number to remember

e
so
that 0-4343,^ =log10 4-8
and ;c=log 4-8=0-6812/0-4343 As multiplication is quicker than division, and since 1/0-4343=2-3026, the same result can be more readily obtained by performing the operatior U 2-3026x0-6812=1-5686. Hence the familiar rule
=1-5686.
:
get the Napierian logarithm of a number, multiply tht
THE RF ORCE
1
mimon
ig!
EXPONENTIALS
logarithm of the number by 2-3026.
so that
if
35
Inversely,
2V
= 0-4343 x log. iV,

are
log, 4-8
= 1-5686
be
iven,
then log 10 4-8= 0-4343x1 -5686

advised
to
= 0-6812.
You
-
work through the following
samples so as to become quite familiar with the process

f
reducing exponentials to a harmless condition.
Example
If
1.
Given
= 2-718,
find log e 13-2.
#=log
13-2,
then e*=13-2 or 2-718*= 13-2.

13-2,
Hence
ence
x xlog 2-718=log
a?=log 13-2/log 2-718 = 1-1206/0-4343 = 2-580;

log e 13-2=2-580.
2.
Example
Find
if
0-31* =0-0048.
We
have
x xlog
= log 0-0048. = #xT-4914 3-6812.

0-31
is,
T-4914may be written -1+0-4914, that

iimilarly, 3-6812
a?
-0-5086
= -3+0-6812 = -2-3188,
x
if
so that
=-2-3188/ -0-5086 =4-559.

Find
10
Example
3.
3^=7, and hence
find log 3 7.
We get x xlog
Hence, since
3=log 10 7,
-
^=0-8451/0-4771 = 1-772.
31
772
= 7,
l-772
= log
3 7.
Example
4.
Solve the equation l-5 (a5+1, =2-4.
We
*
get
(a?+l)logl-5=log2-4
#+l=log2-4/logl-5
= 0-3802/0-1761 = 2-16.
Hence x =1-16.
THE RF ORCE
36

5.
Example
If
2
146
3<?2
=12,
find the value of 0.
Wege
6>
and
30 xlogl46 = logl2, =log 12/3 log 146 = 1-0792/3 x 0-1644=2-19 = 1-48.

exercises
:
Try now the following

Exercise II.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
(For Answers see p. 244.)
Find the value

Find the
Find the
x if 12 = 5*. value of x if 3 = 1-5*. value of y if 3*=2 *+

of
(
3)
.
Find the value of Find
if
7=2 +1
x and
y,
iiy=?>xl and
2
.
1-8^=5-3*.
Find k if 345 = 1 -18* If 1-5^=0-2 find t
Solve the equation 146
= 5-2
1 /*.
(9) If
3x4-3-*=l,
1
find x.
n m (10) If 3-2 /5-7
(11)
(12) (13)
= l, and m+n=3, find m and n. Findîf 124 /* = l-6 * = h2- x Solve the equation 0A +l) yx zy =x If find y when a?=l-72, and
2
2
.
{x
1)
1'
{l
als
whenlog10 a?=
(14)
^.
if
Find the angle

3 log
I-
(3/8)
8i
*-2 = 0.
find/,-
(15) If (16)
742
e
=10 and
10=log
e
^ = 100,
2 +log e 5.
and x.
l
Given
= 2-718,
calculate
log e 2, log e 5, log e
and
verify that log e
(17)
Given e=2-718, calculate log e 3-2 and
log, 0-11.
THE RF ORCE
EXPONENTIALS
(18) Calculate
37
TrTaR
if
>
usm g Napierian logarithms

is
ilculate the logarithms

(19)
no table
available).
From 10=5*
calculate x,
and hence
find the value
the logarithm of 10 in the system the base of which

5.
(20) Calculate
(21)
#=log10 6/log6 10.
From
log e 3
= 1-0986
derive the value of
e.
(22)
rich
Find the base of the system of logarithms in

the logarithm of 24-8
is 0-8.
(23) Calculate log 7 3, log7 4, log7 9, log 7 12
and log 7 27,

system of
d with these
verify experimentally that a
rarithms to the base 7 can be used exactly in the
me way
(24)
as
common
logarithms to calculate products
x4), quotients (27 -i- 9), powers (3 2 )
and roots (4/27).

to
its
In what system
?
is
the
number 5 equal
is
own
$arithm
(25)
In what system of logarithms
the
number 100
ual to 20 times its

3 (26) Calculate 1-5
own logarithm
using logarithms whose system has
for base.
?~V=(H<3*+2).
ij
(28) If
y-**=yx0-3 find the value Of =111 and the value of x when y= 0-001 11.
1 l 3x
when
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
Consider the three
...e- 3
IV.
A WORD ABOUT TABLES OF LOGARITHMS.

lines
below
e
= l/e 3
e- 2 =l/e 2
e-^l/e
03679
3 e ....
Numbers
...00498
01354
27183
73876
200793....
Indices = Logarithms -2 ...-3
-10
;
3....
The second
terms in the
line
gives the numerical value of
tl tl
first line
the third line consists of

is,
indices of e in the first line, that
of the Napieria
line.
logarithms of the numbers in the second
Tl
second and third line together constitute, in
fact,
\
small bit of a table of Napierian logarithms, only
among the numbers, and t' natural sequence of numbers among the logarithms. Note that, in the second line, each number is obtain by multiplying the number immediately to the
have but powers
of epsilon
1<
such by a constant number, here epsilon sequence of numbers is called a geometrical progressk Note also that, in the third line, each number (here logarithm) is obtained by adding the same number this case unity) to the number immediately to the 1
of
it
;
38
THE RF ORCE
I
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS
>f
39
it
such a sequence of numbers
is
called
an
arith-
netical progression.
Well, in
any system
shall
of logarithms,
whatever
:
may
be
he base,
(1)
we
always find these features

of
The sequence
progression
numbers form a geometrical
(2)
The sequence
progression
of logarithms
form an arithmetical
(3)
The term
of the former corresponding to zero in

is
the latter
(4)
unity
(base =1.)
The term
of the former corresponding to unity of the
in the latter is the base
system
of
logarithms
itself.
Whenever
these
conditions
are
fulfilled,
the
two
progressions form a system of logarithms.
In the bit of Napierian Table above, we only have
powers of epsilon and the sequence of natural numbers.
The gaps can be rilled up easily if we keep in view the two first conditions stated above. For instance, if we want to place a number between e 2 and e 3 if x is the constant factor by which each term of the new geo,
metrical progression
is
to be multiplied in order to get
the one immediately following,

e
2
we must have
3
xx=N
e
2
and
Nxx = e
x 2 = e,
or
N=e /x,
3
hence
xx=e*/x,
s/e
= 1-6487
and
AT-e 2 Xl-6487 = 12-1850.
Its logarithm is evidently 2-5.
THE RF ORCE
40

e
1
Similarly, putting a
between
log 4-4817
and
2
,
= 1-5000.
number between e and e 1 and we get log 1-6487 = 0-5000 and We can in this way put a number
middle of each gap of our bit
of
and a logarithm
in the
table, then in the
middle of each gap of the table so
obtained, and so on, until
we
get a table of numbers

it will
advancing by such a small step each time that

contain the sequence of the natural numbers.
Clearly this
is
not practical.
illustrate
The method has only

difference
been
outlined
to
an important
between
Common and
Napierian logarithms.
If we deal as explained above with common logarithms, we have

...io- 3
10- 2
io- 1
10
l
10 1
102
IO3 ....
1000....
3....
Numbers
...0001
001
Indices = Logarithms ...-3
_2
01 -1
10
l
100
Introducing a number in each gap by the method

explained above,
factor.
we
get s/io
= 3-1623
for the constanl
Numbers
...001
0-3162-28
01
-1
0-316228
316228
0-5
10
31-6228
100....
Logarithms
...-2
-1-5
-0-5
1-5
2....
which
may
be written
0-5000 10000 1-5000 20000....
...20000 2-5000 1-0000 1-5000
where the
figures
under the minus sign are negative anc

the numbers 0-0316228
differ
the decimal parts (mantissae) are positive.
A fact is evident at first sight
0-316228, 3-16228, 31-6228..., which only
by
th<
position of the decimal point, have the same decimal
THE RF ORCE
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS
he latter being different.
asily
41
lamely, 0-5000, in their logarithms, the integer alone of
This characteristic
is
moreover
found, as every schoolboy knows, being positive and
me
unit less than the
number
of integers
if
the
number
is
greater
than unity, and negative and numerically equal
o unity
itely
added to the number of noughts immedion the right of the decimal point if the number is
than unity.
logarithms,
It follows that, in a
smaller
system of
common
3f all
)i
we need not tabulate
the logarithms
the numbers, but only the decimals of the logarithms
the
100000, according to the size of the table.
numbers from say 1000 to 10000, or 10000 to If we have
n the table the decimal of the logarithm of 76835, for

instance,
sisting of
we can
;
get the logarithm of

it
any number con-
these figures, whether

it is
be 76,835,000,000 or
0-00000076835
only a matter of giving the proper

to be found in the system of
characteristic to the tabulated decimal.
Nothing
like this is
Napierian logarithms.
We have
seen that
loge 12-1850=2-5000 loge 4-4817 log e 1-6487
= 1-5000 = 0-5000
and
it
is
evident that no such single relation exists.

that in a table of Napierian logarithms there
It follows
must be as
many
logarithms as there are numbers, from
the greatest integer imaginable
down
of.
to the smallest
this
decimal fraction
we can think
For
reason,
Napierian logarithms are not used for performing calculations,
as
it
would be impossible to make a complete
THE RF ORCE
42
table,

and even
for a restricted range of
sistent with general usefulness, its size

hibitive.
numbers conwould be pro-
The great importance

in
their
of Napierian logarithms
resides
series
intimate connection with important

to
and mathematical functions which causes them
appear in
many mathematical
investigations,
as
we
shall see later.
THE RF ORCE
"
CHAPTER
V.
A LITTLE CHAT ABOUT THE KADIAN.

In the pages which follow we shall often deal with angles,
and
it
is
necessary that you should be quite familiar
with the measure used by mathematicians when they
want to ascertain the magnitude of an angle. This You are accustomed to form an is the radian. idea of the magnitude of an angle by stating how many minutes and seconds degrees and fractions of a degree
measure
it
contains.
These units
are
called
" sexagesimal
units,
because the principal unit, the degree

-fa
which
is
defined as the
sixty
part of a right angle,
is
subdivided into
or " minutes " i.e. " smalls," each minute being divided into sixty " second minutes," as they were originally called, that is, " smalls
six
times ten
equal parts
of the
second order," later called " seconds " for shortthe seconds are subdivided decimally.
It
ness
may
be noted here that minutes and seconds of arc should
always be denoted by the symbols

never
'
and
"
respectively,
by
and
s,
these being used for minutes and
seconds of time.
quantities of the
Now, whenever we want to combine together several same kind, it is convenient and often
43
THE RF ORCE
44
even necessary
of the
that they should be expressed in terms

For instance, when finding the area
same
unit.
of a rectangular room, the length
and breadth must
both be expressed in feet or yards or some other unit

similarly,
when
finding the capacity of a cylindrical
vessel, the height
and the radius must both be expressed in feet or inches or any other suitable unit. Now, in trigonometry,
we
sin
continually use such ratios as
SAT
etc.,
and 7^, -^,,
t0= AP m BN m AP
,
ftK (Fig.
,v 1),
OB' OA'
etc.,
etc.,
are
merely the measure of the length

of
BN, AP,
is
when
OB
or
OA, namely
the radius of the arc
BQA,
words,
ratios
used as a unit.
In other
when we deal with such which we call " circular
functions" because their value depends on the magnitude

of lines
drawn
is
in a certain definite
way with
not only
respect to
the circumference of a circle
the unit of length which

it is
we use
the radius.
Now,
logical,
but
essential to correct
results derived
mathematical reasoning and to the

it,
from
9,
that the same unit should be used

all
for
measuring the length of
the lines connected with
and among these is the arc BQA itself. How can we measure the length of this arc, since it Very easily, if we remember that the is a curved line ? length of any arc is exactly proportional to the magnitude
the given angle
THE RF ORCE
A CHAT ABOUT THE RADIAN

of the
45
circle.
angle
it
subtends at the centre of the
Suppose, for instance, that
we have
ascertained the
magnitude
circle
is
of the angle
subtended at the centre of the
by an
that
arc of the circumference the length of which
exactly the same as the length of the radius of the

is,
circle,
by an arc
is
of unit length.
Then, as
many
times as this angle
contained in any given angle, as
many
times the length of the unit of arc will be contained
in the length of the arc corresponding to the given angle.
This angle, corresponding to unit arc,

angle and is called the radian. the " circular unit " of angular
it is
is
taken as unit
The radian is called measurement because derived from the measurement of an arc of circle.
It is divided decimally.
Mathematicians always express angles in radians, so

that
it is
0," they
is
mean always
superfluous to note the unit. By "an angle " an angle of radians," and this
the same as
length of arc corresponding to angle 9

length of radius of the circumference to which this arc belongs,
so that
9 = !*
(see Fig. 1) or,
if I
be the length of an
arc
and r be the length

it
of the radius of the circle to

is
which
belongs, while 9
the angle subtended at the

arc
I,
centre of the circle
by the
then
9=-
or l=rO,
the angle 9 being expressed in radians.

It follows that
an angle
of four right angles
=
is
=27r
an angle
radians, while
an angle of two right angles
THE RF ORCE
'
46
of
-

7r
radians
likewise,
one right angle

27r,
77-,
is
an angle
of
radians.
The notations
and ^, the radian being
the unit implied, of course, are therefore used instead of 360, 180 and 90 respectively.
It
is
worth while noticing here that
sin 9,
tan
9, etc.,
retain exactly the
same
value, whether 9
is
expressed
in radians or in sexagesimal units, as this value

solely
depends on the actual magnitude of the angle 9, and, being a ratio of two lines, is quite independent of the unit employed in measuring these lines or the angle itself.
It follows that the tables of trigonometrical functions,
which give the values of
sin 9,
tan
9, etc.,
and
in
which
the angles are usually expressed in sexagesimal units,

degrees and minutes, can be used with angles expressed
in circular units provided one
can readily pass from one
system of units to the other.

done, as
Now,
this is
very easily
we have
...
just seen that 4 right angles
= 360 = 2
...
ir
or 6-283184
1
radians,
.
from which we
find at once that
radian
OQ91Q
degrees or 57-29577
that
is,
57 -30 approximately.
The use
of the radian as a unit of angle simplifies

all
considerably
problems involving the length of an
arc.
For instance,
let it
be required to find the length of an arc

If
of the circumference of a circle of radius 7J inch, corre-
sponding to an angle
9.
we
first
suppose the angle 9

360
to be given in sexagesimal units, say 41 15', then
length of circumference _
~lengthof arc
~ 4PTF
THE RF ORCE

;natis
47
2irr_ 360 41 25 t
.
>
lence
1=
6-2832x7-25x41-25
s^
K QO = 5-22
inches.
The operation by which the

four
result
is
obtained involves
numbers.
suppose the angle
;
Now
to be given in circular units,

inches.
say 0-72 radians
then
is
1= 6r= 0-72 x 7-25 =5-22

it is
The simplification
so great that
often quicker to
its
convert angles expressed in term of the degree and
subdivisions into radians before proceeding with the
required calculations.
this
There are tables which allow of
conversion being
made by mere
inspection.*
will
The following worked examples
help to clear
any haziness yet lingering in the beginner's mind.
Example
and express
1.
Express in radians an angle of 68
26',
in sexagesimal units
an angle
of 0-36 radian.
Find in each case the length of the subtending arc on a

circumference of 20 inches radius.
(a)
o 68 26'
= 68 o +26 o /60=68-4333.
number
of radians in the
Since
angle
of
is
radian =57 -30, the
684333/57-30=1-1943 radian, hence the length

is
the arc
1-1943x20=23-886
inches.
(The more
exact value 57-29577 gives 1-1944 radian.)

* Such a table is given in Cargill G. Knott's Four-Figure Mathematical Tables (W. & R. Chambers, Ltd.). This cheap little book of tables contains also, besides the usual tables, tables of exponential and hyperbolic functions, which the reader will find very
useful.
THE RF ORCE
48
(6)

0-86
radian=0-86x57-30 degrees
(The
= 49-278 = 49 16' 40"-8. The length of the arc is 0-86 x 20 = 17-2 inches.
more exact value 57-29577 gives 49
Example
arc
is
16' 27"-7.)
ft.
2.
On a circumference of radius 3
ft.
in.,
ar
taken equal in length to that of an arc of 38 or

6
in.
a circumference of 5
radius.
Find the angh

firsl
subtended at the centre by the arc taken on the

circumference.
The simplest way

Length
This
to do this
is
as follows
of arc of second circumference
=38x5-5/57-30=3-648
is
ft.
also the length of the arc
on the
is
first
circum-
ference, hence the angle in radians subtended at th(
centre
is
3-648/3-25=1-123 radian, that

1-123
x 57-30 = 64-348 =
64 20' 52"-8.
Example 3. What is the radius of the circumferenc( on which a length of 10 inches subtends at the centre
an angle
of 153
?
153=153/57-30 radians=2-67 radians.
Hence
2-67
X radius = 10
inches and
inches.
radius = 10/2-67 = 3-745
Example 4. Find the value of ?/=sin $+30 wher 0=20. Remember that although, if convenient, one
can take the angle in degrees when using the trigono
metrical tables, yet in any other case the angle
in radians, so that
is
alwayi
we have
y=sin 20+3 x20/57-30=0-3420+l-0472 = l-3892.
THE RF ORCE

i
49
pie 5.
A cyclist
riding
on a circular track could

angle does he turn
ach the centre of the track in 2 m 17 s at the speed at

iich
he follows the track.

?
What
rough in 5 minutes
Expressing the times in seconds, the length of the arc,

radians,
o
is
evidently
,
5^T = 2-190radian=2-190x57 -30=12529

By working through
alize
ie
13
/,
-2.
the following exercises you will
the simplification brought about
by the use
of
radian.
Exercises III.
(1)
(For Answers, see p. 245.)

of 0-6 radian in a circle
Find the length of an arc

Express 71
7-3 inch radius.

(2)
15' in radians
and 0-715 radians
in
xagesimal units.
(3)
Express in radians angles of
1,
1',
1" respec-
vely,
and
find the length of the corresponding arcs in
circle of 1 foot radius.

(4) If
(Take
radian =57-296.)
the smallest subdivision possible in the graduais
on of a protractor
0-01 inch, find the radius of the

(a) to degrees, (b)
aallest protractor to
read
to minutes,
id (c) to
(5)
seconds of arc.
of
One angle
is
a triangle
is
0-576 radian and

in circular
lother angle
79 34'.
Find the third angle
id in sexagesimal units.
(6)
Find the angle, in radian, at the centre of a

8 inches radius, corresponding to an arc 5-6 inch D
rcle of
i
length.
G.E.
THE RF ORCE
50
(7)

Find the radius
is
of the circle in
which an angle
1-2 radian at the centre
subtends an arc the length
which
(8)
10 inches.
Find the radius of the circle in which an ang subtended at the centre by an arc equal in leng to an arc of 48 12' on a circumference of radius 3 feet
of 3 is
(9) v '
Find the value
of
x = -. and sm#
j\
of J ?/=^ 2 v/ tai
!)
with
(10)
= 50.
(Do not replace 30 by 150

of
,
Find the value

2/
= 7T7T + 6>+l^tan(6>+i)'
sin 2 #
JW
with
6>
= 42.
Find in sexagesimal units the value of the angle
if
(11) W
=5.
The coordinates
is
(12)
x,
of a point
on the cycloid
given by the formulae
x = R(0 sin
0),
y=R(lcos
incl
where 9
circle.
the angle turned through by the generati
Find the value of

;
x and y when R=10
and 0=4:6
hence find the distance of the correspond:
point of the curve from the point for which 0=0,

origin of the curve.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTEE
VI.
IPREADING OUT ALGEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS.

r
HEN a complicated thing

be grasped
if it
is difficult
to understand,
it
in often
)eak,
[1
can be taken to pieces, so to
the
and each piece examined separately. Obviously, little pieces together occupy more space than the
thing they
riginal
1
made
up, which has been expanded
the process.
Similarly, a great
many mathematical
xpressions which are found too difficult to deal with

3
they are can be quite easily tackled by splitting them

into
own
many
smaller bits, the
sum
of
which makes
to
p the
original
expression
exactly,
or
given
pproximation which usually can be

ne cares to have
it.
made
as close as
This process
is
called expanding,
nd the result
he expression.
i
of the process is called the expansion of
This process of expanding an expression

is
so important that there of

it.
hardly any mathematical

in
nalysis
esort to
It
is
some importance
which one does not
a curious fact that beginners are very

of
much
iraid
expansions.
They look
in
dismay at the
rray of terms,
vill
and
foolishly think that their
number
make the whole thing

51
absolutely unmanageable,
THE RF ORCE
52

fact, it is exactly
when, as a matter of
the reverse.
On'
it into
cannot swallow a plum pudding without cutting

slices,
and the
slices into spoonfuls,
but once the sub

easily it disappears
division has been performed, see
how
The
difficulty is absolutely imaginary, as
you
will agre
yourself
when we
all, let
get to the end of the chapter.
First of
us remember two expansions you kno^

:
already
they are short ones

{a Jcx)
2
=a
2j 2ax JcX 2 r
2
{a+x) =a*+3a
3
x+3ax 2 +x*.
i
a definite order
Note that we arrange the terms in the expansion the first term does not contain x
:
can say
it
contains
x to the power zero, since a?=a2 xl=a2 xx,

a z =a z Xx
;
and
similarly
the second term contains

the third term contains
so on, the index of
x to the power 1, or x mereb x to the power two, or x 2 an

,
in successive terms increasing b
unity each time.
It is easy to calculate, it
Did you ever wonder what (a-\-xY would be like 3 Perf ormir is {a +x) X (a +x).
the operation in the ordinary way,
we
get
Similarly,
{a+x) b ={a+xyx(a+x)
or
(a+x) 5 =a 5 +5a*x+l0a 3x 2 +10a 2x*+5axi +x*

i
Note also that the terms become more and mo numerous as we expand higher powers of (a-\-x). 1
THE RF ORCE
ALGEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS
ch expansion, the number of terms
e index,
is
53
one more than
and we
shall find this is

is
always the case as
ag as the index
at these
alt
a positive integer.
Note again
beginning
terms are perfectly simple terms like those

at
with
school
by small boys
just
*ebra.
In other words, each power of the quantity
thin the brackets has been split into

tie
many
simple
terms.
The higher the power

the
)re
complicated
of terms,
is
and therefore the expression the greater the

:
mber
but these terms remain quite simple
complexity
introduced by their greater number.
However, their number might be a source of trouble
we had a great many, but

lis
and this
is
the beauty of
process
the expansion of functions is usually done in
ses
where the terms get gradually smaller and smaller, that after a few terms, sometimes as few as three,
even two,
all
the following terms can be entirely
lored, as
ly.
they are too small to affect the result appreci-
It follows that the useful
expansion of a function
generally limited to a very few quite simple terms,
that the fact that the actual

iat
3
number
of
terms
is
very
does not matter in the least.

of
In most cases, in fact,
number
terms
is
indefinitely large.
Let us
make
sure that
rtant feature of the
we understand this most imuse of expansions by an example
us return to the expansion of
(a+x) 5 =a 5 +5a*x+l0a 3 x 2 +l0a2 x 3 -\-5ax*+x5

o:
Suppose
)pose
is
very small compared to a, for instance
a=\
and #=0-01.
THE RF ORCE
54

to find the value of (a-\~x) 5
It
is
Then
we have
1-01 5 to
calculate.
easy
but
;
tedious
to
calculate this
by ordinary
calculation
we
get
1-0510100501 with
no1
10 places of decimals.
But most probably we did
want 10 places
is
of decimals, so a portion of the laboui
wasted. Suppose we only wanted three decimals and that we have no table of logarithms at hand. Sine*
the expansion
is
equivalent to the given expression, w

it
may x by
l
5
use the expansion, by replacing in

0-01 respectively.
4
a by
anc
We
3
get
+5xl x0-01+10xl
x0-01 2 +10xl 2
x0-01 3 +5xlx0-01 4 +0-01

or 1
+0-05+0-001 +0-00001 +0'00000005+0'000000000:
negligible value.
Note how the terms are rapidly dwindling down to Since we only want three places
decimals,
we can
neglect
all
the terms after the thin
and
write, using the sign " approximately equal to "

(1-01) 5
instead of
:
to
mea
1+0-05+0-001
or
(1-01) 5
1-051.
Had we wanted
(1-01) 23 correct to three places
decimals, the expansion would have contained 23
+1
24 terms, but we should not even need to write the
we would need only the three or four first one how shall we get the three four first ones, for (1-01) 23 or (a+x) 23 is obtained frc multiplying (l-01) 22 xl-01 or (a+x) 22 x(a+x), so
down,
for
Yes, you will say, but
need
(1-01)
first
22
calculate the 23 terms in the expansion
or
(a+x) 22
THE RF ORCE
I
If it
55
were
so,
the prospect before us would not be a

it
is
ight one, but, luckily,

jautiful
not
so.
There
is
a most
law that runs through the whole domain of athematics a law called the Principle of Mathematical
%Afh^
iduction,
i
which
is
this
If
a certain process
is
applied
a certain quantity,
and
yields a certain result,
and
exactly the
ight
same
process, applied to several graduated

of
modifications
that quantity,
yields
results
hich are gradually modified in

len,
some regular manner,

it
as the quantity
is
further modified in exactly the

to this
ime way, the results obtained by submitting
ame
le
process will continue to be modified according to
regular
irlier
stages,
manner which has become evident however far the modifications

easy
in the of
the
uantity are pushed.
Let
us
take an
example to
illustrate
this
jatement.
Consider the
number
of integers (that
is,
of
whole
umbers) of one
ve figures, etc.
figure, of
two
figures, of three, four,
We
can easily form the following

of integers of 1 figure
:
little
table
Number
9 or 9
x 10.
.
.
2 figures: 3
90or9xl0 1 900or9xl0 2 9000or9xl0 3
The number
vhich
,
of figures in the integer is the quantity
is
regularly
...
modified,
as
it
takes the values

it is
2, 3, 4,
etc.
the process to which
submitted
the finding of the
number
of integers
having that
THE RF ORCE
56

;
number of figures the results, if rewritten shown on the right, evidence at first sight a law of formation the number of integers is 9 multiplied by a power of 10 whose index is equal to the number of figures
particular
as
:
in the integer less one.
We
can
now without any more
thinking write
table
:
down
at once the continuation of the
Number
of integers of 5 figures
on.
xlO4 =90,000. 9 XlO 5 =900,000.

9
of figures,
and so
When
finally
we
get to an
:
unknown number
say x, we
still
have
Number
All
of integers of
is
x
:
figures
=9 X lO*" 1
we have done
this
we have assumed
this
that
the law of formation of the successive results remaim the same throughout
true for the
first
;
we have found that
law
i.'
few cases which we could easily calculate and then we have applied it to cases which were of les.'
easy calculation, or which
we could not
calculate at al
because letters were used instead of numbers.

results are
Thes<
found to be correct.
is
This principle
of a sequence
often used to obtain further term;
or
is
series
when enough terms are givei

if
to show what successive
called the law of formation of th-
terms.
For instance,
it
is
required
t<
continue the series
3#
2
9x 2
'
27 x*
2x4 2x4x6
'
and to
find the
term
of position n.
THE RF ORCE
series
57
The
can be written
,
Sx
1
3 1 .*; 1
n
3 2 #2
'
1x2' (1x2)x(2x2) 33 #3 (Ix2)x(2x2)x(3x2)

1
...
The next term

x2) x
is
evidently
i
(1
(2
81a; 4 xi __ x2) x (3 x2) x (4 x2)~ 2 x 4 x 6 x 8'
and the next
is
5 2x4x6x8x10
is
-.
^
5
The rank
in
of
any term
one more than the index of
the numerator, or than the highest multiplier of two
in the
denominator, hence the term of rank
is
2x4x6x...x[(n-l)x2]
The term
write
;
of
rank
w+1
will
be more convenient to
it is
Z n xn 2x4x6x...x2w
Now,
if
we could
...
find, in
some
similar manner, the
law of formation of the expansions of the expressions

(a-\-xY (a-\-x) z
to write
etc.,
successively,
of,
down
the expansion
we would be able say, (a+x) 2Z without
the extremely tedious process of multiplying out, merely

the expansion of (a-\-x) n which
,
we could also write we cannot get otherwise, since we get it by working out the product of n factors each equal to {a-\-x), an operation which of course we
of formation;
by following that law
THE RF ORCE
x
58

represents.
in seeking the
figures
cannot perform actually, since we do not know what
number n
Note that
integers of
way
in
which the number
of
may
be found, we rearranged the
expressions so as to put in evidence the analogy of their

features, for instance, since
90=9 xlO 1
for 9
we wrote
9x10, and so on. Let us try if we cannot do anything similar with the
expansions so far obtained.
(a -\-xf
We
2 -\-
get
= a 2jr 2ax+
=a
2 2x1 2 T ax+j---~ x
(a+xf=a z +3a2x+3ax2 +x* ,3x2 2 ,3x2x2 3 3 2 3 -*+ aa? 0*+ 1 lx2 +ix2x3 a? (a+x)i = a*+a 3 x+6i 2 x 2 +4ax*+x*
'
= + j a x + y^2 a2x2
4
3
+ Ix2x3 aa? + Ix2x3x4

3
4x3x2
4x3x2x1
a?
How we
instead of
fact
is
came
,
2x1 2 to write T instead of 2 in 2 ax, = n

-
1x2
x2
x2
etc.,
if
does not matter at
all.
The important
that
simplify
we do the multiplications shown and the coefficients, we fall back on the correct
expansion, showing that these coefficients have been
and divisors. If you like, it is only a certain way, found by trial, to arrange these factors and divisors so as to get the
correctly split into their various factors
THE RF ORCE
equired
30
59
symmetry, just as there
is
a certain
arrange the pieces of a jig-saw puzzle to
way make a
picture.
By
so doing
we
find that, while the value of the expan-
sions remains
unchanged, the way in which the various
terms change as the index of the power of (a -fa?) increases

gradually
first
is
now
,
quite clear.
We
see
now
that the
terms of the successive expansions are respectively
a2
a3
a4 a 5 a 6
,
...
an
that the second terms are
respectively
n_x
that the third terms are respectively,
2x1 1x2
2
'
3x2 1x2
2
'
4x3 1x2
'''
2
'
5x4 1x2
a
2
6^5 4 T 2 1x2
and so
on.
rc(rc-l)
'
1x2
x2
>
We
page.
can make a table of these as shown on next
Starting from the third line, the columns
may be
completed both upwards and downwards as shown.

In each column the law of formation is manifest, and we can see now how the successive terms of any expansion are found. The first term is always a raised to the same power as (a-\-x), the second term has always
for coefficient the index of that power,
the letter
to a power indicated
and consists of by the index of (a-\-x)
THE RF ORCE
'
d
1 rj -u i o a s -u s
II
"-
1
cj
X
7
c ^-v
rt
d S
N
CD
to
O
II
CO
1
8
II
J
o
X
CM
o.
CN
i
>*
1*
^H IT*
d
CD
6
-r
8 8
CN Tf
CO
8
-#
X
CO
5 A o
2 B
43
X
CO
Tl
X X
CM CO
X X
CO CO
<D
^
CD
X
CO
X ^ ^X
1
CM
"""
>
^J ^3
QJ
^ 2
T3
X X X X
CO rH
X X
CO CM
X X
T# -M
X X
iO CM
X X
T*
il
X X
o
X X
g
<s
2
<tf
^1
%
co
s
aj
03
a
op
o
II
%
II
%
CM
s u
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%
o
X X
r-t i-t
s g
5C
%
8
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CO
cm
12
3
%
i
CO
X
I-H
1
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35
-tJ
CM
X X
CM
XX bq XX
N
ICO
00 CO
T* CO
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X X
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ua
CO IrH
X X
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J,
g
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52
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B
fa
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zi
8
j"
N 8
cq
pi
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8
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53
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CM
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XX XX
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XX
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00
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II
8
II
S
*o
53 5*
8
53
OIH
00
r-H |r-l
(MH
M
8 n 8
CO
|i-l
eo
^ IrH O
*
8 8
8
"e
IrH
*o
6
l r"'
CO IrH
P-.
II
x F
*
d
"3
e
,-H
II
3 8
p.
5^ s
^v
+
kj)
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5
>^
^J-s
Sk
+ i
+ i
s
+ a
s
+ 4
\
-.
+ ~
*
THE RF ORCE
3ss
61
one,
and
of the first
power
of x, the third
term has
(a+x) multiplied by this ndex less one, and divided by 1x2, and consists of a aised to a power indicated by the index of (a-\-x) less and once we have wo. and of the second power of x
or coefficient the index of
;
he three
t,
first
terms of the
series, it is
easy to continue
as
It
we have seen a few pages above.

is
useful to note that

in
if
the indices of the powers
any one term are added together, the is obtained, namely the index of the power of (a-\-x), whatever the term may be. Mathematicians express this by saying that the expansion is a " homogeneous " expression. Let us try it on (a-\-x) 5 we get
)f
;
a and of x *ame number
aâ^x+^â^x
+
5(5-l)(5-2)
1x2x3
X 5(5-l)(5-2)(5-3) a 1x2x3x4
a
5(5-l)(5-2)(5-3)(5-4)
1x2x3x4x5
X
x-f-...,
5(5-l)(5-2)(5-3)(5-4)(5-5)
1x2x3x4x5x6
or
(
a +x) 5 =a 5 +ja*x+jâ 3 x 2 +
,
* *
l
a 2 x3
5x4x3x2 5x4x3x2x1 + Ix2x3x4 a ^ + lx2x3x4x5 a ^

4
,
+ Ix2x3x4x5x6 a _j x +
6
5x4x3x2x1x0
THE RF ORCE
62

last
The
term written
is
x - = 0, and
is
clearly all the
following terms are zero, since zero

coefficients.
a factor of their
:
We have therefore finally (a+xY=a +5ai x+l0a*x +l0a x z +5axi +x5

5 2 2
which is exactly what we have obtained above by long and tiresome multiplications. In a similar way, in order to expand (a-\-x) 2z we would merely write
(a+x) 2 *=a 2 *+â 22

and so
on.
%
x+^â
is
21
x 2 +...
Is it not easy
Well, there
no other
like, for
difficulty
lurking behind
it
You can now expand

(3
anything you
instance
+ ^)7 = 37 + 73 6d+
7x635^
+ g6g 34e ,
^6x5x4
1x2x3x4
= 2187+51030+5103
(You notice
rapidly.)
+28350 3
+ 9450
that,
if
+...
etc
is
very small, the terms decrease
Or again
this
G+')"-'^)'x*4i(D'** 5x4x3/l\ + Ix2x3 g) x23 +2
THE RF ORCE
I
Is it
now
quite clear
?
63
if
Very
well, let us see
we can
iow find the expansion when the index of the power is 10 more 2, or 3, or any other integer, but a letter, for
nstance n.
ve get
We
follow exactly the
same method, and
n(n-l)(n-2) ^ n _ 3 6J a -*x r...
1x2x3
This equality
is
called the Binomial Theorem.
It
it
is
the statement of the
most general
case,
can derive
all
others
by replacing
a,
and from and n by
we
their
respective values.
When n = 1 we
get
(a+x) 1 =a 1 +,ax-\
1
~ z
a- 1 x 2 =a+x.
When
n=0
we
get
1
(a+x)
and so on
= a +â- x+^â- x + = a = l,
2
2
...
for
any other value
of n, or of a, or of
x ...
abso-
What makes
the Binomial Theorem a thing of such

is
great importance, however,

lutely general, that
is,
the fact that
it is
the equality
)
n (a+x) n = a + ~a n ~ 1 x+ ^~2 a n ~*x 2 +...

holds good whatever
we put
for a, or x, or n.
You
will
perhaps jokingly ask

,
now what
is
the
expansion of (cow -f book) pin
thinking you are going
THE RF ORCE
64

.
to score...
it is
But nothing
is
easier to
expand;
here
(cow+book) pin = cow pin +^cow pin
-1
book
pin(pin-l)
cowPin _ 2boQk2+
and so on as long as you like, for we shall never reach a Of course, the expression is meaningless zero coefficient.
the real meaning of "cow,"
and appears incongruous, because we do not know "book," or "pin." It is really not more incongruous than (a-\-x) n It is
.
merely intended here as a quaint way of bringing
Lome
to
you the
fact that the expansion can always
be written.
Since the Binomial Theorem
x, or n,
it is
is
true for
any value
of a,
true
if
a = \.
This gives
x^
n _3
*
n( n-l)(n-2)
1x2x3
lx2
X+
'~
-L+nx-}-
x+
1x2x3
n+
'">
since all powers of 1 are equal to unity.

It
is
also true
if
we have
x instead of x, then
1
[a
+ (-x)] n = (a-x) n =a n +ja n -
(-x)
THE RF ORCE
I
This
rst
;
is
it is
65
how one must always

then easy to write
:
write the expansion

its
it,
without mistakes, in
nal
form
n
ix)
= a n na n - x
1
1
n(n-l) n -2^ #2 ~
!
1x2
n( i>( " -^ 1x2x3

all
2) '
d a n -8 xA +
It will
be noticed that in
the expansions there
gures in the denominators the product of consecutive

ictors the first
one of which
etc.
;
is
unity, such as
1x2,
X2x3, 1x2x3x4...
called a " factorial," 1
each of these products

read " factorial two,"
....
X2
is
X2x3
is
read "factorial three"
re represented
by the notation
|2
or 2!
and so on. They and |3 or 3!

is
espectively.
For instance, "
factorial five "
1x2x3x4x5,
md
!
is
represented
by
15
or 5!, "factorial
n"
or \n or
is
1x2x3x4... X(n-2)(n-l)n.
rn
The Binomial Theorem can therefore be written
+ ^rl) an-w +
Do you
fact
n(n-l)(n-2)
a ^.^ + ^
n
begin to realize the real significance of the

is
that this
true for
all
if
values of a, or x, or of
It is true, for
think
it is
n has the value 1. Some that the expansion of (a+x)' 1 is less easy; but
instance,
just as easy.
;
Do
not go too quickly, write

it
it
step
final
by step
G.E.
then you can re-write

E
again in
its
THE RF ORCE
'
m
form.

In this case, a remains a,
remains x, but when:
ever
we have n we must put
1.
-i i (a+*)-*=r*+-y--?"*
-1
We have then -lx(-l-l)

1x2
-ixt-i-iM-i-^^
1x2x3
= a~ a~
1
x-\-a~ z x 2 a~ i x z -{-...
2
xx
a2
a+x~a
the
a3
a4
'""'
number
of
terms being indefinitely great.
can write almost at sight the quotient of unity by any binomial expression, or even by any one
of its powers, since
And we
r~
= {a + x)- n
=a~ n
-\
=
1
- n_1
a?H
^" x
^ ^
{n
n- 2
#2 +
...
=a- n -na- {n+1) x+

_ 1
n{ l+ ?
i
^ a^
"'
+ 2) x2 -{-...
a" ~~
w#? n+1 rc
is
w(?a + l)a? + l x 2 x a n+2

2
But even
so that
this
not
all.
The Theorem
1/2,
1/3, 1/7,
is
true
if
i,
...
has any fractional value,
3/11, etc.,
we can
1 '2
also write almost at sight the

:
resull
of extracting the corresponding roots
(a
+ x)
or
s/(a+x),
or
(a-fa?) 1/3
3
or
i/(a+x),
(a+xf' n
y(a+^)
...etc,.,..
THE RF ORCE
I
This
is
done just as easily as before
:
67
+2
^
+2^
H,
*+ 11
2 2
1x2x3
1 1
ai
3
~3
* 3+ -
222
/2
rt
8a 3 2+ 16rt5
/
- etc -'-
Similarly,
IS- 1 )
= +^3-g$3+2/3
etc
for this is the
ame
One can get just as easily l/^(+^) 2 as (a+#) _2/3 that is

,
:
a-^+f-gja
,
2/ ,
2\
_, l *~ .
x-\
3/\ 5-^3
5
3V as~ x
,
a 2
a 2
+...
2a;
5# 2
a
and so on
2/3
3a
one
5/3
9 ^8/3
->
is
almost as easy as another.
THE RF ORCE
m
68

dealing with a less simple binomial expression
is
When
the method
exactly the same
try
'
-?
V(s."
fc ")
3/
5
M-'W (i)-(-^ +
3
1X2
.
...
8
5
1
m" 3 5
'
'
5 m- 8 /5
'5
1x2
2
X _-13/5^
*|
=
and so on. Try also
this
:
3 '5
+ f ^ m + H^^n
2 8/5
13/5
(l-coa9) $ = l e +9xl
e'
(-cosd)
(-cos0)*+...
+^^l'-
^l-flcosfl+^^cos^
1
1X2X3
and
this
:
'
*+-'*<
)
(lH-a)
ta
=l to +/^Xl to ,
,
a+^^
2
.
to - 2
2 +...
I) = l+feg+ h.i'ikx lx2

,
,
+",etc...
THE RF ORCE
You
!
69
con-
notice that the last expansions
we have
dered can be continued indefinitely, just as the decimals

f
7r
or of e can be continued indefinitely, the exact

Also,
alue being never reached.

iccessive
you notice that the
terms contain gradually increasing powers of
ie second
term
of
2 3
in the binomial; for instance, in the

n
,
xpansion
or x,
1
,
(a-\-x)
,
the
successive
terms contain
if
x x x
...
etc
is
It follows that,
the second
first
erm
s
of the
binomial
small compared with the
erm, the successive terms
become smaller and smaller

This
,
we advance along the expansion.
is
evident
ince
s
)f
(a+x) n = \a(l + -)
=a n (l + -)
and since x
smaller than a,
x/a is a fraction, and the powers a/x get smaller and smaller in value as the indices
It
ncrease.
follows that after a certain
number
of
have been calculated we get finally a term small enough to be neglected for our purpose and as all the
;erms
;
;erms that follow are smaller,
we can
generally neglect
:hem
also.
The expansion
is
then said to be convergent.
When, on the other hand, the terms become larger and larger as we proceed, the expansion is said to be divergent. The skilful mathematician tries always to arrange his
expansions so that the terms converge rapidly, that
is,
become negligibly small very soon, so that he needs to

calculate only
two or
three, or four, according to the
degree of accuracy required.
also serve to
The following examples will make this clear, and will show various uses to which the Binomial Theorem can be put.
THE RF ORCE
'
70

1.
Example
Calculate (1'005) 7 to 5 places of decimals.

7
We
get
(i-oo5)^(i+^)
A
5
(
=i^îx^+[^
,
2 \
U000'
35
7x6x5 ^1x2x3
21x25
VlOOO/
^""
'
"
+ 1000 + 1000000 + 1 000000000 + = l + -035+-000525+-000004375 +

We
the
stop
35x125
...
when we
arrive in the expansion at a term
first five,
or better six, decimals of which are zeros.

is
Here, clearly, the fourth term

that, adding these
(l-005) 7 l-035529
the last one to take
so
or 1-03553 to 5 places.
The
result could
be obtained by continued multiif
plication,
a very tedious process, or by logarithms
tables are available.
Example
2.
Calculate 4/1*07 to 5 places of decimals.

1
^7 =
+ I5o)
= 11/5+
5
1
'
100
a
-I
i
5 ^5
-!)
^ 1x2
Of course
1
),
VY UOO/
7
^ i....
it
is
not necessary to write the factors

,
l^~ 2 \ etc. ... but you are advised to write them l^"" as shown until you "get your sea legs," as it will help you to get the general expression well in your mind, and save you from omitting terms.
THE RF ORCE
This then becomes
71
+ 5xl0
2x7 2
2
52
xl04+ 5 3 xl0 6
simplified
2,
6x7 3
21
x7 4
SÎO8
...
" "**"
1
The calculation can be

3rms of the fractions by
o leave only et
by multiplying both
respectively, so as
22
23
powers of 10 in the denominators.
We
then
+
,
7x2 2x7 2 x2 2 6x7 3 x2 3 21x7 4 x2 4

10 3 10 6
10 9
10 12
+ '"
= 1 -4-0014 -0-000392 + 0-000016464

-0-000000806736...
We need
only the four
first
terms
these give
^/l -07
1-01362.
how
to extract square roots
You have been
taught
md
;o
cube roots of numbers, and you found the latter
be a
ormer.
much more complicated operation than the Have you ever wondered how complicated
of,
vould be an extraction
:he
say, a fifth root

is
With
Binomial theorem, the method
the same for
ôots of all orders, and, as
you
see, it is quite
an easy
method.
Example
3.
Calculate ^/2205 to 5 places of decimals.
When
extracting square and cube roots

first
by the ordinary
method, we
sought the highest square or cube con-
tained in the given number.
In this case, too, we pro-
ceed in a similar manner, and find the highest seventh
THE RF ORCE
72

in
power contained
2205, this
is
3 7 =2187, so tha"
2205-2187+18, and
V2205 = ^/(3
+ 18) = (3 + 18)
7
1/7
-[*(i+r-('+r-('+srNow, expanding we get
+
,
7(7~ 1 )(7~ 2 ) /2\ 3
"I
1x2x3
1
,
\3V
...)
+0,,,
(dropping
all
the factors such as IT"
etc.
3
-qTl-U-J^5 7x3 L
as, clearly,
3x2^
72
x3
loi"7 3
13x2 x3 15
;
"I
"J
=3[l + 6-001175-0-00000415...],
the fourth term
is
negligible
so that
^2205-3-00351.
Example 4. Calculate ^/2180 to 5 places of decimals The highest seventh power contained in 2180 is 2 7 = 12 since 3 7 =2187. So that
2180= 2 7 +2052 = 2 7 (1 +2052/128).

Then
o r.
1026
7l7_V/1026\ 2
=2(l+2-290178-^15-734753 + ...).
THE RF ORCE
What
is
73
The next term will be the terms grow inThe series afinitely instead of gradually diminishing. Is the method going to fail us then ? diverging When we expanded (a-\-x) n in a converging series, In e stipulated that x was small compared to a. case, 16 nearly not 2052/128= above a=l, x= le We only t all small, but indeed large compared to 1 btain what we should expect, namely, a divergent
the meaning of this
still.
1
/idently
larger
In
fact,
xpansion.
What
shall
we do then
Note that
2180=2187-7=3 7 -7=3 7
uence
:
f>K '(i4)r= ('4)M.-?4,

s
+ 1x2 Uv
\
1x2x3
3 21
V3V
37
3 13
'")
=-3(1 -0-000457-0-0000006)
-3x0-999543=2-998629.
The diverging expansion obtained above shows that some cases the expansion is not the true mathematical
in
equivalent of the indexed form of the binomial.

shall find that,
We
is
when
this occurs,
if
the expression
THE RF ORCE
74

(l
put in the form
a?)
n
,
then
is
greater than
1.
In
other words, such an expansion
as, say,
(l-#)-2=l + 2#+3a?2 + 4# 3 +...

is
only arithmetically true
if
is
smaller than
This seems to throw a doubt on the generality of the

equality
(
1 -f
x) n -
+ nx + -~
stress has
~ x +
2
generality
upon which
pages.
so
much
been laid in the previous

this
It is
worth while investigating
more
fully.
Take
(
n(nl) 9 n(nl)(n2) \m = * n i_ a .). i_ waH -v_ip_

.
<
ix x3
V +-.
If
has the value 1, say, then
(l-x)- 1 =l-\-x-\-x 2 +x 3 +x* + ....

This
let
is
not numerically true
if
x>l;
for instance,
x=2.
(l-2)- 1 = (-l)- 1
=-^
I
= -1=1+2+4+8+16 +
...,
an equality which obviously will never be satisfied whatever is the number of terms taken. Now, if S is the sum of all the terms up to the on(
of
rank
m in the
expansion of (1 a?) -1 then

,
S=l + x+x2 +x z +... + xm -h

Multiply by x,
xx S=x+x +x3 +... + xm - +xm

2
1
Hence, taking the difference,
xS-S=S(x-l) = x-l
and
x\
1x
THE RF ORCE
1
75
xm
1 x
If
\x
x>l
If
the second term increases indefinitely as
icreases,
that
is,
as we take more terms of the expan-
on.
x<l,
as
increases
negligible
xm
decreases,
is
and the
-jcond term
becomes
when x
is,
very great.
is
hen
ed.
S=n
(1 x)
i=(l ooY1
that
the equality
(l
verin
is
In other words, the
expansion of
a?)
[ways arithmetically correct
when x<l.
The foregoing examples, accessible to the very bean idea of the usefulness of the Binomial êorem. The following example is of a more advanced
inner, give
dnd, although quite simple for readers of Calculus
Made
fmy.
It
can be skipped without inconvenience by others
fho have not yet overcome their terror of the calculus.
Example
5.
Obtain an expression with which one can

of an arc, given its trigonoexpand 6= arc tan x.
alculate easily the length

netric tangent x\ that
If
is,
=arc tan x, then
x= tan 0.
(see Calculus
Hence
-^r=sec 2 # = l + tan 2 #=l+a? 2

p. 168).
Male Easy,
And
therefore
g=l/g= -l^=(l +^)1

2
1
.
Expanding
this
by the binomial theorem we get

X*
(1)
^ = l- X +X*-X +
THE RF ORCE
76
Binomial expressions are not the only ones which can

be expanded in a series of terms similar to the ones we
have obtained by means of the Binomial Theorem. For instance, let us suppose that 6 can be expanded in
such a series
such as
;
the expansion of
will
be an expression
6=A +A x+A x +A x*+A xi +... where A A v A are numerical coefficients,

2
1
(2)
2 ...
some
of
which
may be
zero, the corresponding
terms being then
missing in the series.

If
we
differentiate the
above expansion with respect
to
x we
get
^=A
We
;
+2A i x+3A 3 x*+iA i x3 +

different expressions for ^-,
(1)
(3)
have two
anc
these two expressions are necessarily identical!) (3) equal, so that
l-x2 +x*-x+x8 +... =A +2A x+3A 3 x2 +4:A i x

1
(4
Now, when two such expressions in x are identically equal, and do not contain x either in denominator o
under the sign indicating the extraction of a root,
coefficients
tin
of
the same powers of

therefore,
are identically
equal.
Here we have,
2
A = l, A
=0, 3A 3
=
or
or
A = ^,
3
A A =0, 5A 5 =-{-l
A 5 ==,
etc....
THE RF ORCE
Replacing in
(2)
77
we
get
/>3
/y5
sy>7
/y"
which A is still unknown. But when a?=0, 0=0 obviously, hence 0=^4 +0, ,nd A =0, so that
a
/>
/y>3
/yj5
/y7
vhich
is
the required expression, 6 being, of course, in
radians (see p. 45).
This expansion
:oo slowly to
is
converges then rapidly.
convenient for small arcs, as it For arcs near 45 it converges
be of any use.
#=tan#
is
larger than unity,
For arcs larger than 45, and the expansion is

of decimals the arc the
is 0-3.
divergent, as explained in the last example.
For instance, find to 5 places

tangent corresponding to which
,
5
-
-3*
-3
Here x =0-3.
39
or
-3 - -009 + -000486 - -000031 + -000002 = -29146

We
in degrees, multiply get 1642' very nearly.
radians.
To convert
p. 46.)
by 57-29577.
(See
You can now work through

Exercises IV.
the following exercises

:
Expand
(1) (a)
to 4 terms
(1+2*)';
(6)
(2x+f)
(l-2y)
(c)
ax+Z)
(d)
THE RF ORCE
78
W
(g)
(2) (5)
(2-f)
(1+*)
(/)
;
(a-lJ;
;
1 '3
(*)
(1+*)
.
3 '4
(*)
(1+x) 3
(l+3)- 2
(3)
(6)
(1-a;)- 5
(4) (1-sc*)-
(2+x)~\
^(1+20).
(7)
3
1M1+2*!
ZJ(e+ff-
(8)
1M1-4
0)
lM-2*)
-(10)
(11)^-0*).
(12) l/(l-sin0)*.
Calculate, correct to 5 places of decimals

(13) 4/613.
(14) ^/324. (15) 4/3145.
(16)
^3443.
Expand
to 4 terms
9
.
(17) (l+cosa;)
(18) (l_e*)*
<
19
>
V(^-c-o^)'
<
2 >
1+ ^find 6
).
(21)
Expand #=arc(sin#), and

-j-
when
a?
=0'2.
(Remember that
(22)
(23)
= l/ s/(loo)
Expand (5 3 tan a?)- 1 Expand

(1
to 4 terms.
+ 0) to
)
4 terms.
to 4 terms.
(24)
Expand Ik
THE RF ORCE
PART
CHIEFLY ABOUT
II
"
EPSILON."
CHAPTER
VII.
A FIRST MEETING WITH EPSILON LOGARITHMIC GROWING AND DYING AWAY.

]very schoolboy knows what
iterest
;
is
meant by simple
he knows that
it is
if
100 produces 3 interest in
ne year,
said to be invested at "three per cent.,"
written, in
mathematical symbols, 3%. He knows also hat every 100 of a sum of money so invested produces
for every year during
is
!3
which
it is
it is
invested, so that
if
\P
>f
the
sum
invested or principal, and
the
number
have
years during which
invested, the sum, after
years, of the yearly interests (supposing they
)een put regularly in a
drawer or a stocking just as they
vere received) will be

:he rate of interest is
^-rX^x3.
More
generally,
if
r for 100 per year, the total
nterest in
years
is
j-^xwxr.
THE RF ORCE
80
The yearly growing of the principal can be represented by the straight line AB (see Fig. 2), OA being the original principal and the principal plus the interests it has produced. BC is then the total interest produced ir n years, and is made up of n equal increments, eacl of which is \\n of the total increment. This is what may be called " arithmetical growing."
XB
Obviously there will be a certain number of year?

for
which the total increment
will
be equal to
th<
Fig. 2.
original principal.
Suppose
rj
is
this
number
of years
each yearly interest will be

is P/r).
1/rj
of the total interest, tha
Then, after
*7=100/r.
?/
years,
is
the interests will amount
Pr)r/100, and this
equal to P, so that 7/r/100=l an
At 4%,
for instance, it will take 100/4
= 25
years
double any principal.
To double
it
in 24 years wou]
require a rate of interest
r= 100/24 = 4 J
They know
per cent.
Most schoolboys are also acquainted with the meanir

of
"compound
interest."
it
means tha
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
i
81
the end of definite equal periods of time, say at the
id of
each year, the interest

in a drawer,
is
itself,
instead of being
ut
3
away
invested at the same rate

it,
the principal which produced

principal
so that
it
is
as
if
was growing by continually increasing icrements but otherwise giving no interest until at le end the increased principal is withdrawn from the lvestment. The total amount of increment is the
lis
Dmpound
west
d
it
interest.
Let us see what a principal

double
will
become
if
we
during the time just found to be necessary

it
at simple interest, that
is,
during
?/
= 100/r
xT
r
ears.
At the end
of the first year, the interest is J
\
)>
100
nd the principal has become

eing
P =P + -=Pn
Pr
+ y~~
the original principal plus the interest.
This
new
>rincipal
r
=P[l-\- =-^J
\
is
re-invested during the second

it
ear,
the interest derived from

/
being of course
^
P r
x
J-UU
>r
P(
+ Tnrj )taa>
so
â^ a^ ê enc
^ ^ ne secon d year
we
principal
and the
interest together
amount
to
;hat
is,
to
p
(
G.E,
+m)(
1+
m)
+,4)
'
THE RF ORCE
82

end of the third year, the
interest,
Similarly, at the
principal,
together with the
compound
amount
to
P*=P (+*j
Using the Principle of Mathematical Induction
p. 55)
(see
n years the principal, swelled by the compound interest, has become

see that at the
of
we
end
p- =p 1+ mf
(
After being invested for
r\
years at r per cent,
at
compound
interest, the principal
P becomes
P,=P(l+rA00)'.
Now,
in this particular case
1
100~//'
If,
"
p(i+~y. y
*
i
nt
while
we keep the
of
r\
period of investment to
tin
same value
years,
we shorten the time betweei
the successive additions to the principal of the interest

this principal is producing, these additions will occu
more frequently, but the increments

less in
will, naturally,
amount.
If the interest is
added to the principal at the end o

firs
every half year, for instance, the interest added the
time
will
only be r/2 instead of r, for every 10'
invested,
and
this will
be done
2rj
times, so that th
expression for the final value of the principal become
P^P(l-)-r/200)^=P(l+l/27;) 2 ",
sinec r/200=l/2*.
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
If
83
we add
the interest to the principal every month,
hen the
first interest will
be
rj
=-~,
and there
will
be
12//
Editions to the principal in
years, so that
12 '>.
?)
r?
=P(l+r/1200) '>=P(l+l/12;
if
12
Similarly,
the operation
is
done every week, we get
>r
every day,
every hour,
P,==P(l+l/52^, P=P(1 +1/365//) 365 ",

8
'
>r
>r
every
P ,=P(l+l/8,760^) 760 minute, P =P(l+l/525,600^) 525 600

r
",
'
T?
",
or
every second,
P^=P (1+ 1/31, 536,000>/)
31 536 000l>.
'
'
We
see that both the
denominator and the index

of times the interests are
r\
remain identically the same, and that both increase

3ontinually as the
number
years increase added to the principal during the definitely. If this is done n times a year,
in-
P
and
if
=P(l+l/nri) n \
total
nXrj=N = the
number
r\
of additions of the
interest to the principal during the
years,
P,=P(1+1/AT.
By
the same Principle of Mathematical Induction,
we
can say that when this number of additions of interest

to principal in the
r\
years
is
anything
sented
by anything we
rj
choose, whether
we N,
like,
repre-
x,
or cat,
the principal after
years will be
or P(l+l/a>),
,
P,=P(l+l/tf>*
or
P(l+l/a)
or
P(l + l/cat) cat
!....
THE RF ORCE
84
If

we imagine the
interest being
added continualhj
added
at
to the principal, as the water of a gradually swelling

rivulet adds itself to a lake, instead of being
short intervals, as
of increasing
if
the water was thrown one bucketful

of
is
magnitude at a time, then the number

is
times the addition

greater
ticians
infinite
performed during the
r\
years
Mathemaexpress this fact by saying that the number is and represent it by the symbol oo We still can
than anything one can conceive.
.
write the expression for
v,
it
is
P(l+l/oo), but
,
it
!
has for us no more meaning than P(l+l/cat) cafc above
Now, we get
to us
;
if
we expand (1 -f-l/oo
)"
by the binomial theorem,
easily
in fact, the binomial
ligible results
an expansion, but it will be meaningless theorem fails to give intelwhen, in (a-\-x) n x is infinite. Yet we can
,
'
reasonably expect that, since (l+l/31,536,000;?) 31
536 00(h
'
'
gave some sort of
result,
(l+l/oo)
00
should also give
some
sort of intelligible result.
What
can we do
Remember what we did when we were confronted with the symbol a we sought its value by some other Let us try to do method than the one which gave a
;
.
the same in this case.
We got (1 -f-l/ao )* from (1 -\-l/N) M

;
by causing
N to grow indefinitely
but
N(N-l)(N-2)
"*"
1x2x3
=, we must
N*"*"'
of course get
and
sions
if
we cause
to
grow
indefinitely in the expres-
on both
sides of the sign
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
;he
85
this,
same
result.
)"
;
comes (l+l/oo
(1+1]N)N bethen the right-hand expression must

But
if
we do
)".
nVe us the value
of
(l+l/oo
Now, the expansion
may
be written
l+l+TTTo-4 1x2
'
1x2x3
infinite,
"'
'
and
if
grows
the quotient of unity divided
very small,
etc.,
when 2V=cc since by a very large number is 1/x =0, we get l/iV=0, l/iV 2 =0, 1/A73 =0,
till
it
is
so that
(1+1/oof =1+1+1+1+1 +...=2-71828182846...,

so that
PêxP. We
when,
at
meet unexpectedly
interest,
epsilon, the
base of Napierian logarithms.
Then,
simple
merely doubles
itself,
principal " true " comat continuous or
the
pound
interest, this principal
becomes
times greater.
We
see that just as the ratio of the length of

its
any
cir-
cumference to
of the true
radius
is it
=3 -141592
...
so the ratio
compound
increased principal to the original

of
principal, during
an interval
time which would double
this original principal at simple interest, is
e=2 71828 ...

-
The increase of the principal can also be represented by a graph. Here, the first step or increment is 1/N
of the original value, so that
each ordinate
is
1+1/iV or
(N-\-l)/N of the ordinate before, and as the ordinates
grow
steadily, each increment
is
greater than the one
before,
so
that the growth of
the principal can be
THE RF ORCE
86
represented by the line

original principal,
cipal, so that
AB
(see Fig. 3),
OA
being the
andXB
the
compound
increased prinfollows
C2?=l-7183x0^4,if the growing

interest law.
a true
compound
The
is
characteristic feature of this
mode
is
of
growing
that the increment at any time
proportional to
the actual magnitude, at that time, of the growing
Fig.
3.
thing
A/r],
itself.
If this
magnitude
is
A, the increment
is
new magnitude being A+A/rj or A(\-\-\jt]). Inversely, the " dying away " of a thing may follow
the
is
a similar law, the decrement being proportional to

the actual magnitude of the thing which
in this case, the
diminishing
new magnitude
body
is
A A\r\ or A (ll/?i).
;
Many
time
physical processes follow a similar law

in
the loss
of
of temperature of a hot
is
any small interval

cooling
proportional to
its
excess of temperature above

it is
;
that of the
medium
in
which
the loss of
of
electrification of a
charged body in a small interval
time
left
is
proportional to the quantity of electrification

it
;
on
the loss of light of a
beam
passing through
THE RF ORCE
I
o on.
EPSILON
medium
is
87
proportional
thin portion of an absorbing
o the intensity of the
beam
entering that portion, and
But whatever made

Ty to find out.
If
epsilon
come
into
it ?
Let us
yx
is
the final value of the principal a invested at

interest r/100 for
2/ x
;ompound
years, then
after
=a(l+r/100) x
years.
.
After
x 1
years
yx _ 1 =a(l+r/100) x_1
The ratio of the two values is (l+r/100), and it is uhe same whichever are the two consecutive values
considered.
Let the value of this ratio be p. Then yx =ap x Let also log e p=C. Then p=e c (see p. 32), and
.
yx=a{e c
This
is
x
)
,
or
y x =ae
Cx
.
the exponential form of the
compound
interest
law
it is
exactly equivalent to the formula given above,

a!
.
t=a(l+r/100)
3 per cent,
This can be easily verified
for instance,
100 at
compound
interest
4
becomes
in 4 years
100(l-03) =112-5509
by the
first
formula
using the other formula
we
get,
since log, 1-03 is 0-0295587,

-
?/4
=100x2-71828
0295687><4
.
Using
common
logarithms for the calculation
we
get
lo gio2/4
=2 +0-1 18235 x 043429 =2-0513483,

y 4 =l 12-5508.
hence
THE RF ORCE
88
Since

it
can be so expressed in terms of the base
of
Napierian logarithms, the compound interest mode growing is called " logarithmic " growing.
If
of
p<l,
is
Iog e /?
= C
(see p. 40)
and
y=ae~ Cx
e~ Cx
If
let
is
This
a very important exponential, representing the the dying-
" logarithmic " dying-away process.
away
factor
is
usually a time
t.
the constant
be also taken to represent a time,

.
C=l/T,
then
y=ae~ t/T T is then called the time constant, 1 if t=T, y=ae~ =aje, that is, in the time T, y is
to 1/e or to 0-3678 of
its original
because
reduced
value.
The growth
after it
is
of intensity of a continuous electric current

is
suddenly switched on
expressed by such a
is
dying-away expression.
but at
first it differs
Its theoretical value

it
1 = ^,
is
from
by an amount which
given by
t'
rapidly dying away, hence
it is
I=EIR(\-e-
and T, the time constant, depends on the resistance R and on the self induction L of the circuit T =L/R, so that
;
I=E/R(l-growth and decay
Rt i L
).
The following worked-out examples on logarithmic will help you to work out the exercises which you will find at the end of the chapter. Example 1. At 3.15 p.m. the temperature of a piece of iron cooling in a room the temperature of which is 20 Cent, is found to be 330 Cent. At 3.25 p.m. it is 86 Cent. Find the time constant, and also at what time the temperature was 100 Cent.
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
If
t
89
is
the excess of the temperature of the iron

t,
bove that of the room at the time

scess,
and
the
initial
then (see
p. 86)
Here
Solving for
66=2>l0e- l l T
we
get
e;
log
66=log 310-(10/T) log
ence 0-6719=4-343/T and

8 sees.
T=6-46
minutes, or 6 mins.
The equation
^VTien
'0
is
therefore, numerically, 6 t
=0
e~ t/8 46
'
the temperature was 100 Cent., the excess was

l
C, hence 80 =U0e~ 646 This time we solve for t log 80=log 310 (/646) log e, hence 3 the same way -4343J/646 =0-5883 and =8-76 minutes, or 8 m 46 econds. The temperature was 100 at
'Z
.
:
3 h 15 m
+8 m
is
46 s =3 h 23 ra 46 s
Example
he law
2.
Light
,
absorbed by fog according to

t
Ii=I Q e- Kl where I
It
is
is
the intensity of the

I
ight after passing

i
through a thickness
of fog,
K being
constant.
light is
found that the intensity of a source

it is
>f
reduced by one half when
seen through
will the source be just an eye which is able to perceive a light the utensity of which is one thousandth of the intensity of
metres of fog.
At what distance
isible to
he source
Since, after passing

netres, the light
through 5 metres or 500 centi-
has lost half of its intensity, we have 0-5J =Z 2-7183-*x 500

,
THE RF ORCE
90
or 0-5=2-7183- 500 *andlog0-5
= -500Zx
log 2-7183.
1-6990= -500 X0-4343Z or 0-301 =217-157L
#=0-00139.
When
sity,
light is
reduced to one thousandth of
its inten-
7,=0-001/
=/
2-7183-- 0<)13 ^
and
0-001 =2-7183- 000139 ^

log 0-001
= -0-00139/ x 0-4343.
3-0000= -0-4343 x 0-00139/.

3=0-0006/ and /=5000 centimetres.
The
light will just
be visible at a distance of 50 metres

is
approximately.
Example
according
3.
Light
the
absorbed by a certain medium
to
law
Ii=H Q e~ Kl
t
where I
is
the
initial intensity of
the beam, I
/,
is
the intensity aftei
passing through a thickness

If
h and
is
are constants.
the intensity of a
beam
of light
reduced by 12%
after 20 cms.,
after passing through 10 cms.,
and by 18%
find the intensity after 1 metre.
We
must
first find
the numerical values of the twc
constants.
We have ^ = 0-88J = #V- 10 *.

/,
= 0-82/ = /
c-^K
~ 20K
e- 20 *.
0-88 0-82
log 0-88 -log 0-82
= lOiHog 2*718,
'-SB""""Then
0-88 =&<r
-
0707
.
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
Solving for k
91
we
get
]og0-88
9752
= log-0-0707xlog2-718,
= log k,
= 0-9445.
is
So that the numerical equation

/<
After 1 metre I
= 0-9445 Jo<r = 0-9445Z e-- 707

.
0,007(m .
^ = 0-9445e- 0707
log
^ = log 0-9445 - 0-707 xlog 2*718 = 1-6681.
^ = 04657
The
intensity
is
Example 4. In a room at 20 C, a lump of metal from 200 C. to 100 C. in 10 minutes. What should be the temperature of the room in order that the same lump of metal should cool twice as quickly through the same range of temperature ?
cools
Here, as before,
log 80 = log
I
We
_
180-^ log 2-718
1-9031
or Ji = 0-466Z
reduced by 53-4 per cent.
= 2-2553-^?
-
T= o-JSr 12 3
THE RF ORCE
92

of the cooling of this particular
The law
metal
If
is
lump
o:
therefore
0=0
p-t/n-s
x is
the
unknown temperature
of the
room, thei
since Q t
and
are the differences of temperature of th<
lump
of metal
above that of the room,
100-^ = (200-^)e-^ 12 3
-
with
t=5
log
minutes.
(100-^) = log (200-0,)-^ xO-4343
"W^TM^
:
2-1715
200-0*
A1 K 1765
'
'
hence
y^^=1-5
6t
very nearly.
It follows that
= - 100 C.
luni]
to cool
As a check, calculate the time required for the when placed in an enclosure at 100 C. Here the equation becomes 200 = 300e~ //12 3
"
2-301
= 2477-^^
or
0-352*= 0-176,
and t=5 minutes.
You can now

Exercises V.
1.
try the following exercises

of a piece of iron cooling in ai
The temperature
at 0 C. falls from 400 C. to 200 G. in 4 minutes.
Ho>
long will the piece of iron take to further cool from 200 (
to 100 C.
and 10
C. respectively
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON
2.
93
How
is
long will
it
take for a beaker of boiling water
cool
hich
3.
down
to 20 C. in a
if it
room the temperature

.?
of
16 C.,
cools to 80 C. in 4 minutes
of electricity
on a body is found be 10 units one hour after charging it, and 2 units minutes later. Find the initial quantity of electricity ^, where Q is the leakage follows the law ie quantity of electricity on the body t minutes after te time at which the quantity had the initial value Q
The quantity
Q^ê
jut
jing
4.
>
a constant.
In
how
long will the charge on a body be reduced

if it
half its original value
diminishes
by one hundredth
the
5.
first
minute
Find the resistance
R
6
through which a condenser

charged to an
the potential
if
capacity
K=3 x 10~
,
units,
if
initial
otential
alf its
is
discharging
t/KB
,
falls
to
value in half a minute, and
the
fall of
potential
)Uows the law

6.
V =V
t
e~
being in seconds.
Compare the opacity beam of light is reduced

i
b
of
in
two mediums if in one intensity by 50 per cent.

it,
passing through 2 metres of

is
it,
while in the other
reduced by 10 per cent, in passing through 40 cms.

the law of absorption of the light being
=I
e~
Kl
.
7.
i
The pressure
is
of the
atmosphere at an altitude
e~
kh
,
kilometres
given by
p=p
being the normal
>ressure
at sea level, namely, 76 centimetres,
and h
>eing a constant.
Find the average
fall of
pressure per
if,
LOG metres
up to a height
of 2 kilometres,
at 1 kilo-
netre, the pressure is 67 centimetres.
THE RF ORCE
94
8.

The
initial
strength
of
a telephonic currei
in a line of length I kilometres falls at the

line to
end
of
ft
tl
a value
If
i given by
x
it
=i
~ pl , where
is
constant.
tion of
/3= 0-0125, find the attenuation or dimini intensity at the end of a similar line 10 kilometr
in length.
The initial strength of a telephonic current reduced by 20 per cent, at the end of a line the length
9.
of
which
is
32 kilometres.
Find the length

is
of a simili
hal
1
line for
10.
which the current strength
reduced by one
beaker of boiling water cools to 50 C. in

is
minutes in a room the temperature of which
5<
At what surrounding temperature would the coolii through the same range take place twice as slowly 1
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
VIII.
A LITTLE MORE ABOUT NAPIERIAN

LOGARITHMS.
*N
a previous chapter
we have
seen that
1 ) (w
(l+ar=l+ wa
rue
+%^^+ w(w -
-2)
a+....
also
Now, since this is true for all values of a, it is if a has the value \jn, in which case we have
n(n-l)(n IV\lll \IV -2) fl\* I 1 \

J-
i->
3!
md we have
initely great,
seen that
when n grows
until it
is,
is
greater
in-
han any conceivable quantity, that

then
(l +-)"= 2-71828... =e.
\
becomes
n/
Now
{('+s)T-('+i)"-'+-
,^ v ,<^
*/
/*
3 V nx{nx\)(nx 2) /1\
THE RF ORCE
96
or
If
e*
+ = l+x+ *(H*)^*4)(HD +... 2!

x
'-jf
(1
we suppose again n
all
to
1
become
2
. . .
infinitely great
then
the terms such as -,
we
get
e?
n n
become
zero.
an<
= 1 +tf+J+fr+
is, if
But
if
l/n<l, that
n>l, we have
seen that th
equality
1+ (
l\ nx
n>
)
x(x =1+a;+ -t-9

X X
(
-n)( ~l)
3!
is
arithmetically true, that
to
x and
calculate the value of the left
hand members respectively, We have therefore e x =N, or ^=logeA7 We fall naturally upon the system of Napierfc logarithms, and for this reason they are also call Natural logarithms. Now, we could give x any val we like, and calculate the number AT corresponding This, however, would be working the wrong w. it. what we want is to find the logarithm of ai about
.
give any vah and of the righ we get the same number I
is,
if
we
given number, not the reverse.
Now, the
of
equality (2) remains true for true

if
all
the vah
el
-
it is
instead of
x we
put anything
THE RF ORCE
I
have
NAPIERIAN LOGARITHMS
ex
97
instance,
the x,
of course, being different

z.2^2
and
,,3^3
Why
e
did
we do that
Because we want to bring

find a value for
Napierian logarithm of any number directly into the
pression,
ite
and then try to

e
c
it
if
we
now
=a
then c=\og e a, and we have
x 2 {\og
a) 2
x 3 (\og
3!
it is
+
This
lich
is
2!
_i~
3 a)~~ t ""
numerically true, since
derived from
(1),
it
we know
to be a numerical equality, since in
is
smaller than unity.

as a convergent series, in order to
To express now log, a

j
able to calculate
it
with any approximation we

little
like,
ill
require the use of a
dodge
since c can be any-
ing
,n
we
like,
is
necessarily also anything

1
we
like.
We
(3)
therefore put
+y
i
instead of a.
./
We
get then
(l+y)* = l+a?log (l+y)+| -{log.(l+y)}+

i
it
we have
.
also
.
by the binomial theorem

oc(x-l)
2i
\x i 4-y) ==1 +vy+

i
-14-^1 -i-t-o?y-h-yj
x *y*
x(xl)(x2) 3p V+V + 2x *".V If +"81
y^
3jg
u*
si
3!
G.E.
THE RF ORCE
98

can, as
We
law
we have done
for the binomial theorer

tl
:
write the coefficient of
so as to put in evidence
of formation of the successive terms, as follows
(-l)x(-2)x(-3)
1x2x3x4
we
get finally
2 3
r+-;+(
(l+y)"=l +*(2/-| +| -^+-) +

Now, the
must
also
left
hand expressions
both
in (3)
right
cally the same, therefore
and (4) are iden hand expression
be identically equal, and

2
l+^log (l+^) + ...=

e
+ ^^-| +^-^+. ..) +

(see p.
76),
..
As we have seen before

identically equal, so that
in
such
of
equality, the coefficients of the
same power
at last
<
we have
1
hg<(l+y) = y - l+?l- +
This sequence of terms
series."
is
called the
" logarithr
success:
j
We
arrived at this
by a rather long
of steps,
but each step was quite easy, and so we
to our goal without
much
effort.
if
In this particular case, even

convergent, for
log e (l
y=l,
the series
is s
+ l) = log 2 = l-i+i-i + ." = 1 - 0-50000 4- 0-33333 - 0-25000 +

e
THE RF ORCE
te ie
i
99
be able
diminishing gradually. terms te

calculate log e 2 as
We
it,
shall
we have
!
calculated the value of
itself,
>
but with what labour
Try
remembering that
get four places of decimals

till
correct
you get a term
less
than 0-00001.
it
you should go The terms

mathematical
get near the
iminish very slowly, or, to put

>rm, the series
in a
converges slowly, and
we
xlue
we
require
by
zig-zagging, so to speak, each term,
hether added or subtracted, carrying us always beyond

ie
mark.
It
is
easy to see that to get
down
to the
?rm 0-00001 or 1/100000,

?rms
>g e
!
we
shall
have to take 100,000
Nevertheless,
If
it
could be done
0-6931.
we
give
now
to
we should find y the value J, we get

;
og (l
+ |)=log
~~2
|=log 3-log
e
2
i_
_i_i
2
X 2+ X 3 2 3 2
ii
r_i
4
24
+ '"
We
get after
=0-50000-0-12500+0-04167 -0-01562+....
This converges
leven terms
Dg e 3-0-6931^
much more
rapidly.
+0-5493-0-1438
and
log.3l-0986.
'
Likewise,
making
e
y=\
we
get
og,(l+|)=log |=log.4-log 3=log 4-l-0986

e
m<l
log, 4
1-3863,
again converging
still
he
series
more rapidly than
THE RF ORCE
100
for log e 3,

and
so on
;
y=\
will give log e 5,
y=\
wil
give log e 6, etc., and as the denominator in the value o
gets larger,
we want fewer terms

degree
of
to get the logarithn
with
given
approximation.
However
mathematicians want to get the values they need mor

quickly,
easily obtained
follow.
by the calculation of fewer terms. This by a little skilful manipulation easy

q
We
-L+ jr -'-+... have found \og e (l+y)=y- ?

y
is
tru
seei
as long as
It will
still
not greater than unity, as we have

if
be also true
If
y
is
is
negative, provided that w

(I
have y<\.
negative, the expression

2
above becomes
log.(l-y)
Subtracting
(6)
= -j,-|
(5)
-^-f
2
3
((
from
we have
a
loge (l+^)-log e (l-^)
1 = lo ge g=^-| +| -^+.
\
"7
<
*i3-(*Wr*-~)
We
those, too,
have got rid of half the terms, and precise which were giving our approach to the fir
value the zigzagging feature which

slow.
made
all
progress
This
new
expression
is
true again for

it is
values of
(5)
provided that
y<l,
since
derived from
and
THE RF ORCE
i
Suppose p = \/(2n + l) with
101
n>l,
then
l+y = l + l/(2n+l) = (2n+2)l(2n+l),

l-y=l-l/(2n+l)=2/(2n+l),
ce
id
(l+y)/(l~y)=(2w+2)/2%=(-fl)M
ge
'
1T~
12^+1 + 3(2^+l) 3+ 5(2w+l) 5+, '7"

?/
replacing in (7)
by
1/(2/1+1).
If
we now make
w=l we
have
-= e
1.3^3x27^5x243^ "7
-2(0-33333+001234+0-00082+0-00007) -0-6931,
ving log e 2 correct to 4 places of decimals with four
rms only.
If
we make n = 2 we have
likewise
log e f=log e 3-log e 2

id so on.
-0-4055 and log e 3 -1-0986,

calculate
You can
garithms.
ex
therefore
a table of Napierian
all
There
!
is
nothing at
mysterious about
em, as you see
Now,
if
And
But
*ice
;nce
id
if
=N, x=\og N. l0v=N, y = \og 10 N. e*=l&f=2T or Z/7x=e x'y=l0,

e
i
x/t/=\og e
T
10 = 2-3025851
...
let
us say, 2-3026,
T
,
#=2-3026xi/, or
log 10 i\
log eiV
= 2-3026 xlog 10A

.-..
=log e AT/2-3026 = 0-434294
x log
A^,
y,
0-4343 log e AT.
THE RF ORCE
102

we can
readily get the
its
It follows that
common
...
loga
rithm of a number, knowing
Napierian logarithm
is
and vice versa. The number 04342945 modulus of common logarithms.
called th
We
can,
however,
:
calculate
common
logarithm
directly as follows
We
ge
found that
U+l t 3(2w+l) 3+ 5(2w+l)
5 t
" "
7'
What
error
terms except the

Z
do we commit when we neglect first one ? Evidently
all tlj
U(2rc+l) 3 ^5(2rc+l) 5 ^"/

than
1
I
Now,
2 (
this is obviously smaller

1
1
l
I
V3(2w+l) 2 ^3(2rc+l) 3 ^3(2^ + l) 4 ^3(2rc + l) 5
^'"
1
since this last expression contains
more terms, and

that
in
is,
terms containing the same powers of 2n-j-l have

smaller
larger
multiplier
in
the
denominator,
than
the
corresponding
terms
the
fi
expression.
Hence, we have
err0r<
3(2n + l) 2 l~ 2^ + l "(2>i+l) 2
in the bracket
is
11
it
;
(2^+l)
3_h "
The expression
is
such that each
te
equal to that one immediately before

factor, here
multip]
by a constant
l/2w+l
we have
seen
THE RF ORCE
ich a sequence, or series,
cession.
E
103
is
called a geometrical pro-
It is very easy to get the value of the
sum
as
any number
of terms,
even
if
this
number
is infinitely
reat,
without calculating the terms themselves,

:
)llows
Call
Sp
the
sum
of
terms.
Sp = 1 +
2^+I + (2+l)* +'"

power
'
We
le
see that the index of the
of 2n-\- 1
is
always
unity,
;
}ual to the rank of the term, diminished
by
index in the 5th term, for instance, being 4
it
)llows that the
term
of
rank p
*
is -rx
(2n+l) p
ttttt. ~1
We
have then
[ultiply
both sides by
we get
* X 2^+T = 2^PT +
Subtracting
(6)
(2m
+ 1) 2+ + P^+1) p
'
,,
(?>)
'
from
(a)
we
get
Bp-Sp x 2^pi=^(l -g^pi) = i

d
-(^tt?'
that
1
sP =L^-<22?-.
1
(o)
2w+l
2rc+l
THE RF ORCE
104

if
Now
p becomes
greater
and
greater,
^~
pr
becomes smaller and smaller, and when p become (2/i+l) p becomes infinitely great infinitely great
becomes
zero,
and the second term
of (c)
di.s
appears, leaving us with
Sp =
2n+
2n
2rc+l
Hence,
or
error
error
It follows that,
<^-pTy X-^r
2
'2
2rc
+l
< l/3w(2w +
if
l).
we want
to calculate a table
100,000,
it is
common
logarithms from
1 to, say,
enouj
to calculate
them from 10,000
to 100,000, for, as
we ha
as t
seen, the decimal parts, or mantissae, of the logarithi

of,
say, 3, 71, 508, 8612 are exactly the
same
mantissae of the logarithms of 30,000, 71,000, 50,8( 86,120 respectively. We can begin with n ==10,000,
the error will be then smaller than 1/(30000x2000 as we have just seen, that is, smaller than 0-0000000'
and
it
gets smaller as
first
taking only the
n increases. It follows th term of (8), we shall certai)
obtain seven places of decimals correctly.

then, to that degree of accuracy,
l0
We
hi
w+1
w+1
^^r-2rc+r
2x0434294..
THE RF ORCE
'
l)-log 10 rc= 10 log 10 = 1A1 + ,x 2oooT~ since log 10 w = 4, log 10 10001 4 + 0-0000434 4-0000434. Now let w= 10001. 10002 _ 0-868588... gl 10001 ~ 20002
If
4
,
105
,
0-868588...
?a
(rc
'
log 10 10002-
4-0000434+0-0000434- 4-0000868,
between two successive
it
and so
on, only the difference
logarithms will not always be 0-0000434,

diminishes as
gradually
n increases. You know now everything about how to calculate logarithmic tables.
work, but there
calculations
is
logarithms, even
It
is
it.
monotonous
nothing
etc.
difficult in
divisions,
are
The actual performed by calcu-
lating machines.
As an
exercise,
show that
OOOI
'
o1
JL
l-OI
-0****3
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
EPSILON'S
:
IX.
HOME THE LOGARITHMIC
SPIRAL.
The
its
position of a point
(Fig. 4)
may
be denned by
distance
OP
from a given fixed point
(called the
line
Pole), together with the angle
AOP
which the
01
makes with a given
fixed line, such as
OA.
The
anglt
AOP
length
vector,
is
usually represented b}
;
the Greek letter theta,
th(
OP
is
called the radiiu
and is usually representee by the letter r. The positior

the
point
of
is
then
re
presented by the
notation i>
wit!
meaning
a*
length of length
r,
making an angle 6
is
the fixed direction
OA, which horizontal and extending from

Fig. 5 the point
agreed to be alwayf
to the right.
In
th<
is
given in position by 4^, the lengtl
Oa
representing one unit of length.
To avoid ambiguity, other conventions are necessary The angles are positive if reckoned from OA in tht
direction of the arrow
direction.
;
they are negative in the oppositt

if
For instance,
the angle
106
AOS is
45,
then
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
vill
HOME
OS may be
107
be given in position by 2 -45 or by 2 +315 o, since the
lirection of the radius vector
reached either
3y rotating a line initially

coincident
with
OA, and
pivoted at 0, either through
an angle of 315 in the positive direction or
\+ direction
through an
Also,
for
is
angle of 45 in the negative
direction.
a given angle,
when r
positive, its length is
taken
of
is
Fig.
5.
from
the
along the
while
length
arm
if
angle,
its
negative
in
is
taken
the opposite direction,
on the arm
of
the angle
of
produced backwards
For instance, the position

given by 4
80
;
is
it is
also
represented by 4_260o.
Such a way
of repre-
senting the position of a
point is very useful in the
study of certain curves,

as
it
enables the curve
to be represented
by a
in-
very simple equation

one.
Fig.
6.
stead of a complicated
For
instance,
circumference of circle of
centre
and radius a
is
represented
is
by the equation
r=a
simply, since the length r
always the same,
THE RF ORCE
108

a,
namely
whatever
does
may
be the angle
6,
which angle
all.
therefore
not
enter into the
equation at
The same circle, in rectangular or x, y co-ordinates, would be represented by x2 +y 2 =r 2 since this relation is satisfied for any point P of the circumference, as
,
may be
seen in the triangle
OPN,
Fig. 6.
Similarly,
suppose that we are dealing with a

such that at any instant,
certain
curve
being a point on the curve,
OP
is
equal in length to the cosine of the angle

4).
AOP
(Fig.
The curve
will
clearly
be represented by
r =cos
9.
You
call
are now acquainted with what mathematicians "Polar Co-ordinates, " a very imposing name for
(See p. 242, Appendix.)
quite a simple thing.
Among
perties,
all
the curves one can imagine, there are some
belonging to a class which has very interesting pro-
and which are
called spirals.
These curves
start
from the pole and describe an endless number

widening circumvolutions.
properties.
of evei
Various spirals have different
We
O
are concerned here with a spiral whicr

little
can be drawn by an interesting
apparatus whicr
we
shall first describe.
cylinder
(see Fig. 7)
has a compass point and
rectangular slot in
which a rod
is
BC
can
slide
smoothly
fitted witl
At the end
of the rod
a circular frame
a ring E, which can be turned round so as to allov

of the spindle
in
aa
of a small sharp
wheel
being se
any
direction.
small handle
G allows
the apparatu:
first fingers
to be held
It will
between the thumb and the two
be found that, since the wheel
cannot mov<
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
ddeways owing to
its
HOME
109
sharp edge, the hand can only
nove in one
olane of
<f>
direction, namely, in the direction of the
As the wheel revolves, if the makes with the direction AO be a right ingle it angle, it would have no tendency to alter its distance from O. If the angle <p be less than a right angle, howthe wheel F.
ever, the
wheel
will
tend to get further from
as
fig. 7.
it
revolves,
It
and
is
it will
do
so,
the rod
CB
sliding in the
slot 0.
easily seen that, since, for
any particular
setting of the ring E, the plane of the wheel always
the wheel on the paper will always
makes the same angle with the rod BC, the trace of make the same angle with the line joining any point P on this trace with the pole 0. In other words, the curve traced by the wheel, a curve which is evidently a spiral, will make a constant angle with the radius vector. For this
reason the curve
is
called
an equiangular
spiral.
Consider an arc
AR
of equiangular spiral traced
by
the wheel set in such a
way
that the constant angle
THE RF ORCE
110
between the curve and the radius vector at any point Let the arc begin at A, at a distance is 45 (see Fig. 8).
of 1 inch
unity, that
from the pole 0, and let the angle AOR be is, one radian. Suppose this angle AOR U
be divided into a large number, n, of equal angles,
AOB
we
car
BOC,
Since
etc.
Then each
of these small angles
is
1/n radian
is large,
the angles are very small, and
therefore consider the smal'

arcs
AB, BC, CD,
etc., af
short straight lines.
Dro]
A a,
to
Bb, Cc perpendicularly
OB, OC, OD respectively The angles aBA, bCB

...
cDC
are
angles of
45
hence
the
small
triangle;
...
AaB,
BbC,
CcD
ar
isosceles
triangles,
an(
Aa=aB, Bb=bC, Cc=cD

etc.
Fig.
8.
The figure does not sho\

from the fact that,
,
the equality of the sides At
and aB,
Bb and
etc.
...
bC,
etc.
this arises
order to limit the size of the figure, the angles,
OBA OCB
c
ODC
have actually been made greater than 45 Also, since the angles AOB, BOC ... are very smal
...
we may suppose OA=Oa, OB=Ob, OC=Oc,

without
introducing
etc
any appreciable
1
error.
Lasth
44
since length of arc
we have
= radius x angle in radians Aa = OA x 1/n = X 1/n = 1/h Bb = OBxl/)i,

,
(see p.
Cc=OCxl/n
etc.
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
HOME
111
We
have therefore
OA=l,
OB=Oa+aB=OA+Aa=OA+OAxlln
=OA(l+l/n)=l+l/n,
OC=OB+bC=OB+Bh=OB+OBxl/n
=OB(l+lln)=(l+llnf,
OD=OC + cD=OC+Cc=OC+OCxl/n
=OC(l+lln)=(l+l/nF,
,nd so on.
We
can make then the following

Radius Vector.
1 inch.
little
table
Angle.
radian.
lfn.
(l+l/n)*.
2/n.
Z/n.
(l+l/nf.
(i+iM) n
If the
n/n=l
radian.
great,
out
number of angles is indefinitely we know that in this case (see p. 84) (l+l/n) n =t=2-7183...
.
n=oo
It follows that
(l+l/n)
=#?=**,
(Hl/w) 2
(l+l/nf =( e l/)3 = 6 3/n
3o that
an(J so on#
we have
Radius Vector
1 inch.
r.
Angle
0.
radian.
l/n.
e l/n 2 e 'n
2/n.
n/n
=.
M=1
radian.
THE RF ORCE
112

is
In every case the length of the radius vector
power
is
of
e,
the index of which
is
the correspondin
angle in radians.
therefore
The equation representing the curv

this particular spiral.
r=e 9 for
It follow
is
that #=log E r, and the radian measure of any angle
th
Napierian logarithm of the length of the correspondin

radius vector.
this
For
is
this reaso
type of spiral
also calle
the logarithmic spiral.

If
we
consider a radius vect(
OB,
of angle
a (see Fig.
9),
ar
another radius vector OC,

angle /3=oc+l, then
OB =6-, OC=e* +1
1
OC/OB=e^ /^=. We have then found anoth

Fig. 9
definition
is
for
e.
Just as
the value of the ratio of the lengtji of the circui

its
ference of a circle to that of

of the ratio of
diameter, e
is
the val
"
any two radii vectors of the 45 eq angular spiral at an angle of 1 radian to one anoth If a=0, then a+l=l and OCjOA=e 1 /e= t actual value of e can therefore be obtained from t curve by measuring, in inches since OA is suppos
;
to be 1 inch long
the
if
radius vector corresponding
the angle of
radian.
We
see also that

off
we may mark
of a compass, at,
two numb the two numbers, in inches, by me; say, OB and OC (see Fig. 9) add
we want
to multiply
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
1
HOME
we
113
the two angles
AOB, AOC,
the
which are the logaget the
ms
le
of their radii vectors respectively,
AOD,
which
is
sum
of the logarithms, so that
length in inches of the corresponding radius vector

'
is
the product of the two given numbers.

is
he equiangular or logarithmic spiral

tiing else
3
therefore
but a graphical table of logarithms.
The
of the
system depends on the direction given to
spindle of the tracing wheel.
For an angle
of 45,
system
'he
is
the Napierian system of logarithms.

,
most general equation of the spiral is r=ka m9 are constants. Since a and ire k, a, are constants,
can always find a number

equation becomes
is,
such that
a m =e n and
r=ke having only two arbitrary two constants which may take any ;able independent values. Obviously k gives the le to which the spiral is drawn, and n depends on the
,
n9
stants, that
;le
cj>
at which the curve cuts the various radii vectors.

all
from the equation of a curve,

the curve
the properties
may
be investigated mathematically.
In
present case, the equality
r=ke nB
implies the funda-
atal property of this particular spiral,
namely, the
ustancy of this angle
(p.
iow, when we say that a curve makes a certain

;le
with a
It
line, this is
is
rather a loose
way
of expressing
ngs.
more accurate
to say that the tangent
the curve at the point of intersection of the curve

1
the line
therefore
make a
certain angle with this line.

little
Let
the
examine a
the
properties
of
igent to a curve.
THE RF ORCE
114
If

we
consider a chord
PP'
(see Fig. 10),
and
if
1
suppose
the
point
P' to approach
indefinitely
point P, then the chord

direction
PP'
gradually approaches
PT, which
is
it
reaches
when P'
coincides
w
]
P.
PT
tangent to the curve
AB
at P, since
it
only one point in
common
with the curve.

is
This
expressed by saying that the tangent
the limit
position of the chord
PP'
wl
P' continuously approaches

.You can easily verify this
yourself
by drawing any cm
a*
i
taking two points P, P' on

putting a pin in at P,
placing a ruler so that
it
alw
touches the pin, drawing a ~i

cession of chords of decreas
length.
Fig. 10.
When the length of
chord has become very sn
indistinguishable
you will see that it is aln from a true tangent to the cu
drawn The
angle
is
at P.
position of the tangent
PT
is
defined
by
\n
a. it
makes with the radius vector OP.
This a
the limit towards which the angle
OP'P
tends
P' continuously approaches P. This also is easily s perpendicular to OP'. In the right-an Drop
PN
triangle
PP'N we
have
cos
NP'P=NP'IPP',
sin
NP'P=NP/PP'.
Let
POP'=dO, PP'=ds, NP'<(r:
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
here, as
n,
HOME
115
you know, the letter d placed in front of means simply " a little bit of." As a matter of ict, you see that when P' approaches P, dd, ds and dill three get smaller and smaller.
.
r,
NPjPO = sin PON, hence NP =r sin (dO) =r dO, for,

nee d9
is
very small, sin (dO) =dQ.

practically coincides with
When P'
ecomes the angle OPT'=cl.

cos 0L=dr/ds,
We
P, the angle NP'P have then
smoL=rd9/ds, tana=
COS OL
=rd6jdr,
UncL=r
,
Idr
lw
and apply our
of spiral, called the
Let us pause a
resh
moment
at this stage
knowledge to another type
Lrchimedian spiral, which has for equation in polar

o-ordinates
r=k6, k being a
constant.
is
In this curve
he radius vector to any point
proportional to the
adian measure of the corresponding angle.
Now we have
âse
just seen that tan so that tan OL=r/k.

if
a.=r
'
H*
Idr
,
and
in this
drldO=k,
It follows that see Fig. 11),

;he
)f
OA
is
an arc of Archimedian
circle of radius
Jc,
spiral
if
we draw a
cutting
curve at P, then
r=k
at
P we get for the direction
the tangent tan

It follows that
oL=rlk^k/k=l and oc=45.

the tangent
PT
to the curve at
the bisector of the right angle
OPW.
to get dr/dO
?
In the case of the logarithmic spiral, the equation 5
r=ke n9
Do you remember how
THE RF ORCE
116
Let

en9 =u,
then
Easy, p. 150.)
dujdO=nenB (See Calculus Made r=ku gives dr/du=k then

.
du
hence tan a.=r
de~dd~
kne
'
Idr
I
^=r/hin9 =r/nr==l/n=constajit
at
showing that the angle of the tangent to the curve any point with the radius vector at that point is a
constant.
This angle
is,
of course, the angle at
which th
curve cuts the radius vector, since, just at that point, th
curve and
its
tangent
may
be considered as coincider
along an indefinitely small portion of the curve.
In particular, in the spiral
r=ke 9 n=l, tanoc=

,
and the angle

ever
is
a is
;
45,
k.
whatever the
scale,
that
is,
wha
the value of
Suppose
k=l
when #=0, r=l.
For a complei
circumvolution of the spiral
r=en9
so
0=360 =2tt, *=*=*** and 2n7r=log that n=log r/27r and tan.=l/w=27r/log
r,
r.
THE RF ORCE
EPSILON'S
In the spiral
=2tt,
If
,
HOME
117
circumvolution,
r=e9 after one complete r=e 62832 =537 inches, 44f feet
we want r
to be 10 inches only, after one complete
3ircumvolution
tan oc=27r/log e 10=6-2832/2-3026 =2-729
...
and oc=69
This
is
53',
while w=0-3665, so that r =e^ mbe
a very curious spiral,
much
for
closer
than the
45 logarithmic spiral.
When r=2,
2=e' 3665<?
solving
as
we have
learned to do in Chapter III.
we
find
= 1-894.
of 2.
Now
0-3010
0/2tt=1-894/6-2832=O-3O1O of a revolution, and

is
log 10 2, the
if
common logarithm
find (9=2-997,
Similarly,
r=3 we
and
0/2tt
=0-4771
of a revolution =log 10 3,
and so on.
When r=10, we
have 0=6-2832 and 0/2tt=1 revolution =log 10 10. That is, for this spiral, the number of revolutions
(or the fraction of revolution) is the
common logarithm
It follows also that,
of the corresponding radius vector.
since log
20=log 10+log
2,
is
log 20 corresponds to 1-3010
revolutions, the decimal
the same.
We
see that a
small range of logarithms will really give an unlimited
range of values, as
we have seen
to be the case with
common
logarithms.
In order to obtain the
common
,
logarithmic spiral,
is
however, the only condition needed
when 0=1;
then
10=e n
'
and w =2 -3026, so that the logarithmic spiral is r= 2 m69

Then,
also,
r=en9 with r=10 1 =wxlog 10 e =0-4343 Xn, equation of the common
tan 0=1/2-3026=0-4343 and 0=23-| very
THE RF ORCE
118
nearly.
after

This gives a very wide sweeping one circumvolution we get
spiral,
for
r=e
or
3026 x 6-2S32
1920000 inches,
!
feet, just above 30 miles an arc of circle be described with a radius y cutting the e and the common spirals at P (see Fig. 12) and be measured by means of a protractor divided in radians.
160000
If
10 spiral
spiral
will
as at
we have
be log e r on one spiral and log 10 r on the other, seen. In the latter spiral, r =e=2-7183 occurs
of
an angle
04343
or 1/2-3026 radian, while in the

It follows thai
e spiral
r=\0
occurs at 2-3026 radian.
2-3026 =log e 10, while 0-4343 =log 10 e, and

log. 10 =l/log10 ..
we
see thai
The three spirals are shown to scale on Plate I. T T Note also that since log A =2-3026xlog 10 A if w( make a sector of 2-3026 radian and divide it into ter equal parts subdivided decimally, and if we apply r on the e spiral, we shall, instead of 2-3026, read 1 Every reading, in fact, will be read off as if it was divide*
e
,
THE RF ORCE
I
PLATE
I.
after
To 30 miles * 1 revolution]
/1
2 radians
>
45 feet
1
ter
revotVtiofT
14
2-30260;
r=f 0-3&6Sd
To 10 inches * \ after Involution \
THE RF ORCE
120

2-3026, so that
by
we
shall read
common
is
logarithi
|
directly
from the
e spiral.
Such a sector
the materi
ization of the
modulus
every
of
common
tan
a. is
logarithms.*
In
fact, in
spiral,
the modulus, and
can pass from any equiangular
spiral to all the oth
by a suitable change in the unit of angle. As an exerci you are advised to plot the spirals r=e 9 r=e 3 and r=tS02O9 and verify by actual measurerm
'
the
mathematical properties of the

It will be
spirals
toucl
a
upon in this chapter. an interesting work.

Before
both a profitable
we
leave the logarithmic spiral, however

calls
most curious property

of cardboard
spiral,
9
,
our attention.
its
If
pi
is
cut so that
if
outline
is
is
a logarith:
in the ca
of the spi
its
r=e and
if
a small hole
made
board at the place occupied by the pole

then,
the cardboard
is
made
to roll with
outline against a straight ruler, the path of the p marked by the point of a pencil inserted through
hole, will be
found to be a straight
first
line.
You
should verify this

fit
by actually cutting
and marking
position of
piece of cardboard to
one of the spirals given in Plat
and by causing
it
to roll along a ruler,
the position of the pole in every
new
cardboard template.
But the proof

mic
it
is
not
difficult.
Consider the logai

line
spiral
ANR
and
and the straight
AT
it
tangen
|
at
(see Fig. 13),
being the point correspond

other point on
say, to
#=0
r=\ any
would
* E. A. Pochin, Proc. Phys. Soc. Vol.
XX.
THE RF ORCE
I
Suppose the
then
EPSILON'S
spiral rolls
HOME
AT,
so that
it
121
on
and
come successively
in contact with
at
N' and R"

etc.,
3ltcAN=AN' and arc ANR=AR",
O, 0', 0",
being the successive positions of the pole.
Now, we have seen above that the tangent to the

curve at one point makes a constant angle
here 45
with the radius vector at that point.
It follows that
N'
Fia. 13.
OA, ON', O'R", etc. parallel to 00' AC

,
...
are parallel lines.
Draw
(until
AB
we
parallel to
, ,
00",
are
etc.
have proved that 0, 0' 0" straight line, we must assume

lines)
;
etc.
on the same
different
AB
...
and
etc.,
AC are
so that
then
OA=0'B, OA=0'C,
OA=0'B=0"C=
etc.
...
=1.
Now, in Calculus Made Easy (last edition, pp. 277 and 278) we were shown how to find the length of any
arc
of
the logarithmic
spiral
r=e
9
,
from the point

etc.
corresponding to
point
0=0
(A, in this case) to any other
N, R,
etc.,
corresponding to
6=6^ 0=9 2
THE RF ORCE
122

were shown there that the lengths of an arc
of the
We
spiral
from <9=0and
=9
1 is
s/%(& 1).
we
get the
Calculating this for various values of 0,

following table
# t.
:
Increase of
0.
r.
(measured from A).
0.
OA = l.
0'N'=e\
.
0.
V
62
BN'=6^-1.
9
0'R"=e\ CR"= *-1.

etc. etc.
AN'=j2(e^-l). AR"=s/2(e l).

9
etc.
etc.
It follows that the increase of length of the parallel

lines
tances
etc.,
O'N', O'R" etc., is proportional to the disAN', AR", etc., hence their extremities O, 0', 0' must be on same straight line.
,
OA,
We see, as a CR'=AR'\J%
which are equal
matter of
etc.,
fact,
that
BN''=AN''/s/%
etc.
oi
showing that AN', AR",
are equal in length to diagonals of squares, the sides

in length to
BN', CR",
etc.
Since the angles
AN 'B, AR"C, etc., are 45^, the figures

are the half squares themselves
,
ABN', ACR",
etc.,
and the angles ABN', ACR", etc., are right angles Since OA, ON', O'R" etc., are parallel, AB, AC, etc. being perpendicular to them must be one same straigh line, and as OA=0'B=0"C, etc., O, O' O" etc., aralso on one same straight line. The equiangular spiral is not the only curve wit!
, ,
which epsilon
chapters
is
intimately
connected.
In the nex
we
shall deal
with another.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTEE
X.
A LITTLE ABOUT THE HYPEKBOLA.

n the
r
first
chapter of this
little
hat
is
meant
bya"
any
function,"
book we have seen and we have seen how
he variation of
explicit function with one variable
nly can be represented

.ith
by a curve traced on paper,
reference to
two
scales or " axes " usually at right
ngles to one another.
To every such function
corre-
ponds a particular curve, and, inversely, to any curve,

Lowever complicated, corresponds a particular equation,
n the case of complicated curves, however, the corre-
ponding equation
)f
may
be
itself
too complicated to be
any use, and while it is easy, though tedious, to plot he curve corresponding to a complicated equation, the
e
verse
operation, that
is,
to find the equation corre-
sponding to a given, curve,

such
may
be impossible, although
its
an equation
which
exists,
merely because of
regular
extreme
complexity.
Curves
exhibit
and
symmetrical
defined
"eatures can, besides, usually

rical
be obtained by a geometof each point

is
construction.
The position
<ome geometrical condition,

together constitute the curve.
123
and all the points For instance, in the
THE RF ORCE
124

all
case of the simplest of
the curves, the

are
circle,
th
condition
the centre.
is
that
all
points
equidistant
fror
In the case of the
ellipse,
the
sum
of th
calle
distances of any point from
two
fixed points
a focus,
each
is
constant, that
is, is
the same for every poir
of the curve,
and so
on.
We
can therefore trace sue

(
curves geometrically, either by finding a succession free-hand a smooth curved line through
in the simpler cases,
points close to one another and then drawing carefull
them
all,
by means
of a device
of
which en
particuh
1
bodies
the
mechanical
realisation
the
geometrical construction required, such as a compass

trace a circle, or a loop of thread
and two drawing ph
to trace an ellipse.
A simple
cally, that
curve
is,
may
therefore be considered geometi
from the point of view of its geometr properties, and also from the point of view of its equatio
that
is,
" analytically."
centre
circle, of
and radius r
(see Fig. 6),
instance, has
many
properties which
may be
investigat<
by geometry
symbol.
only, without writing a single algebraic

properties,
These
however,
may
;
also
studied by algebra alone, from the equation of the curv
without drawing any

are useful,
algebraical analysis
line or figure
whatever
but
figui
t
although not necessary, to
illustrate
and make
it
clearer to the mir
In the case of the
circle, for instance, if
we adopt G
and
OY
for axes of co-ordinates,

it is
whatever
may
and
be
position of the point P,
clear that
we
shall alwa
tl
have the relation
x2 -\-y2 =r2
(see Fig. 6);
THE RF ORCE
I
e
THE HYPERBOLA
when the axes
one another at the centre.
125
of co-ordinates
equation of the circle
tersect
ery geometrical property of
thout having recourse in

>nsiderations.
From this equation the circle may be deduced any way to geometrical
of
The above equation

ee p. 19)
icit
;
is
an implicit function
2
x and y
an ex-
it
may
be written
y=s/r ~x\
function of x, which allows the curve to be plotted
>y giving various suitable values to the
independent
variable x.
Among
vvith
the simpler curves,
we
are specially concerned
a curve
made up
of a double
branch symmetrical
with regard to either the line XX' or the line YY' [see Fig. 14), and called a " hyperbola." Its principal
property
is
that the ratio of the distances of any point
on
it
to a certain fixed point
F called
ZZ'
the focus
to a certain fixed straight line
called the
is
and
directrix
has
always the same value, which value
greater
THE RF ORCE
126

In other words,
e
if
than unity.
curve,
is
any point on
P'
such
th<
PF/PE=e^>l,
there
is
being a constant number.

a
Since
evidently
point
tha
P'F/P'G=e,
is
e having the
same value
left of
as before, ther
another branch on the
the existence of
directrix
and this implie a second focus F' and of a secom

be anything.
Provided that
thi
ZZ,
UU'. The value of

is
may
value
If
greater than unity
we
get a hyperbola.
we
give to e various values, each particular valu
will give a particular curve,
but
all
these curves wil

for instance, th
have similar features.

values 10,
In Plate
II.,
right-hand branches of hyperbolas for which e has th

5, 2,
1-2 respectively are
shown, the focu

All those curve
;
and
directrix being the
same
for
all.
which, are obtained
by giving a
if
different value to
constant are said to belong to the same " family."
We may
remark here that

it is
e=l
the
left branc"
ceases to exist, as
clearly impossible that a poin
P' should exist to the

or
left of
ZZ such that P'F\P'G=
The geometrical properties of the curv are also modified. The curve is, in fact, no more calle< a hyperbola it has become a " parabola," shown dotte<
;
P'F=P'G.
on the
If e
figure.
happens
e
happens to be smaller than unity a curious thin the branch on the left, which vanished whe:
:
became equal
its
to unity,
if it
now
reappears on the righi

right round behin
with
focus
just as
had turned
the paper.
It meets the branch that
had become
parabola to form an elongated closed curve
whic]
THE RF ORCE
PLATE
II.
Hyperbola
<?=io
e=5
c=2
e=\-i
THE RF ORCE
128

is
you know
called
an "
ellipse
"
e
with
corresponding
new changes
becomes smaller and smaller, the two foci approach one another, and the ellipse becomes less and less elongated. Plate II. shows
of properties.
ellipses for
As
which "the value of
e is 0-8. 0-5, 0-2

circle,
and
0-1.
Finally,
if
e=0, the curve becomes a
with, again,
corresponding modifications of geometrical properties.
Here you see that as e becomes smaller the ellipses become smaller also, and when e becomes zero the ellipse is reduced to a mere point at F. This gradual shrinking of the ellipse is due to the fact that we kept the directrix at a constant distance from the point F, as may be easily seen. When e=0, in order to have a circle
the
radius
of
which
is
not
indefinitely
small,
is,
the
distance
directrix
DF
should be infinitely great, that
the
is
should be at an infinite distance, which

it
the same as to say that

or absent
;
would be
infinitely remote,
hence a
circle
has no directrix.
Various curves,
all
belonging to the parabola family,
may
be obtained by varying the distance of the focus

directrix,
e,
from the
to unity.
scale
of course, remaining always equal

if
This
is
the same as
we varied merely the

is
of the
figure,
however, so that there
really
e,
but one parabola.
Likewise, for each value of
by
varying the distance of the foci from the directrix and
from one another, an infinite number of hyperbolas and ellipses can be obtained, which are only the same curve drawn to a different scale each time. Only when e varies do we obtain really different curves of the same
family.
There
is,
likewise,
but one
circle,
as
all
the
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
ircles
129
we may conceive
that
is,
are exactly alike,
and
differ
>nly in size,
in the scale to
which they are

one
Irawn.
We
)f
see, therefore,
that the hyperbola family
is
four closely connected types distinguished merely
by
)he
value of
e,
which
may
;
be greater than, equal
to, or
ess
than unity, or zero

the
circle, consist
two
of these, the parabola
md
but of a single individual.
Z
S
^Xp"
x'
y
X
^y D'
D A
v\
N
p;
E'
aT^
U'
Y'
Fig. 15.
z'
Let us
now
try to apply the geometrical property of

it,
the hyperbola to construct points belonging to

that,
so
by joining these points by a continuous curved line we may draw the hyperbola corresponding to any relative position of directrix and focus, and to any
suitable value of
side
e.
We
shall only consider the right

left
branch of the curve, as the
side
branch
is
obtained in exactly the same manner.

If
ZZ' be one
directrix (see Fig. 15)
and
be the corif
responding focus, then e being given numerically,

G.E.
I
we
THE RF ORCE
130
suppose that the point
is
such that
AF/AD=e,
or
If
AF=exAD, A
we take any
the directrix
is
evidently a point of the curve.

T
point
on
XX'
and draw SS' through

is
perpendicularly to
DF,
DN=EP
the distance fron
ZZ'
of a certain point
of the curve
and we simply need to ascertain the position of JF along SS' so that the fundamental relation PF/PE=t
or
of
PF=exPE
e,
is
satisfied.
Since
we know
the valu<
lengtl
in order to
do this we have only to find the
exND,
two
this being the

is
same
as
exPE=PF.
One
dra^
this length
obtained, taking
of radius
arcs of circle,
explained
intersecting
SS'
F as centre, we PF found as we hav These tw at P and P\

PF/PE=
points belong to the hyperbola, since they both satisf
the condition defining the curve, namely,
and P'F/P'E' =e. Other points may be obtained in similar manner by selecting another position for tr
point
N.
is
The curve
very easy to draw, and
it
will
be four
that once the position of
is
known, three points on
on each half of the branch, one situated approximate above or below F, one between A and P, and one beyoi
P will
fair
allow you to draw the curve free-hand with ve
accuracy.
is
The point
is
easy to find, becau

if
DF
known given
length,
and
DA,
AF are repi
sented by
v, Z respectively,
from which
we get v=DA=DF/{l-\-e). To get the other branch,

is
then v Jr z=DF and % =t v+ev=DF, v(l-\-e)=DF, a]

find A', so that
if
FA'=e xD;
represei
This
again quite easy, for
DA'. FA' are
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
>y
v',
%'
131
respectively,
then since
FA' BA'^FD,
'v'=FD and
Bisecting
as
z'=ev\ ev'v'=FD, so that
v'(e-l)=FD
and
v =DA'=FD/(e-l).
A A'
gives O,
and
OD'=OD,
îves
)f
OF'=OF
UU' and
focus F'
the position of the directrix

left
the
branch respectively.
each value of
e,
These
will vary, of
ourse, for
with a given position for
md
D.
The construction may then be repeated,
or,
EP may be produced to and P'E" taken equal to EP P" is neet UU' at E" :hen a point of the left branch of the curve. A and A' ire each called a vertex of the curve, and the length 0A=OA' is usually represented by a. This method of constructing the hyperbola requires, however, scale measurements of lines and arithmetical calculations, and for this reason it is rather cumbersome. There is a much simpler method of constructing the hyperbola, based on another geometrical property which is of more practical importance than the first one we have given, namely, that the difference between the distances of any point on the curve from the two foci is always the same whatever the position of the point, and is equal to the distance A A' that is,
nore simply, lines such as
, ;
F'P-FP=AA'
drop
(see Fig. 15).

if
This can be easily shown to be the case, for
we
PN perpendicular to FF',
then we have
PF=e xPE=e xDN=e(ON-QD)

and
PF'=e xPE"=e xDN=e(ON+OD').
THE RF ORCE
132

PF' -PF=e(ON+OD' -ON+OD)=2exOD,
Hence, subtracting
since
OD=OD',
and as 2xexOD is a constant length, the first par of the above statement is verified. Also, since FA=eDA and FA'=exDA', we hav
FA' -FA =e xDA' -e xDA =e(DA' -DA),

and
this
can be written
or
AA'=e{DA'+DA -DA -DA} AA'=e{(DA'+DA)-(DA+DA)}=e(AA -2AD<

,
=e{AA' -{AD+A'D')}=exDD'=2exOD.
As A A' =20A, it follows that
found above
OA = ex OD PF'-PF=2eOD, hence PF'-PF=20A=AA'.

quickly obtain
as
but we ha^
We
can now
many
the
points
the hyperbola as
we nee
two
fc
being
given
F, F' and the length 2a,

follows
:
Draw any line F'K thron

F'
(see
Fig.
If
16).
Ta
is
F'R=2a.
given, but only the direct]
AA
'
ZZ' and the focus F, reme we have just seen tr =2a =2e X OD, hence a =e X OD now
Fig. 16.
ber
OD =OA -DA =a -DF/(l +e)>
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
Qce
133
have
DA=DF/(l+e),
and, since
a=e (
we get
a=exOD, we I DF\
-he/'
nd a{e-l)=DFxe/(l+e), hence
ience
>y
a=DFxej(e 2 -l),
a.
If
now we
join
a perpendicular to
RF
meeting
RF and bisect it at W F'K at P, P is a
oint of
the curve, since by construction
PR = PP,
PF' -PP =PP' -PP =F'R =2a.

by means
of a
This can also easily be performed
nechanical model, and the curve traced as a continuous
Fig. 17.
line.
If
we suppose
a rod
F'K
(see
Fig 17) so arranged
as to turn
fitted
round a pin F' fixed just on its edge, and with a thread fixed at F and L, if the rod is of
I
such length
is
that
l(PL+PF)=2a, and
F'K we have
if
the thread
kept taut by a tracing point at P, as shown, then,
for
any position
of the rod
PF' -PF=PF' +PL -PF-PL
=(PF+PL)-(PF+PL)=l-(PL+PF)=2a,
so that the tracing point
P is always on the curve.

ruler,
Make one with a
flat
a piece of string and
THE RF ORCE
134

and
see
three pins,
by
yourself
how
the curves
differ
when you
alter the position of the pin L.
Now
we can
that
we can draw any hyperbola we

its
choose, let
us see how, from the geometrical properties

derive equation.
we know,
seen that
Being given the directrix ZZ' and focus F, we have we can easily obtain the vertices A, A', and
the "centre"
by
bisecting
AA
is
'.
The
line
YY',
little
perpendicular to
FF'
at O,
;
evidently an axis of
symmetry
(see Fig. 15)
so
is
also
FF'. Now, a
consideration shows that the equation of a curve
will
be the simplest when the axes of co-ordinates are axes

of
symmetry.
We
shall therefore take
YY' and FF'
for axes of coordinates.
Remembering
we
but
get
FA/AD=e and FA'IDA'=e. FA=eAD, FA=eA'D, hence (Fig. 15) FA+FA'=e(AD+A'D)=exAA';

that
FA=F'A',
hence we
may
write
FA+FA'=F'A'+FA'=FA+AA'+F'A'=FF' =2FO=exAA'=2exAO. Hence OF=ae but we have seen above that 20A=2exOD; it follow
thatOZ)= = -.'
e
e
O
are
is
our " origin " or intersection of our axes o
coordinates.
If P is a point on the curve, its coordinate ON=x and PN=y. Now, FP =e x PE, FP =e PE* =e ND\ FN +NP =PF =e ND but
2 2
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
135
Also
FN =ON -OF=x-ae DN=ON-OD=x-a/.

(xae) 2 +i/ 2 =e 2 (xaje) 2
between
.
Hence
This, being a relation
x and y and
It
constants
a and
e, is
the equation of the curve.

:
can be simplified
as follows
Multiplying out,
2
we
get
2
x 2aex +a
or
+y 2 =e2x
2aex-\-a 2
+x
2
(l-e 2 )=a 2 (l-e 2 ),
and
l[a (\
-e 2 )]+x2/a 2 =l.
(1 e 2
)
Now, e>l,
therefore
is
negative; let
at(l _<)=-&*
the equation becomes
x 2\a 2 -y2\b 2 =\
In this equation
(1)
is
half the distance separating

foci,
the two branches along the line through the
and
b=aJd^-\.
We
for,
can easily find a geometrical definition for
b,
from
x2 ja 2 y2jb 2 =\,
multiplying by
or
or
a 2 b 2 we
,
get
b 2x 2
a 2y2 =a 2 b 2
a 2y 2 =b 2 (x 2 a 2 ),
y = (bja)\/x 2 a 2
It
.
hence
y/\/x2 a 2 =b/a
is
(2)
This
in the
the equation of the hyperbola
when put
can be
form of an explicit function of x.
used for plotting the curve by giving suitable values

to x.
Now, on
ON
as diameter,
draw a
circle (see Fig. 18).
THE RF ORCE
136

arc of centre
Draw an
the angle
and radius
OA=a,
cutting
this circle at Q,
then
OQ=a,
2 2
and, since
ON =x,
2
.
and
OQN
is
a right angle,
NQ= s/ON -OQ = s/xâ

With
centre
N, draw an
arc of radius
2
;
NQ,
meeting
OF
in C, then
CN =QN = J'oâ
also join
CP,
Fig. 18.
and draw
OS
parallel to
CP, meeting
at
H the
tangent
AT to the vertex.
The two
triangles
OAH, CNP have their sides
parallel
to one another, hence they are equiangular,
and we have
the proportion
NPICN=AH/OA or yl + x/tf^ÂH/a, that is y = (.4ff/a) Jx -a

2
it
follows that
AH=b.
OS
has the peculiar property of being gradually
and continually approached by the hyperbola with-
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
t
137
ever being touched

half
of
by
it;
in
other words, the
per
the
left
branch of the hyperbola gets
ntinually nearer to the line
without ever touching

traced.
e curve.
If
it,
Such a
line is
OS, as it gets further from however far the curve may called an " asymptote " to
is
we take
OB=AH=b,
then there
a twin sister
figure, passing
the original hyperbola,
shown on the
B and having the same

a
asymptotes, the other branch
ing symmetrical with respect to

ter is called the "
i
XX'. This twin conjugate hyperbola " of the first

of the first hyperbola,
see that its b is the
and
its
is
the b of this
first
hyperbola.
We
r
see that the asymptotes are the diagonals of a
stangle of sides
a and
b.
It follows that, given
drawing a rectangle
2ax2b and
its
a and b, two diagonals
oduced, one can readily draw the two branches of the

r
perbola free-hand with fair accuracy.

particular interest occurs
A case of
2
when a=b.
2
Then
2
.
^ ~~=l a
le
or
x2 -y 2 =a 2 and
y=Jx -a
or
asymptotes are then at right angles, and the curve

called
then
" rectangular,"
" equilateral,"
/perbola.
Sometimes the two asymptotes are taken for axes

tordinates.
i
of
Some simple
considerations will enable
to find its equation in that case.

If
the equation of a curve contains a term in

treating
it
ien,
as a quadratic equation
y and solving
,
THE RF ORCE
138
for

get a radical sign with a
of
-f-
y we
get
and
sign, that
us
we
two values
far.
for each value of x.
This
is
case for the hyperbola referred to the
two axes we
hav<
used so
For instance, suppose that the expression
2y 2 +3xy-5y+2=0
is
the equation of a curve.
This can be written
and
its
solution
is
y=
larly,
of
Zx -5
ptvHr)'-"- L
there are two values of y.
//3a?
- 5\
For each value

if
Sim
the equation contains a term in
x2
for eac
value of
of the
there will be
two values
of x, as in the ca*
hyperbola referred to axes of symmetry.

hyperbola
is
If the
referred to the asymptotes
axes (see Fig.
19), there is
only one value of
x correspon<
ing to each value of y, and vice versa.

of the curve cannot, therefore,
2
.
The new equatk contain any terms in x 2
It cannot contain
any terms in
x 3 or y 3
as equatio
containing such terms are

altogether different curves
at the figure
known
to give,
try a few.
is
is,
when plotte Now, if we lo<
we
see that the curve
symmetrical wi
regard to the point O, that
when x becomes x,
it folio n<
\
must become y.
equation, or else
It will be readily seen that
that there cannot be any terms in
x and y
its
in the
y would not reverse
sign
and
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
ep the same value
139
changes.
when the
sign of
There
only one term possible then, besides constants, that
Fig. 19.
5,
a term containing xy, and the equation of the hyper-
ola referred to its
asymptotes
is
xy = m, where
is
<xj (*2)
xz)
Fig. 20.
constant.
)f
The obvious
is
particular geometrical property
the curve then
that the rectangle of the coordinates
THE RF ORCE

140
of
any point
P has a constant area, whatever may be the

is
position of P, that
(see Fig. 20),
xP N = = ABxAC = m. The particular case where m=\ is specially interesting.

1
xP N =P
1
...
Consider the point P, of abscissa
x>l
let
x1 =s/x
xv
then ay*=a?, and evidently xx >\. Let the points lt 2 have abscissae z ... xz ... x such that
P P P
,
afc
e</2
/y
ryi
\y
1*/2
^^
/y
I
/yj vis I
2
j
*"3
X 2 s\
i//j
tt/j
We
can write at the beginning 1=^, and
x1
so that
we have
the complete sequence
l=a?i,
x =x11 and x2 =x 2 and x3 =x 1 3 and

1
,
since
since
since
x1 y =l, y 1 =l/x 1 x2 y2 = 1, y2 = ^lx 2

1 1 i
>
a?3
y 3 ^l, y9 =llxj,
'
x=x n
1
and
since
xy\, ?/=l/^1 n
The
first
terms are in geometrical
progression
(se-
p. 38),
having
is
n 1
terms, and the constant multiply
ing factor
xv
we have
1
1
It follows that
for the areas of the successiv

1 1
small rectangles
ABN Q P N N Q2,
2
1
etc.
Area
of
ABN&
=lx(x l)=x1 1,
THE RF ORCE
THE HYPERBOLA
rea of
/',
141
V^V /^
=t/ 1
X{x 2 -x 1 )=-(x 1 2 -x 1 )=-Xx 1 (x1 -l)=x 1 -l,
rea of
P 2\yV Q
2
x\
id so on
le can
;
all
these rectangles have the
same
area.
now form
the following table of the total areas
up by the rectangles included between the ordinales [B and Q X V Q 2 iV 2 etc., successively, corresponding We have d the abscissae x v x2 oc3 etc.
lade
Abscissa.
Area.
xv X2 =X\
X^ = Xi
1(*1-1).
.
2K-1).
3fe-l).
n{x 1 l).
x=x n
1
uduction (see
irea of
Generally speaking, by the principle of mathematical when the abscissa is x A the total
p. 55),
the rectangles built on

see that the abscissae
it is
A (x 1).
x
We
ireas
form a geometrical pro-
xv and that the form an arithmetical progression of constant idditive term (x 1 l). We see also that the term of the
portion of constant multiplying factor
atter corresponding to 1 in the former
is
zero.
We
have seen
in
Chapter IV. that when these condi-
two progressions form a system of logarithms with a certain base B, which we have to ascertain. The base B will be the term of the geometrical
tions are satisfied the
THE RF ORCE
142
progression
here
an
abscissa-
corresponding
to unity
in the arithmetical progression
here area unity.
if
When we wrote x 1 =\/x, we did not specify n; we suppose it to be very large, then all the rectangles
all
are reduced to very thin strips, which decrease in length
very gradually, and
the
little
triangles
resulting
from the encroachment
of the rectangles
beyond
the
Fig. 21.
hyperbola become very small (see Fig.

infinitely large, the strips
21).
If
n become;
thes<
become
so
narrow that
triangles
can be neglected altogether, and the area

all
tabulated above will become for

hyperbolic segments, that
the axis of x, the curve
ordinate to the right of
ticular abscissa.
is,
practical purpose
areas included betweei
itself,
the ordinate
AB, and
to
an;
ment
APNB of
any par For instance, n(x1 l)=area of seg the rectangular hyperbola, and we hav
AB corresponding
area segment of hyperbola =\ogB abscissa,
being a certain base which we can find by
trial,
THE RF ORCE
I
gments
until
>scissa of
THE HYPERBOLA
we found a segment
sensible
143
easuring, with a planimeter, say, the area of various

of area unity, the
the right-hand ordinate would then give the
due of B.
The only
way
to do this
would be
measure the areas corresponding to various abscissae,

id to plot the values found.
Then the
abscissa corre-
>onding to area unity on the graph so obtained will
ve the value of B.
We
>en
can, of course, calculate
that
to
\.(x x \).
we have exactly an abscissa x x A corresponds an area Suppose that this area is the base, that is,
;
A
]J
=B,
then
A(x l) = l,
1
since the areas are numeri-
ally
the logarithms of the abscissae,
log(x 1 A )=\ogB=A(x 1 -l)

hen
= l,
.
ELl = l/A, xx =l+llA

Tow,
5
and
we took n
infinitely great,
also, since
infinitely
small;
x 1 A = B=(l+l/A) A and since x x = ^x, x x x xA =B, x 1 = \/B, so

It
hat
A
what
must
,
be
infinitely
large.
follows
that
3=(l-\-l/A) A with
>er
infinitely large.
?
Do you rememEpsilon again

!
this is equal to
Epsilon
see p. 85).
In
fact,
the areas of the hyperbolic segments and the
corresponding abscissae
form a system
of
Napierian
ogarithms.
We
have
area of hyperbolic segment
between abscissae
and x
Now you
sailed
see
why
Napierian logarithms are also
hyperbolic logarithms.
THE RF ORCE
144

so
Instead of the above method

ledge pleasantly
acquired
we might use the knov when reading Calculi
Made
Easy, and proceed as follows.
m=\, we
or
We need not tal can work with the general equation xy=ii We know
that \dxj x
is
y=m/x.
= \og x.
e
The area
between x x x and
p. 206)
ex*
\
x = x2
(see Calculus
Made Eas
A=
r^-i
ydx=\ mdxlx=m\\og x + C\
e e
-\x2
= ra{(log # + 0)-(log
2
a? 1
+ C)} =m\og
(x 2 /x 1 ).
a?j=l and x 2 =--x, we get ^.=mlog e a?. ra=l then A=\oge x as before. There is no need for the axes of coordinate to be at
If
If
rig]
angles to one another
we can start from
the general cas
Fig. 22.
If
they are inclined at an angle
6,
the equation remai
the same, but the ordinates are inclined at an angk

to the horizontal (see Fig. 22).
Each element
of ai
THE RF ORCE
= THE HYPERBOLA
ich
145
but
a
as
PQN N^
2
is
no
area
more a
rectangle,
irallelogram,
and
its
*M
is
the perpendicular
N^zXPM, where distance between PQ and

A
is
yV,, or
A=N N
l
xPJSri sm6, then

dxjx,
dA = ysmddx=m sin
ence
tL
= \m sin
da?/#
m sin
e
,
dx/x = m
sin
log e x
+ 0.
When # = a?
'
nd
If
If
when il =0, then = m sin0 \og x + C = C m sin log x hence A = m sin ^ (log a? log = m sin0 log (a?/a? = 90, sin = 1, and A=m\og (xlx If P is the apex, x = l, m=l, A = \og (xlx
,
a?
)-
).
).
nd we have ^4=log a? as before. As an exercise, plot an equilateral hyperbola from its Measure the areas quation xy=l to a large scale. f various hyperbolic segments by any method you ike, and plot a graph, with areas as ordinates on the
e
:orresponding abscissae,
or epsilon.
and obtain
in this
way
a value
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER XL
EPSILON ON THE SLACK ROPE
IS
:
WHAT THERE
He:
IN
A HANGING CHAIN.
is
Nature seems
to take a delight in antitheses.
greatest pleasure seemingly
to put in the simples
thing the most exquisite mathematical complexity o
most charmingly elaborate delicacy of texture drop of water what is there more common place ? Yet an exhaustive treatment of its feature will tax the power of an able mathematician and fi] several volumes. Lower the temperature, and lo w
the
falling
behold the perfect loveliness of the almost unlimite<

varieties of the six-branched star patterns
we
all
hav
seen in flakes of snow.
What more commonplace,

from both ends
little
?
too,
than a chain suspende<

properties
Have no
about
misgivings, no attempt wi'
be made here to study
all its
many
but th
we
shall learn
it will
show us how wondei

is
fully interesting this simple object
in reality.
We
suppose
it
to be a chain, and not a string, becaus
we must surmise
in a string
;
a perfect flexibility, always lackin
also, in order to
take
is
its
natural shap(
the existence of a certain weight

146
necessary.
THE RF ORCE
147
first
glance
tells
us that the chain hangs in an
have been told that every curve )an be mathematically represented by an algebraical expression. Let us see if we can obtain the equation
elegant curve.
We
the curve assumed
by a hanging chain
call
the curve
tfhich
ittle
the French
aptly
" chainette "

call "
chain
and which we pedantically

B
that
is,
catenary,"
Dj
T
16
Yl
C dy J
w
C
7i
a
Â
o|
Fig
.
y
f\
23.
} a
M
rw
from the Greek.
The shape
of this
hanging chain
it.
evi-
dently depends on the forces acting upon

therefore investigate those forces.
We
must
its
Consider a portion
lowest point.
1.
AC
of the
chain,
being
It
is
acted upon
by
three forces
Its
weight
(see Fig. 23) acting at the centre of
gravity
is
of the portion of the chain considered, that

is
AC
2.
since the chain
uniform,
AG=GC.
The tension
or pull
exerted by the upper part
CD
of the chain in resisting the
weight of the portion
THE RF ORCE
148

below C.
of the chain situated
The
is,
direction of this
pull is along the curve at C, that
along the tangent
to the curve at C.
3.
The horizontal
pull
exerted by the portion of
the chain situated at the left of
this pull gradually
brings the chain in a horizontal direction at
A,
it
is
exerted along the curve at A, that
is,
horizontally.
The portion
it is
it
of the chain
call
mathematicians
we consider is in the condition " state of equilibrium," that is,

is
at rest under the action of the forces acting upon
forces which balance one another so that there
no
tendency for the chain to move in any way.
Now, a force can be represented just in the same manner as, in polar coordinates, we represented the distance of a point from the pole by a line at a certain angle to the horizontal (see p. 106). The direction of the force is represented by an arrow in the direction
of the force, the length of the shaft of the
arrow repre-
senting to a certain scale the magnitude of the force,

as seen in the figure for the forces
marked T,
W and
a.
When
three forces balance one another in this way,
quite elementary books in mechanics

lines representing
them,
if
displaced in a suitable
without altering their direction or length,
show that the manner must necessarily
form a
If
triangle, with the directions of the separate forces
following one another right round the triangle.
we produce the
lines of
action of
and a and
through the
three
displace the line of action of
till it
passes through
any point
of the curve to the right of G, say
point C, then
we form a
triangle
CMN,
and the
THE RF ORCE
1
sides

CN,
149
NM, MC
represent therefore the forces
W,
a and
respectively, to a certain scale.

all
;
What
scale
does not actually matter at
it
merely depends
line
on how far we have displaced the

the force
representing
W.
In this triangle
2
we
2
see that
CM =MN +CN\
that
is
T =a
2
+W
2
.
To
get the equation of the curve
we must
if
first select
two axes
of coordinates', at right angles
possible, as
we have done for the hyperbola. Let us take vertical and horizontal lines through A for axes of y and of x
respectively.
The
first
one
is
an " axis
of
symmetry,"
and
seek.
its
use will therefore simplify the equation
we
the
We
must next
find
the
connection
between
geometrical shape of the curve and the forces which
compel the chain to take

of the portion
this shape.
If
Consider a small link ah of the chain.
the length
link,
AC
be called
s,
then the
being
" a little bit of s," will be, as

ds.
will
we know, represented by
In the small triangle abc, bc=dy and ca=dx be little bits of the ordinate y and of the abscissa x
of the centre c of the link.
tions of the
is
We can simplify the condiproblem by noting that, since the chain

is
uniform, the weight of any portion
a measure of
its
length, so that instead of saying a length of 5 inches,
of s inches, of s
ounces (or grammes).
we may say a length of 5 ounces (or grammes), Then we see that, numerically,
8=W.
THE RF ORCE
v
150

triangles ahc,
The
MCN
are equiangular,
and
there-
fore similar, so that
we have
),
dxlds=MN/MC=alT=al( s/a 2 +W2 )=a/ s/(a2 +s2

hence
dx=ads/ s/(a 2 +s 2
and
:
x=a\dsl s/(a 2jr s 2

let
2 2
).
Let us do the integration together
v being a variable
Squaring,
(see p. 14),
,J(a -\-s )=v s, then v=s-\- s/(a 2 -\-s 2 ).
we
get
or
a 2 -\-s 2 =v 2 2vs-\-s 2
To
differentiate this, since
a 2 =v 2 2vs.
both v and s are variable
quantities,
we
and
first
;
suppose s constant and differentiate

since the differentiation of a variable
with respect to v
gives zero,
since
)
is
a constant,
we
get
d (a 2 =0=2vdv-2sdv.
We
then suppose v constant and differentiate with

;
respect to s
we
get
2
c[(a
)=0=0-2vds=
is
-2vds.
Since the supposed variation of

nil really, since
a constant)
s,
tion of both v
and
the total
;
a 2 (variation which is is made up of the variavariation is made up of
both the above variations
it
follows that
0=2v dv2v ds 2s dv
or
(v-s)dv=vds
and
ds=(vs)dv/v.
Substitute in the value of x.
x=â\
J
[vs
v
1 dvx
vs
=a\
(dv
THE RF ORCE
X
151

urely
3
you remember Ij
(1
Whenever the numerator

is
the differential of the denominator the integral

It
is
og e x --}- C.
ure
'
because of this that Napierian logarithms

;
they continually so useful and occur so often crop up " in the least expected places.
Here
vhere
x=a \og v+C=a\og [s+J(a 2 +s + C,

2
e e
)]
C is,
is
as
we know,
the integration constant.
What
the value of
C?
Well,
if
x=0, s=0, and
;hen the equality
above becomes
0= a x\og (0+a)+C
e
>
-,hat is
C= a log
x=a log
e
a,
?o
that
[s+^/(a 2 fs 2 )]- a log e a
)Y
x=a log
xja
is,
,
a and
loge
+s s+J(a v
vv
v e
L
,
'-,
Co
that
[s+J(a 2 +s 2 ]\la=e*la
and we
and
s+ v/(^ 2 +s 2 )=a^/,
on the scenes.
it
find epsilon again appearing
The above seems somewhat arduous because tains an integration. If we had merely written
,/
con-
2 s +s 2 ) a \dslJ(a 2 +s 2 )=a log +x/(^

e
it
would have been much shorter, but you might have

rather lost
felt
THE RF ORCE
152

let
Now
us get y.
We
have
i
dy/ds= CN/CM= W/T=W /J(a 2

or
+W )=sl s/(a +s
2 2
2
)
dy^sds/^/iaP+s 2
and
y=\sdsl s/(a 2 +8?),

negotiate.
and we have another integral to 2 2 2 2 s/(a +s )=v and a -\-s =u, then
Here
le1
v=u
,
112
and
dv/'du=û~
lf2
while 2sds=^du, and du/ds2s, so that
dv
du
ds
dv
ds
t/o.o
/v/a
2
5
2
du
+s2
dv =-- s ds/s/a +s\

and
since
v= jdte= Js MJ(<**+f)=s/(<**+#)+C,
we have supposed
v= x/(a 2 +s2
2
).
Hence
y= is ^/ x/(^2 + )= x/(a +s )+C

2 2
being again the integration constant.
To
get
it
value, note that
when y=0, s=0,

2
so that
0= s/(a
so that
+0) + C
and
2
2
C=-a,
).
y+a=J{a +s
Here, again, this seems to be very laborious becaus

of the integration
;
\sds/\/(a 2 +s2 ) being what math(

is,
maticians
call
a " standard form," that

is
an expre*
sion the integration of which
so well
can be written down at once, in
known that reality all we shoul
THE RF ORCE
153
avetodoistowrite^^^W^H^
ust the
same
as, to solve
the quadratic
/
x2 -\-mx-\-n=0,
without
ye
write
straight
away
x=^ J(^7-q)
:
:roubling as to
how
this last expression is obtained.
We
have then got so far
,J(a*+&)=y+d
and
2
J{a 2 +s 2 )+s=ae x a
'
Now
or
s/(a
-\-s
)+s][ s/{a
fl
+s )-s]=a +s -s =a2
2 2
ac^ [V(a 2 +* 2 )-*]=a 2

2
and therefore
but we have seen that
^/{aP+s ) s=ae~ xla
2 2 a s/(a +s )+s=ae+*l
Adding, we get
Or
2 s/(a
+s
(
)=a(e+ xl a
!
+e- x' a )
y+ a J
If
+*/a_|_ e -a /a)
we take
new
axis of x,
below
AX,
then
y+a
OX', at a distance AO=a becomes the new y that is, the

'
equation becomes y=-^( +x

This
is
a -\-6~ xla
).
the equation
all,
we
sought.
it ?
It
was not so very
complicated after
was
a =6, and, taking values of x and +4, plot the values of y. It is worth noticing that the above reasoning does not require the two points of suspension of the chain to be on the same level. They can be placed anywhere,
exercise, take
As an
between
THE RF ORCE

154

verified
:
one high and the other one low, as can be

experimentally
having hung a light chain on two pins
and
(see Fig. 23), placed in
any
position, drive
a pin through one of the links at
B\
say,
and with-
draw the pin

in the
at
no alteration whatever takes place
shape of the chain.
Remember also that a is the tension or pull at A. Since we have used a unit of weight to express the length AC, and since a is also expressed in terms of a
unit of weight
being
a pull or force
represents a
is
length, the length of chain the weight of
which
e
equal
to the tension at the vertex, a.
We
were able to obtain the value of

of the logarithmic spiral. this value
from
direct
measurement
also that
We
have
of
seer
we can obtain
from measurement*
e
ir
of the rectangular hyperbola.
The presence
the formula of the catenary suggests that
we can
alsc
obtain the value of

itself.
from measurements on the curv(
Professor Rollo Appleyard * showed
how
we
thii
could be done in a very elegant manner.
In Calculus
Made Easy
(last edition, p. 272)
hav
i;
obtained the length s of the catenary whose equation
r*! (*/+-**),
and we have found
for this length the expression
s==
|(
*/_ e -z/)
(2
* See Proceedings of the Physical Society, 1914.
THE RF ORCE

At the point
g to
id (2)
155
F of the
curve (see Fig. 24), correspondin (1)
xa, and y=y', we get, by replacing x and y by their value
-?(+}).
ad
(3)
'-!(-!).
^
^>
;
D/
.r
i i
a
i
0'
Fig. 24.
'
being the length
AF of the curve.
and therefore
from
_
Adding
.
(3)
and
(4)
ve get
,Jrs'=ae,
e=we
get
Also, subtracting (4)
(3)
i
s'=
e
(i
and
1 y's' -
Taking a as unit of length, a1, then e=y' -\-s' and

-=y's', that
is,
e is represented
by the length
FG
THE RF ORCE
156
plus the length
AF
it
of the chain.
Hence we can
chain.
sight.
get
by measurement on the actual

is
This, however
It
is
not so easy as
appears at
first
eas;
enough to hang a thin light chain, but once this is don we must find the value of a for the particular curv assumed by the chain. Since a is the horizontal tensioi
at the vertex
hanging at
A, if one supposes a length of the chai] and passing over a minute frictionles
pulley (see Fig.
25)
so
placea
that the tangent to the curve
A
a
at
is
horizontal, then the weigh

of
of this length
chain wi
be equal to the horizontal pu
A, the pulley merely
defleci
ing the pull due
to this weigl
from the vertical to the hor

zontal direction.
Fig. 25.
sufficient]
small f rictionless pulley, howeve

it
could not be obtained, and

resort to another device.
If a fine
was found necessary
thread
is
if,
fixed at one
(see Fig.
24),
and
at the other end
end at any point A, it is mat

is
into a loop through which the chain
passed for
portion of
its
length,
and
if
the end
of the chain
tl
moved
thread
of the
until the tangent at
is
horizontal and
AB
is
at 45 to the horizontal, then the leng

is
hanging portion, a, of the chain
equal to
t.
horizontal tension at
A.
r
This follows at once from the equilibrium of fore

explained at the beginning of this chapter (see p. 14
THE RF ORCE
I
te
157
here are three forces acting at

string
A
a
the pull along
AB,
the horizontal pull
of the chain
AD,
It
id the weight of the vertically

lain,
hanging portion of the
and these three

is
forces balance one another.
llows that the lines representing

id as one
le
them form a
triangle,
horizontal and another

it
is vertical,
while
third
is
at 45 to either,
follows that the triangle

is
list
5
be such that the vertical side

is,
of
same length
the horizontal side, that

is
the weight of the hanging
ortion
necessarily equal to a.
The
difficulty of deciding
is,
when the tangent
at
is
xactly horizontal
rror in
i
however, very great, and a small
the position of the tangent causes a large error
\J
so that only a rough value of e can be obtained
this
means.
In order to obtain the correct position,

(see Calculus
emember that we have found

ist edition, p.
Made
Easy,
262) that, in the case of the catenary, the
entre of curvature at the vertex has for coordinates
?=0,
y=2a,
the axis being

is
O'Y and O'X
(see Fig. 24).
lie centre of curvature
therefore at O.
We
also
ound the radius of curvature at the vertex to be r=a. Ve have taken a as our unit of length, so that r=l.
The circle of curvature can be drawn, its radius being
he length of chain hanging below

ve take arbitrarily.
A, a length which
can also be drawn,
The
line
AB
md
the end of the thread fastened at any point
B on
then
he line
AB.
The point
is
of
suspension
D
A
is
noved
4.B
is
until a position
found where, while the thread

follows as
at 45, the chain in the vicinity of
closely
as possible the circle of curvature.
fairly
THE RF ORCE
158

of e
in this
good approximation to the value way.
can be obtainec
We
see again that e
is
not a mere number, but

of the constant
definite length.
Note the physical meaning

is large,
if
the hanging portion of the chain will be large
the vertex
will
be high above the axis
O'X
the hori
zontal tension
is
great, so that the chain will be widel
deflected from the vertical through
D, and
will affec
the form
(I) (see
Fig. 26).
If
is
small, the curve wi
have
its
vertex near the axis O'X, and as only a sma

is
horizontal force
affect the
deflecting the chain, the curve wi
shape
(II).
After the
circle,
the catenary
in
is
perhaps the curv
which has been materialised
man's engineering wor
on the greatest
scale of
all,
for the graceful appearanc
of a suspension bridge is
due to the fact that the cable
THE RF ORCE

o which the bridge
itself is
159
suspended are curved so as
o form an exact copy of the catenary curve.
The catenary
t
is
also naturally obtained
by dipping
it
circular wire in
soapy water and raising
gently,
Fig. 27.
seeping
it
in a horizontal position.
soap film will
bhen be found to exist between the wire ring

surface of the water,
is
and the
and the
profile
ACD
of this film
a true catenary (see Fig.
27).
You
for a,
are advised to plot several catenaries from
two
points ten units apart, let us say, using various values
such as
5, 1
and
0-1.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
XII.
A CASE OF MATHEMATICAL MIMICRY THE PARABOLA.
We have seen (p. 126) that F is a

if
point (focus) and ZZ
is
a straight line (directrix) (see Fig. 28), any point

z
Y
E
\
v\N
D A
$
v
y'
^7
P^^"
r4
Z'
Fig. 28.
such that
parabola.
obtain,
PF/PE=e=l (PE
being perpendicular
ZZ') belongs to a certain curve which we have called
The equation of this curve is very easy i and it is equally easy to get geometrical]
160
various points of the curve for the purpose of drawii
THE RF ORCE
1
free-hand, as
THE PARABOLA
we have done
for the hyperbola.
161 Let
of
is
.
X
ie
be a perpendicular to the directrix through the
cus F.
A, half-way between
since
curve,
AF/AD=1.
by
2
and F, is a point The distance DA

Also
>ually represented
a.
Drop
2
PN from P on to DX
PF=PE=x,
hen
tat,
FN=DN-2DA=x-2a. since PF =PN +NF

2
,
so
x2 =y 2 +{x2a) 2 and y2 =4=a{xa).

If
3rtex,
I
ie
we draw the tangent YY' at the point A called the and take it for the axis of Y, then xa becomes new x, and the equation of the curve becomes
,
-=\ax.
By
3
varying a, one can obtain various curves, which,

seen, will only be copies of the
we have
If
same curve
rawn to a
different scale.
we
join
EF we
if
see at once a very simple construe-
for, being given the directrix ZZ' we take any point E on the former, nd join EF, then by bisecting EF at right angles at W, e have a first line WP on which P is situated, and as * is also on the perpendicular EP to ZZ' through E, 7 is at once found, and similarly for other points. It
on for the parabola,
nd the focus F,
easy to see that the point
is
always on the tangent
o the curve at the vertex
A.
from a practical
effect of
;
The parabola
>oint of
i
is
specially interesting
view, as the trajectory of a projectile fired from

free
gun and supposed

is
from the disturbing
he atmosphere,
tlso
a parabola concave to the ground

is
the parabolic shape
copied in various appliances,
THE RF ORCE
162

reflectors,
such as the so-called parabolic

a parallel
interest
throwing ou
it
beam
it
of light.
Here, however,
peculiarity.
claims ou
owing to a remarkable
in evidence, let us
To put
go back to the catenar}

5
).
You have
that
of
a?
is,
plotted one for which, say,
the curve
y=f(e x
~
-\-e~ x l
If
a =5 (see we take
p. 153
for
ax
a line through the vertex, we
know that
the equatic
is,y+5=-iH ea:/5 + e aj/5 )Let us plot this curve from

these
a?
=+4 to x= 4.
F<
two points we have

y/+5=f(2-2255+0-4493)=l-687.
Let us find the equation of the parabola which

through these two points,
pass-
# = +4,
y= +1-687, x =
y= +1-687,
and also through the vertex of the catenar
The parabola stands now on its vertex, so that i x has become y, and reciprocally. Its equation is ther fore x 2 =iay. It will pass through the vertex of t] catenary if we take the same axis of y since bo
curves are symmetrical with respect to this axis

for axis of for
ai
the tangent to the vertex of the catenar
we have seen that the above equation correspon

is
to these axes, and that the vertex of the parabola
then at their intersection, which
also the vertex of t
The parabola required points if we give

catenary.
will
pass through the
U
t t
equation
values
x 2 =iay
will
a such a value that be verified when we give x

to
1-687.
and y the value
We
have then
(4) 2 =4xl-687xrt
and
a =16/6-748=2-370.
THE RF ORCE
THE PARABOLA
equation of the parabola
is
163
therefore
#2 =4x2-370x?/,
Plot this curve on the
or
#2 =9-480y.
for the
same axes as those used

a /5_|_
;
catenary
2/+5 = 5( e
a;
/5) #
possible to
The two curves are so nearly alike that it is hardly show them distinct on a diagram of the size they would almost exactly coincide. The of this page parabola, then, apes the catenary to an extraordinary
;
extent,
so that
it
is
possible to
use
the one, with
the
is
much
is
simpler formula, instead of the other, which

calculate.
more complicated to
limited to cases
This remarkable
points selected
case.
mimicry
when the two
are not far
from the vertex, as in the present
To show
this better, the values of the ordinates of the
catenary and of the parabola for equal values of

tabulated below
:
are
The
last value is given to
show how
y, Catenary 5 y + 5 = |(e*/ + -*/*).
y, Parabola y = a;2/9-480.
Difference,
y parabola - y catenary.
0100
0-405 0-927
1-687
13-81
0105
422
0-949
1-687
005
2
3
0017 0022
-3-28
4
10
10-53
the curves gradually separate

selected.
beyond the two points

is,
The more stretched the chain, that
the greater the
value of a, the less the difference between the two.
THE RF ORCE
164

show the reason for the likeness of the two we have seen (see p. 96) that
;
It is easy to
curves near the vertex

/v2
/y3
e=l+a?.+^+g- + ... and 6-^=1-^+- -_+...,

I
,2
v3
but the equation of the catenary
is
y+ae(c4'+r*fr)
y2
/y3
.-y4
2a2"
r
-
+ 6a 3+ 24^
--
"
/y3
eft/
.
rv* */
e^/
y2
/y4
c4/
2a^~W^2W
If a?/a
be small, that
is,
large (tight chain) and
./
small (portion in vicinity of vertex)

all
we can
neglect
the higher powers of
after the second power,
and
we have y jr a=a+^
or
y=^
a?
2
and
x2 =2ay,
equation of the parabola
4( ~J y.
e
We
obtained the value of

it
from the catenary, car

?
i
we then obtain
from the parabola also
Imagine a parabola cut out of cardboard, make hole where its focus is, and lay it flat on the table witl
its
vertex against the edge of a straight ruler.

the parabola
roll
Not
make
along the ruler without sliding
on either
side of its first position, so that the verte
THE RF ORCE
THE PARABOLA
165
ooines
ruler.
back exactly to the same spot on the edge of the In each position of the parabola, mark off the
position of its focus
by pressing the point

lie
of a pencil
through the hole made at the focus (see Fig. 29).

various points so obtained will
The
;
on a smooth curve have you any idea as to what this curve is ? Let us
it
is
try to get its equation,
not too
difficult for us,
fig. 29.
although the search
is
somewhat
long.
Let us go
through
it
together.
We shall make use of a useful property of the parabola,

namely, that
dicular to
if
any tangent, such
as
TT'
(see Fig. 32),
meets the tangent at the vertex at R, then
FR is perpenif
TT'.* This is not draw any chord PP' (see Fig.
difficult to
show, for
it
we
30)
and produce
to
meet
the directrix at
since
it
K, then
PKIPK=P'M'/PM=P'F/PF,
Since P'K\PK=P'F\PF,
proposition,
P'M =P'F, PM=PF.

PFQ.
follows that,
by a well-known Euclid
FK
is
a bisector of the angle
*On Fig. 32 the point M, where TT' is tangent to the curve, happens to be on a perpendicular to through F, but the property is true for a tangent at any point.
AX
THE RF ORCE
166
If now P' is made to approach so that a tangent to the parabola at P, the angle
PP' becomes
becomes
PFQ
Fig. 30.
two
right angles (see Fig. 31).
But
approaching P, the angle
PFK is
all the time P' is one half of the angle
Fig. 31.
PFQ,
P'
is
as
we have
just seen;
this is still true
when
it,
so near to
as to be almost coincident with
THE RF ORCE
I
lso.
THE PARABOLA
it
167
remains true when P' and

It follows that the angle
jincident.
ngle,
P are actually PFK is a right

is
and therefore the angle

triangles
KFQ
a right angle
Now, the
.ence angle
MPK, PKF
are equal,
being
ight angled at
M,
F, with
KP common and MP=PF,

is
MPT = angle TPF; since MP parallel MPT = angle PTF, hence angle PTF =angle TPF and FT = FP = MP = DN.
o
DX,
angle
lence
TD = FN,
TP, and
and
since
AD=AF,
TRF,
it
follows that
if
IT = AN and that
bisects
^4 bisects TiV, so that
now we
at
7?,
Iraw the tangent at the vertex, meeting

the triangles
PT
PRF are
equal, so
;hat angle
TRF= angle PRF=& right angle.
Y
/
9
y\dy
a Jr
//
R^ ly
dx
c B
/a/
~a/\
/
M
sX TVV
\A
1
<
Y
Fig. 32.
Let the perpendicular to ^4X at

at
(see Fig. 32).
P meet
the parabola
Draw
TT
tangent at
M and
let
THE RF ORCE
168
it
meet
AY
at
and
AX
is
produced at T.
We
ai<
seeking the equation of the curve of which

point,
is
one
when the parabola
rolJing along the line

it is
TT'
sym
lin<
When
seeking the equation of any curve,
advisabL
to choose for axes of coordinates either axes of
metry, or else lines playing a specially important par

in the generation of the curve.
is
most important
obviously
TT'
the line on which the parabola
rolling.
AM,
will
Now, if s is the length of the parabolic ar< and if we take MS=s, when the parabola roll
slipping, it is evident that the point
on TT' without
at
touch the line
TT' at
S.
A perpendicular SH to TT
of coordinates the tw<
will evidently
be an axis of symmetry of the ne\
curve.
lines
Let us then take as axes
TT' and SH.

it
As
is
a point of the the
new
curve
then
follows that
FR=y'
is its
is
of a point of thi
rect
curve,
and
SR=x'
x; the coordinates are
angular, since
is
we have
seen above that the angle
TR1
a right angle.
Let the length
RM be represented by
the
t,
then
SR = st=x',
To
get
new
x.
s t we
shall find expressions for
ds and
for a
respectively (a little bit of s
and a
little bit of t),
an
we
shall
then at once obtain
x'=s tTo
[d(s-t)
= {ds- [dt=\{ds-dt).
we
shall
get ds, since (ds) 2 =(dx) 2 -\-{dy) 2
need
and dy,
x and y
being the coordinates of
M on
d
th
parabola.
THE RF ORCE
=
169
I
or
THE PARABOLA
oc
Let
be the inclination of the tangent

in the small triangle
TT
to the
axis
AX;
y
2
abc taiia.=dyldx.
Since
= iax,
dy/dx=2a/y,
tan oc =2 a /y,
so that
?/=2&/tanoc=2cotoc.
Differentiating this
we
get (see Calculus
Made
Easy,
p. 40)
j
*
_tanocx0 2xsec 2 oce?oc_

tan 2 a
2a da
sin 2
we have
Ilso, = y /4:a = ia
2
,
cot 2 oc/4a
a cot 2 oc
a cos 2 oc/sin 2 a.
;
o get dx, differentiate this fraction
we
get
_ sin
d(a
z
oc
xd(a cos 2 oc) a cos 2 oc x d(sm 2 a. )

sin4
a
dv= sin oc da.
'
to get
cos 2 a) let
2
,
=acos 2 oc and cosoc=v,
then
= av
dz=2av dv,
and
dz 2a cos oc sin a da..
Similarly, d(sin 2 a,)
= 2 sin ex cos a da.,

sin* a.
so that
dx=
2a
sin 3 acosa.da.-2a cos 3
a sin a da.
2a
cot a
sin2 oc
cfoc
'
2a (sin
oc -f
cos a) cos
ada _
sin 3 oc
smce sm oc+cos oc=l

2
2
THE RF ORCE
170
Now,
(ds) 2 =(dx) 2
+ (di/)
4
_ a
cot 2 a,(da) 2
sin
a sin 4 a _ 4a2 cosec 2 a (doif _ 4a2 (da.) 2 sin4 a sin 6 a.

so that, finally,
4a 2 (c7a) 2 _ 4a 2 (l+cot 2 a)(cfa ) 2

sin 4 a.
'
ds = 2a da./ sin 3 a,
since,
(1)
The sign is minus, and vice versa.
when a
increases, s decreases,
We
have obtained an expression
for the length of a
small arc of the curve. Let us now seek an expression for the length of " a little bit " of the tangent on which
the curve
is rolling,
that
is,
let
us get dt.
In the right angled triangle
REM,
or
RE=RM cosoc,
so that
x=tcosa.,
t=xj cos a.=a cot 2 a/cos a. = a cos oc/sin2 oc.

Differentiating,
sin 2 oc gives 2 sin
and remembering that

cos
a. da.,
differentiating
we
get
sin 2 oc
dt or
( a
sin oc da.)
a cos oc x 2 sin oc cos oc da.

sin 4
dt=
ado.
sin
2a cos 2 a. da.
a
,
snra
simplify
,,
,
,
Now, we can
and subtract,
,
this
.
by a
little artifice
add
,,
2ada.
-: sin a.
that
2asm 2 a.da.
sin 3
is,
â
we
get
THE RF ORCE
THE PARABOLA
j._/Za.doL
171
adaS\
sin
/2acos 2 oid<x
\
2asw. 2 a.doL\
sin 3
~ \sinoc
. .
a/
sin 3 oc
2
/'
iat
is,
dt=-
1JL
adoi sina
2a (sin
2adoi
oc-f cos -r-x
a) den
siroc
ad
ado. 7j eft=^
sin
sira
^r
/ft .
(2) ' x
We
can now proceed as outlined above

ffiâ
.
2doc ^ 7 7j 7/ dsdt=^d(s t) = ^>

sin*
sma
-.
2ada. - ^ = ado. sira

cZa/sin a.
sinoc
1=\ d(st) =
integrate this
a efoc/sin a= a
To
hen
we must remember what we got

?/
we
differentiated
= log
tan(#/2).
(Here
is
psilon
coming on the scene
!)
Let s=tan^, then y=\og e z.
dyldz=llz=lltan{x/2),
see
dz/dx=(ll2)sec 2 (x/2)
6),
Calculus
Made
Easy, p. 172, Ex.

1
so that
dy
^ X ^~^ - 2 X tan(#/2) Xsec {X

2/
dz_(fy_l
'
/o\ Z)
= l/2sin(^/2)cos(^/2)=l/sin2(^/2)=l/sin^,
o that
dy=dx/ sin x, and
therefore
|d#/sina?= &/=*/= log e tan (a?/2)+C;

o that here
s
t=a log tan(a/2) + C.

e
Find now the value of C.
THE RF ORCE
'
172

o
When a=90 = 7r/2=l-5708, t=s=0,

s
-^=0=-alog
tan(7r/4)
+ C=-alog l + C=0+C
e
and therefore C=0. Hence s = t alog tan(a/2).

e
Now AF=a. In AF=FR xsmARF,

because the sides of
the right angled triangle AR. and angle ARF =xng\e ATR=t the two triangles ARF and AT
tan(a/2).
Tl
tl
are perpendicular to one another respectively, so th*
FR = a/ sin ol;
coordinates of
also
SR = s 1= log
on the catenary with respect to
axes TT',
SH, are therefore y=ajsmcL, x= log
tan(a/2)
e
the last expression may be written a?/a=log tan(a/I that tan(oc/2) = -*/. Now cot (a/2) = l/tan(a/2) = \je- x a = e x a
is,
l l
.
We
f
have therefore
v
'
'
a * + r*=ta(/2) + cot(a/2)= 8in |! + sm(a/2 cosi (a/2)

\
i
fS
is
t
2 2 _ 2[sin (a/2)+cos (a/ 2)] 2 sin (a/2) cos (a/2)
= "
sin 2 (a/2)
or
a;/ a
+ e-^ a = 2/sina = 2?//. It follows that y = (aj2){6 x a + e-*l a

l
),
which
equation of the path followed by the focus

the rolling of the parabola along TT'. the equation of the catenary.
duri
is
This
From
a parabola
can therefore obtain a catenary. The similitude form is not merely a matter of chance, the two cur
are cousins, after
all
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
'ROBABILITY CURVE
" All Nature
is
XIII.
:
raERE EPSILON ATTEMPTS TO FORETELL THE AND THE LAW OF ERRORS

but Art, unknown to thee,
understood." Pope (Essay on Man).
All Chance, Direction which thou can'st not see,
All Discord,
Harmony not
^HE future holds very few certainties.
It
is
neans absolutely certain that to-morrow will
by no come
is
neaning by
it
the return of daylight on the portion of
he Earth on which
nfinitely
entirely
;o
we
live.
Only,
its
return
so
probable that
we
are justified in discarding

its failure
the extremely remote possibility of
return.
On
will
the other hand,
it is
absolutely certain that time
be going on for ever, even in an absolutely void
Universe, with nothing to

bo give
mark
its
progress, nothing
a unit
by which
is
this progress
may
be measured.
Equally certain
the fact that space will exist for ever,
possibly entirely vacant, devoid of anything that could

give the notion of its existence,
still less
of its
magnitude.
Time and space are abstract things which can exist by themselves apart from any other consideration in fact, their absence is inconceivable. The return of
173
THE RF ORCE
174
daylight

is
an
event,
and the occurrence

any future time is no certainty
is
of
an even
postulates
the existence of some concrete thing, th
existence of which at
certain
;
by no mear
definit
hence there
in the
occurrence of any future event.

is
All that can be sai
that a particular event is probable, some events bein more probable than others, according to the case, an for some events, the possibility of the non-occurrenc
of
which
is
so exceedingly remote as to
is
be
all
bi
absolutely negligible, the probability
spoken of as
certainty, although not strictly so in reality.
There are various degrees of probability, from th

so-called
certainty
to
impossibility,
which
is
on!
negative certainty.
These degrees are usually expresse
by the use of words, the only way available whenevc means are lacking to express the probability of son
event as a mathematical statement which
a definite piece of information.
the daylight will return in a few hours
will constitui
It is " certain " th*

;
it is
extremel
ti
probable that
I,
a strong healthy man,

it
;
shall live
to-morrow to see
seedy-looking
it is
very probable that this
o!
man
will
do the same.
In the case of
sick person this is probable, or possible
that
is,
hard]
perso:
probable
as
or improbable
death,
in the case of a
dead
we understand
it is
impossible.
First, there
left
There are two kinds of probabilities.

the probability of events that are entirely
to chanc
that
of
is,
the circumstances determining the occurren
which are absolutely beyond control.
Such
is,
f-
instance, the probability of throwing double six at die
THE RF ORCE
THE PROBABILITY CURVE

or of turning
175
up four aces by taking
at
random four cards

This kind
out of a pack, or of pulling out a black or a white ball
from a bag containing balls of either colour.

Secondly, there
influenced in
of probability is specially interesting to the gambler.

is
the probability of events that are

definite
some
consistently so as to eliminate as
way by agents which act much as possible all
elements of chance, without being able to eradicate them

completely.
gunner, for instance, will consistently
direct his efforts
towards the attainment of a hit exactly

;
at the centre of the target to ascertain the
an astronomer endeavouring
mean
distance of the
moon from
the
earth, or a physicist
engaged in the determination of
the specific heat of

all
their
some substance, will concentrate mathematical and experimental skill on the
obtainment of a value as nearly correct as possible.

Yourself, while trying to extricate the value of epsilon
from measurements of an arc of rectangular hyperbola,

all causes of discrepancy between your and the known value. In other words, the mere chance is out of the question dice are loaded ruling factor. It is not eliminated altogether, howas a ever it remains an important factor in determining the discrepancy between the result sought and the result obtained, between the centre of the target and the spot actually hit, between the values found for the distance of the moon, the specific heat of the substance, or your value of epsilon, and the correct value for these
strove to avoid
own
result
quantities
respectively.
This kind of probability
is
speicially useful to
the scientist.
THE RF ORCE
176
Of the
elaborate

first
kind of probability we shall say
little.
It is easily expressed numerically,
and lends
but,
itself to
mathematical
treatment,
as
every
gambler has found by dire experience, practical attempts to verify the mathematical laws which are supposed to
govern
it
generally lead to disappointment even in the
simplest cases.
For instance, there
is
evidently one
chance in six of throwing one particular number of points in a one-dice throw, but if we throw a dice repeatedly,
a great
many
times,
and observe how many times each
number of points turns up, we shall probably find that the number of aces, twos, etc., thrown up differs from one sixth of the total number of throws to a greater
extent than theoretical considerations would lead us to
expect.
As this statement may be criticised as being by no means correct, it seems worth while, in order to avoid
misunderstanding, to state in detail the result of one
particular experiment
made
to ascertain to
what
extent
one
that
may
is,
expect the mathematical law to be verified

the analysis of the result of twelve him dree
dice,
throws of a single
given in the following table

as uniformly as possible, were
The throws, performed

cally,
divided into 20 sets of 60 throws each, so that, theoreti
each face of the dice should be thrown up

set.
tei
Of course, no one would expect thi to occur in any set but what one would expect is that as the number of throws increased, the result of accumu
times in each
;
lated sets should approach nearer
and nearer to an equa
distribution of the throws between the six faces of th
THE RF ORCE

ce.
177
This will not generally occur, in any practical

is
periment which
e occurrences
e
pushed
far enough.
In the table,
surprisingly
which are in agreement with the theory
shown
in heavier type (their
number
is
mil. 17 only,
out of 120, in the
left half of
the table, and
only, out of 120, in the right-hand half of the table.

No. of times that each face of the dice turned up in each set.
1
Total
number of times that each face of the dice turned up in

all
the throws.
82:1
3
10
14
11
13
11
6
12
12 14 9
7
9 9
11
12
11
10
9
11
9 8
10
9
10 24 33
41 51
61
11
13
ri
8
18
10
17
22
31
29
41
4
5 6
7
10
6
10 10
8
6 5
12
11
9 5
12
11
15 10 9
13
17
11
14
9
12 12
8 9
10
11
5
11
10 9 8
13
7
67 75 85
102
55 65 74
81
42 48 53 65
76 85
91
23 34 43 48 60
71
16
26 35 50 59 72 89 100 115 123 130 138 148

161
27
38 48 62
71
88
108
12
8 5
7
11
6 10 9 14
11
15
8
13 14
94 100
115 123 130 141 153 165 173 186 202 113 123 130
141
76 87 97
111 121
8
7 8
100
111
12 13
10
12
11
8 10
11
12
15
14
10
13 12
7
15
16
8
11
12 12
7
11
17
18
19
12
11
10
11
8
13
16
14
1
10
17
12
10 10 10 10 8 6 9
12
123
138
133
144
151
146
157
148 159
159
173
169
169
180
20
173 180 180 190 174 192 188 207 183 201 193 216
83 95 103 116 130 140 150 160 170 178 184 193 205
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
hows the " occurrence " of ach face of the dice, that is, the number of times that ach face of the dice turn< id up in each set taken M G.E.
The
left half of
the table
THE RF ORCE
178

while
individually,
the
right
all
half
sets
shows
this
sai
number
of
times for
the
left
together,
as
experiment went on.
The
portion of the
tal
shows that
in the first
set the greatest departure
any occurrence from the

30 per cent.
this greatest
;
theoretical one, 10,
is
3,
in the
first
is
departure
two sets, taken togeth 4, and as the theoreti

20 per cen
occurrence
is
20, this is a discrepancy of
while in the
first
is
three sets, taken together, the great

first
f(
discrepancy
sets it
is
4 in 30 or 13-3 per cent., for the
12-5 per cent., for the first five sets
it is
per cent., and so on.
The
relative discrepancy decrea
gradually as one would expect, as the greater the occ

rence,
the smaller the discrepancy becomes in
cc
parison,
it
even
if
it
actually increases numerically,

first set
did here, rising from 3 in the

four and also in the
it is
to 4 in the
two and
first
also in the first three sets together, to 5 in

first five sets
taken togetl
t
What
intended to convey by the statement

that this gradual approach
practical attempts to verify the theory generally leac
disappointment
is
t<
theoretical result does not as a rule continue, even
w
(
dealing with a large
number
of chance-elements
throws
upset
in this case).
This gradual approach

first sets
is aire
when
considering the six

7,
together (grea
departure,
or 11-7 per cent., a relative discrepa
higher than the one before, which was 10 per cer
but one would expect, occasionally, such irregular in a distribution of numbers entirely governed
chance, as long as the
number
of chance-element
THE RF ORCE

nail,
s
179
and the
proceed,
six first sets only represent
360 throws.
we
screpancies to
)lds
we would however expect the relative diminish in value. But chance always
in reserve the unexpected, which here appears the 19th set, in which a " two " turned up once only
sixty throws, while a five
'
turned up seventeen times,

(a
fairly
his
gives for the
1140 throws
respectable
imber
/es,
r
of chance-elements) a
departure of 17 for the
or a relative discrepancy of 8-9 per cent., whereas

first sets
the 7
(420 throws) this was 7-1 per cent,
lly.
:
In other words, by nearly trebling the number
throws, from 420 to 1140,
we got
is
further from the

it.
leoretical result instead of nearer to
It will
be objected that 1140

This
is
umber.
ad the
by no means a great a mathematician's argument, and

his objection
is is
number been 20,000

This
een the same.
exactly what
would have meant by the

disappointwill
;atement that practical verifications

ig
are
however icks, which

:
far
will
they are pushed, chance

upset
all
play
fact,
theory,
and,
in
othing but an infinitely great, that
umber
i
of throws, in this case,
is, an unpractical, would allow the variety
these tricks to be exhausted fairly with respect to the

dice, so as to secure
x faces of the
fter
an even distribution
few scores of thousands of throws, several

one
with an abnormal recurrence of the
undred throws without a single occurrence of

articular face, or
ime
face,
may
perfectly well occur, which will upset
verything.
Now, was the deficiency
of "
twos " and the excess of
THE RF ORCE
180

?
" fives " due to a defect of the dice

little
The
followii
i
table,
which gives the particulars

of the dice
of groups
which the same face

will
turned up consecutive!
it, it is
answer the question.

three
From
seen that grou]
occur four times, ar that groups of three consecutive " twos " were obtain*
of
consecutive
" fives "
three times, and groups of four consecutive " twos
were obtained twice
the chance seems therefore

Face of the
dice.
(i
4
3
4
3 3
4
3
5 3 3
3
3 3 3
3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 4
favour the " twos " and not the " fives."
Moreov
1<
groups of three " sixes " were obtained in not
than seven instances, and a group of
five consecuti
" fours " was obtained once. From this table one woi expect a deficiency of " threes " and an excess of ac
and " sixes," yet the " threes " were norm " sixes " only in slight excess, and the " four the were deficient in number. The supposition of a " loade<
" fours "
dice
It
is
is
therefore not supported
by the
results genera
not supported either by an examination of the h

half of the table showing the distribution of poi
hand
in the experiment.
THE RF ORCE

It
;
181
is,
in fact, absolutely hopeless to predict future
hance-events from
a study of the similar chance-
vents which have just taken place.
Not
so,
however, with the second kind of probability,

reason of
/liich is for this
much
greater interest
and
is
cientific utility.
The
initial
numerical nature of the
hance-element of the former type of probability

iere
'
generally entirely lacking.
We
can only replace

statistical
he looseness inherent to the use of words by the precision

f
a mathematical expression
by gathering
bservations.
In other words, we cannot state a priori

is (as
yhat the probability
one sixth in the case of a single
hrow
of a dice),
but we must observe the number of
imes a stated event occurs, and we can then derive rom the observations a numerical statement which vill convey a definite meaning as to the probable
)ccurrence, in the future, of the event
under observation.
of the ratio
:
3y
probability," then,
we mean the value
total
number of times an event occurs number of possible occurrences'

fact
For instance, from the

:he centre
that a gunner has hit
of the target once for every ten
rounds he
las fired,
3entre of
:S
we may surmise that the probability of the the target being hit by him in subsequent firing
is,
once out of ten rounds, or one in ten, that

all the
1/10,
supposing
conditions to remain exactly the same.

it
This
is
a precise numerical statement, but
must
not be forgotten that, although its verification will in
general be found
more
satisfactory than with the other
THE RF ORCE
182

its
type of probability,
real
;
precision
is
in fact, it
is
only a probability.
more apparent tha: We have put

i:
italics a
:
sentence that must always be present in one'
mind the number expressing the probability is onl of any value if the conditions obtaining while th statistical observations were made continue to exifduring the period over which the verification of th
probability
is
pursued.
There
will
no way of securing this. become affected by fatigue, the

is
The best gunm

rifling of
the gu
will wear, the
wind
will vary, the will alter,
barometric pressui
tl
and the temperature
and, with them,
tenuity of the atmospherical resisting
medium
throug
which the shot travels
despite care in manufactu:

fres
charges are not absolutely uniform, and with a
batch of ammunition a perceptible difference

sist
may
pe
during the rest of the
firing, altering
it
permanent
the conditions under which

Besides, there
seen.
is
takes place.
always the possibility of the unfor

only
A charge, now and again, will be faulty, somethii

Clearly, the numerical probability
close verification
is
is
will fail.
guide,
and
?
not to be expected.
Is there
reliable
any way by which we can make it mo Yes. By taking a very large number
all
observations under
possible conditions, favourat
and otherwise.
The
figure expressing the probabili
of the event will then include every factor
which
modify its occurrence, even the unforeseen circumstanc These will have possibly taken place repeatedly if t
number
of observations is very large,
but this very
lai
THE RF ORCE
I
umber
THE PROBABILITY. CURVE

of
183
their
observations
will
precisely
restrict
lfluence to its proper magnitude.
simple example will
make
this clear.
3n persons at
random, and ask them to
we take put down the

If
it will
orrect time as obtained
from their watches,
be
)imd most likely that not two watches agree, and that
ot one of
kely that
them is actually quite correct. It is also most some of the watches will be slow and the
;
thers will be fast
it
is
highly improbable that
all
hould be either slow or

.verage of the ten times
fast.
Hence, by taking the
aav
call
put down we shall get what we the " observed correct time," and this will
most But what about the unforeseen ? tVhat if one of the persons had just arrived from Cairo md had not yet set his watch to Greenwich time, and lad forgotten to inform us that it is two hours fast ?
nost likely be nearer the actual correct time than
>f
the times put down.
)ur " observed correct time " would be seriously in

>rror,
being fast by 120/10 minutes, or 12 minutes

;
fast.
Instead of 10, take 100 people

)f
the absent-mindedness our Cairo friend will only throw out the " observed
correct
time " by 120/100 minutes, that
is, 1
minute and
reduced to
other
12 seconds.
7-2
With 1000 people the
effect is
seconds.
of
But with the increased number

unforeseen
introduced.
people,
causes of error will probably have been
undetected
What if one watch has stopped altogether, An ordinary watch, that is, one with a
dial divided into 12 hours, cannot possibly be wrong by more than 6 hours, and the greatest possible error arising
THE RF ORCE
184
from the fact would therefore be 720/100=7-2 minute or 7 minutes, 12 seconds with 100 people, and 43seconds with 1000 people, while with 10,000 people
would only amount to 4-32 seconds. If several watch* it is likely that some will be put dow as fast and others as slow for instance, if it is actual] 3 p.m. a watch which stopped at 8 a.m. will be believe to be 5 hours fast, while a watch which stopped i 11 a.m. will be thought to be 4 hours slow. In this wa
,
have stopped,
the errors will balance one another to a certain exten

as well as being reduced to insignificance
by the
and
gre*
number
of observations.
By
multiplying the observe

unfor*
tions so as to include all possible conditions
seen circumstances a twofold result

errors balance one another
is
therefore achieved
effect of accident
and the
errors
is
rendered negligible.
first sight,
There seems, at
gunner.
to exist a great different

of
tl
between the case of the watches and the case
The " observed
correct time " will certain
be a very close approximation to the true correct tim

that
is,
the verification will be very good.
In the
ca;
of the gunner, the verification
may
turn out to be vei

likely
bad.
It is quite possible
although hardly
tha
tl
although the probability of a hit at the centre of

target
is
1/10, five or six shots in succession
should happt
to be central hits.
here steps
of firing
in.
The uncontrollable element of chan However, in the long run, if the conditio]
if
remain the same as before,
the estimate
based on a sufficiently great number of observatioi
and
if
the verification also spreads over a sufficient
THE RF ORCE
I
great
to

number
effect
185
magnitude will be
of shots to restore its proper

of
the
fortuitous circumstances,
it
found that the probability
will allow of a fair verification.
In the case of the watches, the numerical result was

not a probability of the occurrence of an event at
it
all,
was the value
itself of
a certain quantity.
In the case
of
of the gunner, the fraction 1/10
was the probability
the occurrence of a central hit, not the actual location

of the hit itself,
hence the difference.
The two
illustra-
tions are, however, as a
matter
of fact, exactly similar.
Each time noted down

at the correct time
;
is,
so to speak, a " shot " aiming
for each
watch giving exactly the

is
correct time, a central " hit "

in every ten is
secured.
If
one watch
exactly correct on the
average, the
probability
is
that as
we
consult a further
number
five
of
watches, one out of every ten will be correct, yet

quite possible
it is
although
hardly so
that
or
six
If
watches examined consecutively should be correct.

the gunner
target, the
his shots
is
shooting at a particular
to the
mark being invisible to we shall certainly get a close approximation exact position of that mark (see Fig. 33). The
is
mark on a blank us, by averaging all
above considerations have a great importance in experimental science, for an observer, whether he
ing to find the
attemptheat of a
moon's distance or the
specific
substance, or the value of epsilon from the rectangular
hyperbola,
target
is
the
merely trying to secure a central hit at a " bull's eye " is here a mere number by
eliminating,
affecting
or
making allowance
for
all
the factors
just
the accuracy of his
" firing,"
as
the
THE RF ORCE
"
"
186
skilled

gunner makes allowance for the range, the
of the target,
motion
the "
jump
the " drift " of the projectile, " of the gun, the wind, the attenuation of
the atmosphere in high angle firing, etc. Each result obtained is a " shot " which may usually be recorded on a " target diagram " as such diagrams are very
Fig. 33.
aptly termed.
The points about which the " shots
cluster represent the average value obtained
sought quantity
for the the distance between each " shot
and
this point represents the error of the corresponding
individual determination.
particular feature of such observations isjthat the " bull's eye " is absent, the observer " fires " at a blank
target
the correct value of the sought quantity
is
generally
unknown
except
in the case of purely ex-
perimental observations performed for an educational
THE RF ORCE
I
in
fact,

of
187
epsilon
purpose, like our graphical determinations
the correct value of the sought quantity can
only be approximated by taking the arithmetical

of the results
given by
This
is
all
the observations
mean made to
ascertain
it.
ciently great
number
to diminish the effect
on the assumption that a suffihave been made of exceptionally large errors, and
of observations
it is
that there
is
an equal tendency for errors to be in excess
or in default,
by which
is
meant that
if
one of the
is
values found
too great
by
a certain amount, there
amongst the other values found one which is too small by practically the same amount, so that, as far as these
two values are concerned,

This
is
their
average
gives
the
correct value of the required quantity.
no doubt a correct assumption
if
the errors are
governed
by chance
alone,
It is
" accidental " errors.

is
what are called not correct if some cause

being
introducing what are
is,
making the observed
results either consistently too
low or consistently too high,

called " systematic " errors, that
for the " shot " to deviate
causing a tendency
always in the same direction,
although, owing to the effect of accidental errors, the
amount
of the deviation is variable.
For instance, to
return to our illustration of a gunner firing at a target,
a defective charge
the wind,
errors.
if
is
a cause of accidental error, while

for, is
not allowed
skill of
a source of systematic
is
The whole
an observer
chiefly directed
towards the elimination of systematic errors, whether
by doing away with

their effects.
If
their causes or
by allowing
for
he
is
successful, then the arithmetical
THE RF ORCE
188

of
mean
his
results,
if
fairly
numerous observations
This true value,
have been made,

let it
will
be a very close approximation
indeed to the true value he seeks.
be remembered,
will
remain for
unknown, and in most cases ever unknown, being in fact known only
is
from the
it,
results of the observations
observations which are each of

errors
made them
to ascertain
affected by
unknown
which the Calculus
of Probabilities
enables us to guess more or less successfully, without

allowing us really to
know
if
the guess
is
good or bad.
is
We only know that, given a very large number of observations free
from systematic
errors,
the guess
a good
one, but in
many
cases
we probably
are never sure
there are no unsuspected systematic errors.
The only
way to approach immunity in this respect is to vanas much as possible the methods of observation and the
instruments
used
the
systematic
errors
will
then
assume to a certain extent the character

as
of accidental
errors affecting the aggregate of the results obtained,
some
will
tend to make the results too high, while
others will tend to
make
it
too low.
By
the error of an individual observation belonging
to a group, then,
we mean the
difference
result oi
of
all
individual observation
results
of
arithmetical
mean
the
the
observations belonging to the group
is called the " absolute error," or, in some cases " the residual " of the individual observation concerned
This
Now, always supposing that the number

tions or " shots "
is
of observa
very large,
it
is
evident a prior
that
THE RF ORCE
I
at

Errors in one direction (that
is,
189
result
(1)
making the
too large, say) will be just as frequent as errors in the

opposite direction (making the result too small).
(2)
Large errors
will
not occur as frequently as small
ones.
(3)
all.
Very large
errors in either direction will not occur
If
be the magnitude of an error and

is,
of its occurrence, that
its
probability,
y the frequency x and y must

of the function
be connected in such a
expressing
features,
way that the graph

possesses
facts
their
connection
the
very
stated
definite
illustrating
three
above
that
(1)
is
to the axis of y, since the frequency

positive or negative equal values of x.
The graph must be symmetrical with respect is the same for
x=0,
The graph must pass through a maximum for x occur more frequently. increases numerically, As x y must decrease, (3) and become nil or at any rate negligibly small when
(2)
since small values of
x becomes And our
large.
search for such a function leads us again face

is
.
to face with epsilon, for such a graph

for equation a function
found to have
such as
y=e~ x2
.
Why
a minus
is
sign
Remember
that
y must be
small
when x
large,
and this will occur if //^1/e*2 Why square the index ? So as to get the same value of y, whatever may be the sign of the error, that is, of x. The above function gives a very definite curve we want a function
;
which can adapt
itself
to all the cases that
we may
THE RF ORCE
190

We
give
It
it
have to consider.
more
elasticity
by
intro:fi
,
ducing two constants.
becomes then y=ke~* where h and a have numerical values depending on
the particular conditions governing the distribution of the " shots."
Here
it
may
be asked
"
Why
use epsilon
when any
"
?
other constant would give the same kind of curve
The reason
lies in
,
the fact that, whether

still
or integrate e x
we
get e x
we differentiate To use another constant,
such as 2 or
3,
instead of 2*718, would not upset the

it would lead to unwieldy and would complicate matters
probability apple cart, but

differentials
and
integrals,
needlessly.
In one respect the mathematical formula

represent
great,
fails
to
what occurs
in practice.
It allows of very
even of
infinitely great values for x, while, in
practice, as
we have
seen, very large errors
do not occur.
is
The
greatest error of an ordinary clock

;
6 hours,
it
cannot possibly be more

infinite distance
even
if
fired in the opposite
direction to that of the target a shot will not pass an
ments
on
clumsily
away from it even careless measuredrawn rectangular hyperbola

;
cannot give values
less
than zero, and
will
not give
values greater than 4 or 5 at the outset.
But, with
this exception, the formula follows very closely
what
for
actually
this
happens
the
in
practice,
and
;
it
is
called
reason
Law
of
Errors
its
graph,
called
the Probability Curve, gives as ordinate the

bility of the occurrence of the
proba-
corresponding error as
abscissa.
THE RF ORCE

We
If
191
ing to the particular
k and a can have different values accordway in which errors do occur. we suppose a=l, then y=k~ x2 if now we give k
see that
;
values
1,
2,
3,
4,
etc.,
we
get, for
particular curve as seen in Fig. 34.

are,
each value of k, a These various curves

is
however, merely copies of the same curve, namely,

",
y=e- x
to a different scale of y.
This
evident from
THE RF ORCE
192

;
the position k occupies in the equation

multiplier.
it is
simply a
is.
/
Now when x=0,

x=0, and
y=7ce=k.
That
ii
the ordinate at
-of
this is the probable frequency
zero error. The greater the probability of very small errors the more " peaked " will be the curve,
k,
the greater will be

this
and
inversely.
By
altering in
way
the scale to which
is
plotted,
we
introduce
in the
mathematical equation whatever causes influence
Fig. 35.
the probability of small errors, that

of individual results.
is,
the accuracy
Otherwise, k has no effect whatever

is,
on the shape
of the curve, that

;
on the relative
k,
dis-
tribution of errors
if
we double
we double
the
number (or probability) of large errors as well as the number (or probability) of small ones. If we make k=l, then y=e~ a2x2 and if we give to a values 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., for each value of a we again In this get a particular curve, as shown in Fig. 35.
,
case,
however,
all
the curves are different
they
all
cut the axis of

for
all,
at the
same
is
but the greater a
point, since h is the same the more " peaked " is the
THE RF ORCE
I
arve.

The physical
is
193
fact corresponding to a "
peaked
"
urve
a greater proportion of small errors, that
is,
greater general accuracy of the group of observations

onsidered.
iodnlns or
For
this reason
is
called the accuracy
modulus of precision.
and k in any particular

'his will
The actual values of case depend on the con-
istency or otherwise of the observations themselves,
be more evident as we proceed.
Bessel
eries
(Fundamenta Astronomiae) has examined a

470 astronomical determinations made by
of
Bradley, in order to
>f
compare the theoretical frequency
>f
the errors with the distribution of the actual departures all the results obtained. He gives *
:
Magnitude
of error.
Observed number
of errors.
Number
of errors
given by
Between 0"0 and 0"1 0"] (T-2

0"-2 0"-3
94
88 78 58 51 36 26
14
95
89 78 64 50 36 24
15
0"-3
0"-4 0"-5
0"-6
0"-7
0"-4 0"-5
0"-6
o"-7
O'-S 0"-9
o"-8 0"-9
l'-O
10
7
There
are, besides, eight
observed errors greater than

It will
l"-0 against
the five given by theory.

is
be found
that there
generally a tendency for large errors to
be somewhat more frequent than theory would lead us

to expect.
*
See Taylor's Scientific Memoirs,
vol.
ii.
1841.
g.e.
THE RF ORCE
194

close
The
agreement of the observed and

is
calculatec
frequencies of errors
Fig. 36.
illustrated
by the diagram
The curve represents the
theoretical frequency
while the dots represent the observed frequency plotte(

at the middle of the successive spaces of 0"-l representing
the successive error magnitudes, that
is,
at the pointi
ii
B_
E
Si
i 0-9
rors
m
x^
g
"
R
S"
:.=:.
>
. 1
C)
-1
2A 3 4
>
-6
7 -8 -9
1*0
+ errors
Mc gn tud eof en or
P.
aba b!e
erro r
Pro bab
e
ror
Fig. 36.
corresponding to the
of errors.
mean magnitude
is
of each grou
The agreement
of errors
indeed remarkable, an
gives confidence in the mathematical deductions whic

arise
from the law
and form the
basis of tr
Calculus of Probabilities.
The arithmetical mean of a number of values obtaine by measuring the same quantity is, however, liable be affected itself by some error, as it is conceivab
1
THE RF ORCE

bat the
195
alance
sum of the sum
all
the
errors should not exactly
of all the
errors,
specially
if
the
bservations are not very numerous.
From
the general
it
is
jatures of the grouping of the results, however,

ossible to
form an idea as to the probable error of their rithmetical mean, so as to ascertain two values (upper
nd lower limits), between which the true value of the uantity measured as given by the set of observations
nder
consideration
is
situated.
This
possible
dis-
repancy between the arithmetical mean and the true alue is called the " probable error," and is denoted
>y r.
For instance,
if
the arithmetical
is
mean
of the
and it is ound that the probable error r is 0-02, it means that he true value is somewhere between 52-82 and 52-86, ,nd this is expressed by stating the result as being
esults of a
group of observations
52-84,
.2-84
+ 0-02.
of this probable error
is
The value
he same.
such that the

is
lumber of errors greater and smaller, respectively,

In other words,
if all
the errors are arranged
n order of magnitude, the error which occupies the

>osition at the
Jow,
middle of the
list is
the probable error.
the area of the graph representing the law of

is
Trors
evidently
proportional
to
the
number
of
)bservations, since the height of each successive strip

9
proportional to the
number
is
of errors of
any particular
nagnitude, while the width of the strip corresponding

o each error
magnitude
the same.
It follows that the
nagnitude of the probable error of the arithmetical
nean
of a
group
of observations, as defined above, is
THE RF ORCE
196

ea<
the abscissa of the ordinate which divides equally

of the
two equal areas included between the probabili curve, the axis of x and the axis of y respectively (s
Fig. 36).
In the
figure, the
shaded area
is
exactly
o:
quarter of the total area between the graph and

axis of x,
and represents one quarter of the number The ordinate AB is merely the pi observations.
bability
or frequency of
is
occurrence
of
this particul
error of value r.
It is not possible to lay too
much
stress
on the
is
that this determination

is
based on a hypothesis whi

infinitely
only correct
is
when an
obtained,
large
number
01
observations
by such methods that
chance can affect their

of
results,
without the possibil
the observer.
of course,
any systematic errors or of any bias on the part The first part of this condition cann
be actually
satisfied
;
however, the theoreti

are
considerations
outlined
above
supposed
to
approximately true in the case of even a limited num of observations, provided these are only affected
accidental errors.
It
is,
however,
is
still
impossible to
how
close to the true value
the arithmetical
all
m
i
value derived from the observations,
we can do
ascertain the probability that the error of this ar
metical
mean value
is
is
less
than any particular
gi
value
the true value remains always unknown.
another conclusion to be derived from fact that the area of a given portion of the probab
There
curve represents the number of observations correspi

j
ing to the
two ordinates between which
it
is
situs
THE RF ORCE
I
"or

that the final error
is
197
,nd also the probability
between
he limits indicated
the whole area,
by the corresponding abscissae, the two limits are o and +00

all
between these two limits

he
final
the
possible
values
of
error
are
evidently included, so
is
that
the
jrobability that the final error

s
between these limits
a certainty.
We
can represent certainty by unity,

It follows that the
since this
corresponds to an occurrence of a hundred
per cent, of the possible events.
area of the curve

scale
must be equal to unity

is
to
some
in
every case, and the constants h and

obtained.
a must
be of such value that this
As a depends
if
on the accuracy and consistency of the observations, k
must depend on the value

(see Fig. 35),
of a.
For instance
a=\
will
be small so as to lower the curve,
which otherwise would have too great an area, while

if
a =10, the peak of the curve being very narrow, k must be large so as to give a tall peak, and thereby In this way, k, raise the area to its correct value.
that
is,
the scale of ordinates, adjusts
itself
automaticall
ally, so
that the probability curve shall satisfy
the
necessary conditions.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
XIV.
:
TAKING A CURVE TO PIECES

ANALYSIS.
EXPONENTIAL
Th
Have you
game
draw
is
ever built up a curve from two others

:
as follows
on a sheet
of
squared paper yoi

I.
at
random two curves such
as
/
\
A
B
^"X
and
II. (Fig. 37)
D^-
"\
iN
a"
%
dj/
b"
C'^r
/
e'
'//
a'
b'
dr
'
e"
e
Fig. 37.
Then, at equidistant points a,

ordinates,
b, c, d, etc.,
you
dra^
and add the ordinates

is
of
one curve to th
corresponding ordinates of the other.

the length aa'
For instance
addea to the length aa" to get a point A the length bb' is added to the length bb" to get the poirj B, and so on. Finally a curve is drawn through th
198
THE RF ORCE

>oints
.
199
A, B,
II.
etc.
This curve
is
built
and
Of course, the ordinates of
up of the curves more than two
urves
may
be added up in this manner, but we shall
oncern ourselves chiefly with only two.

Instead of taking two curves at random, one
may
1
ake curves given by their equation, such as

f
y
a
=x
2
,
2 =x-\-2.
Adding the ordinates
will
give
curve
i=i/ l -\-y 2
=x2 -{-x-\-2.
This
is
way which can be
ised for plotting a curve, the

>e split
equation of which
may
into several terms

;
which are easy to plot separif it
itely
)lot
from tables
for instance,
9
,
were required to
the graph of v/=sin 6-\-e the graph of
the quickest
sin
way would
and on the
De to plot
yx =
6
is
6 from tables giving
<inO-l, sin 0-2, etc. (since
in radians),
4ame piece of squared paper to plot the graph of y 2 =e B Erom tables giving e 01 e 2 etc., then to add the ordi"
nates of both graphs.
The
resultant graph ]/=]/i~{-]/2
would
//=sin
clearly
9
.
be
the
graph
having
for
equation
d+e When we
consider the inverse problem (that
is,
given
a graph obtained in this

of
way
by adding the ordinates

discover, as a rule,
is,
two curves which have been subsequently obliterated
to find these
two curves again) we
that this
cases in
is
not possible, except in simple cases, that
which the curves which have been added are

It
very simple and few in number.

possible to solve the
has been found
problem
it
of resolving a curve into
the
curves
from which
has been obtained by the
addition of ordinates, whatever

these
may
be the number of
all sine
component curves, when they are
curves.
THE RF ORCE
200

done
even
This can be
when
the
amplitudes
greatest ordinates
and the starting points of these

is,
or
sine
curves are different, provided their periodic times have
some simple
one curve
relation with one another, that
provided
of
that the length occupied by one complete portion
corresponding to
by a
180
is
an exact
fraction of
if
of the length occupied
certain
number
such
complete portions of another curve, so that

curves were
the axis of
intervals.
both
cross
continued indefinitely, both would
(here an angle) together at equidistant

a
In this case, the operation of resolving

its
curve into
analysis."
value, as
component
is
sine curves
is
called " harmonic
It
process of the
greatest scientific
it
enables the calculator to unravel the comof
plicated
result
several causes, each of
which
act?
it*
according to a sine law, and to trace this result to

various
simple elemental causes.
For instance,
is
the
i
height of the tide at any instant

great
the result of
number of causes, each one of which is simple and follows a sine law and by observing the tides fo: some time, one can, from the plotted observations deduce the several component curves representing th< separate variations of water level which, added together produce the tides, and in this manner deduce the exac
;
features of each particular cause.

in
These, once obtaine(
any particular case, can be added up again for year to come, and in this manner it is possible to predict th
tides a long time in advance.
From some theoretical considerations, it was though by several mathematicians that there should be a solu
THE RF ORCE

bion to the
201
its
problem of splitting a curve into
con-
stituents in the case of a curve built
up
of several
simple
exponential
curves.
Several
attempts
were
made
others
to find the solution of the problem in this case
by Dr. Silvanus Thompson and by the writer among
but
these
attempts
were
either
failures
or
attracted
little
attention,
and
remained
unknown
it
except to a few, probably because the question was

treated in a widely general manner, which caused
to
be forbidding to
all
but skilled mathematicians.
method
For instance, Professor Dale gave, in 1914, a general of analysis of which the present problem is but
a particular case. The solution of this particular case, the " exponential analysis " or the splitting into its
constituents of a curve
made up
of exponential
com-
ponents, has, however, been given quite recently
Mr. J.
W.
T. Walsh,* in a very simple manner,
by and
we shall explain in detail how this unravelling of the unknown curves can be successfully done. We should like first to remark that it is commonly
thought that there
truth.
is
nothing
left
to be discovered in
is
elementary mathematics.
Nothing
farther from the
The
writer has occasionally
come
across original
proofs of geometrical propositions discovered

sciously, of course
by some of his pupils.

hit
unconis
It
quite
in
possible for
any one to
upon an untrodden track
the field of elementary mathematics, and to discover

curious, important,
* See Proceedings
p. 26.
and sometimes extremely valuable

the
of
Physical Society of London, vol. xxxii.
THE RF ORCE
202
propositions, either in the
geometry or trigonometry.
domain of arithmetic, algel>i<i. The problem with which we are dealing is a case in point here was a problem which ought to have been solvable in a simple manner
;
if
only
it
could be tackled in the proper

its
way
a problem
of great importance for
practical applications, an
answer to which could apparently have been found by

a mere schoolboy, yet which was
still
!
begging for soluIt is true that
tion well into the twentieth century
the line of approach to the solution did belong to mathe-
matics somewhat beyond the schoolboy's grasp, and

that only a student of relatively advanced mathematical
attainment would
have followed the

;
author's
exposition of his
method
first,
but
this is chiefly because

of
he does not confine himself to a limited number
components at
and
because he leaves
in
his
reasoning gaps which those
who
are not experts in the
handling of mathematical tools would find practically

impossible to bridge.
step
Following the author's method
by step
in the simple case of

fully into the
two component
curves,
and entering
tions
mathematical transformathe
(which mathematicians generally skip, to
discomfiture of their readers, either without any remark at all, or, adding insult to injury, with the casual remark that " one can easily see that " or "it
is
evident that
"),
we
shall see that the process is very

itself
simple
the egg
of
of
Columbus
once
the dodge of
is
smashing the end of the egg on the table
thought
of.
Each
the exponential component curves has for
equation an expression of the form
y=Aeax
Generally
THE RF ORCE

peaking, a curve
is
203
given, either as such or
by several
rdinates (in practice the latter are
values given by
bservations or experiments), this curve being

o have been obtained
f
known
by the addition
of the ordinates
two exponential curves, the equations of which are e a x and y 2 --A 2 a * x where A A 2 a v a 2 are l inknown constants. The equation of the given curve
/1
=A
Fig. 38.
is
y=y
It
-\-y 2
or
y=A
ea* x
+A
2e
a- x
.
to discover the correct values of
A A
lt
The problem 2i ci\ and a 2

.
is
must be remembered that only a portion of the curve is given, and that this portion may not include
the intersection of the curve with the axis of y, or, in
other words,
it
which
is
zero.
may not have any point the abscissa of It may also be given by ordinates on
both sides of the axis of y, none of which, however, correspond to an abscissa x=0, the intercept on the
axis of
//.
Let y
y lt y 2 and y 3 be four
equidistant ordinates (see
THE RF ORCE
204

x for abscissa, and be the constant difference between the correspondwhich has
is,
Fig. 38), the first one of

let S
ing abscissae, that

secutive ordinates.
the space between any two con-
Let
x
,
be reckoned from the
first
ordinate
Q,
so that the abscissae (expressed in terms
of x) corresponding to
0,
y lt y 2 and y 3
are respectively
x =S, x 2 =2S, and x 3 =3S.

The
suffixes 0, 1, 2
ordinate in the series, or the
equal to S
and 3 indicate the place of each number of spaces each which separate it from the initial ordinate y Q
.
This
number
-,
of spaces
can be expressed generally by

origin.
Y~
where
is
reckoned from the
In order to obtain a relation from which we can

derive the four
unknown
quantities
A A
,
2,
a x and a 2
we must take
into consideration the portion of the

,
group of four ordinates y

to the origin, that
is,
y v y 2 and y z with
respect
introduce into the equation some
quantity which will express whether the ordinates are

near or far from the origin.
Such a quantity
equation,
is
and
in order to introduce it in the
we assume
&\ where kx and h 2 are sucl numbers that the above equations are numericalh
<>
=7s 1 ^ x
and
A =k
2
2e
satisfied.
This
of the
is
the process corresponding to

;
th<
res-
end of the egg on the table follows as a matter of course.

smashing
the
The equation
of the given curve
becomes then
that
is,
y=k
16
^+x)jr k 2 e a ô+x)
THE RF ORCE
I
first

for
205
Now,
yy x=0,
,
since
is
reckoned from the
ordinate
yQ
so that
^
that
is,
=:/- eiô-|-^ eô j

i
y
y~Pi, x=8,
=A +A
1
(1)
Also, for
so that
2
yx = Jc x e
Let
e aiS
a i*o ei$ _|_^
e ô e
2 s.
=z 1 and
^=z 2
then we have
2/1=^1^1+^2^2
Similarly, for
(2)
y=y x=2S, so that a 2a a ij2 =kx e ^ e ^ +k2 e #> e ^

2
,
yÂ^f+A^f,
or finally
Finally, for
y 2 =A 1 z 1 +A 2 z 2 y=y 3 x=3S, so that

2 2
,
(3)
y 3 =kt 6 ô e^s + 2 e
or, lastly,
aox
e 3M
y z =A x z?+A 2 z 2
(4)
Now, we can imagine an equation with one unknown having two solutions z x and z 2 such an equation will
;
be, of course, a quadratic equation of the
form
(5)
+p z+p
1
=--0
This
we
shall call the " principal equation."

if
Since % x and z 2 are solutions,
we
replace z either
by
z x or
by
z2
we
shall
Sl
2
have a numerical equality, or
+Pl2l+^2
=0./
THE RF ORCE
206

is
Nothing
equation
is
changed when every term
of the
same
by the same quantity. Multiply all the terms of the first equation by z x n and all the terms of the second equation by z 2 n where n is a whole number which is limited, as we shall see, by the condition that it must be smaller than the number of components we are seeking to find (so that, here, n must be either or 1), we get
multiplied
,
~i
-r/Vi*i -rPi
I
^2 ^2
z 2 " ~ 0.) JJ 1^2^2 ~T1J 2<~2
This
is
the same as
~ n+2_t_A-)
n+l_|_,j-)
*>
n+2 z2 +2hZ2 n+1 +lh<
Multiply
now
all
all
the
terms of the
first
equation
by
A
;
and
the terms of the second equation by
we get:
2 z2
n+2
+p A
1
z2
n+1
+p2 A 2 z
n
2
=0.j
Adding the two members on the members on the right, we still get an
left
and the two

:
equality
1
)
(A^+t+A^+^+pAA^^+A^
The highest power
this
+p2 {A 1 z1n +A 2 z2n )=0

of
(6)
^ we
have to deal with
in
3,
case
is,
is 3, is
hence n-\-2 cannot be greater than

1
that
If
either
or 0.
n=0
equation
(6)
becomes, since 2?!=! and z2 =\,

(7)
(A^+A^+pAA^+A^+p^+AÔ.
THE RF ORCE

(7)
207
Replacing the brackets in equation

(3), (2)
by
their values
from equations
and
(1) respectively,
we
get
If
yz+PiVi+lWJoÔ w=l, equation (6) becomes

(A 1 zl9 +A tzz9 )+p1 (A 1 z12 +A a zt2)
(8)
+2h(A 1 z 1 +A 2 z 2 )^0.
Replacing the brackets in equation
(9)
(9)
by
their values
from equations
(4), (3)
and
(2) respectively,
we
get
(10)
y3+2h!/2+2WJi=0
These equations
(8)
and
(10)
we
shall call the " prefirst
liminary equations," because they are the
ones
which are written down and solved when actually dealing with the analysis of an exponential curve into
its
components.
They
constitute
system of two
, ,
equations with two
and y z are given,
unknowns,^ and^) 2 since y y lt y 2 hence p x and^ 2 can be easily calculated.

,
Replacing p x and p 2 by their value in equation (5) and solving that equation, we get z x and z 2 the two
solutions.
Since
y y1
,
and
=A +A =A z -\-A
1
(11)
2z 2 ,
(12)
easily get
knowing z 1 and z 2 since y and y 1 are given, we A x and A 2 For this reason we shall call
.
the equations (11) and (12) the " final equations."
Now Zi=e ai& and

is
zv e
and
S are
known,
(S,
remember,
the interval between any two consecutive ordinates
among
it
the four equidistant ordinates
yXl y 2 and y 3
follows that
a x can
easily
be calculated.
THE RF ORCE
208

z 2 =a^
Similarly,
gives
readily
the
value
of
a2
have therefore obtained numerically the value of the four constants A v A 2 a x and a 2 and we can write
,
We
the numerical equation of the curve.
That
is all
Let us apply this method to an example. Let it be required to analyse the full line curve
Fig. 39 into its
of
two exponential
constituents.
We measure four ordinates, say, at x=0, a? =2, x =4 and x =6, and find ?/ =0-35, ^=0-71, y 2 =\- and
?/ 3
=3-67.
THE RF ORCE

We
get therefore for the preliminary equations
:
209
3-67
1-56+0-71^-fO^jô.j +1-56^ +0-71^ 2 =0. J

to solve such equations
is
(8')
(10')
The simplest way
as follows
v From
v From
Hence MenCe
, Q ,v (8)
we get
*
p^
2
1-56+0-71^
0^5~.
n^ (10 we get p
)
'
==
3-67+1-56^ 1 *
* ;
^6 +0-71^
0-35
3-67+1-56^
~0Tl
'
Using four-figure tables and taking the products to

three places
we
get
1-107 +0-504^=1-284+0-546^!,
'thence
^=4-215.
,
Replacing in one of the values of p 2 say the
first
one,
we get
* = " ^35"
s
2
1-56-4-215x0-71
-= 4 ' 93
These two values give the principal equation
-4-215z+4-093=0,
(5')
or
-4-215s+4-436 = -4-093+4436,
/4'215\ 2
(
where 4*436=
the equation
so that the left-hand

;
member
of
is
a perfect square
2
hence
(z-2-1075) =0-343,
s-2-1075 = 0-5857,
hence
G.E.
^=2-69
and
O
s2
=l-52.
THE RF ORCE
210
Since

y
=A
-\-A
and
y 1 =A 1 z 1 +A 2 z 2
the two final equations are

0-35
=A +A
X
2,
0-71=2-69^+1-52,4,
the solutions of which are
J
^
2
=0-146,
=0-204.
We
had
y^--A x +A 2 =A x z? +A 2 z 2 ,
y 1 =z A 1 Zi-\-A 2 z 2 =A 1 z l
-\-A 2 z 2
in each equation the index
is
equal to the suffix of

of
y,
and indicates the corresponding number
spaces,
(xx
)/S (see p.
204), here
(# 0)/2=a?/2,
z 2 ^,
generally,
so that, for
any ordinate y
of abscissa x,
we have
The
y=A
x
being
z1
^+A
is
now
reckoned from
the origin
throughout.
equation of the given curve
therefore
.
y=0-146 x2-69*/ 2 +0-204 xl-52^2

It
must be put in the form y=A 1 e (llX -{-A 2 e a& that we must solve the two equations
>
is
2-69*/ 2 =2-718*i*
(1
(b[
and
This
is
l-52*/ 2 =2-718
fl
*
:
easily
done by logarithms as follows
(a)
\x log 2-69 =! log 2-718, \x log 1-52-CM? log 2.718,
0-2149
"i=^4343=- 495
0-0909
>
(b)
2 =|j^=0-209.
THE RF ORCE

The numerical equation
'
211
of the given curve
is
therefore
y=0-146e-
495a;
+0-204e
209a;
.
x=0, x=2, x=i and x =6, and comparing with

*iven ordinates.
This can be verified by calculating the values of y for the
is
The best and quickest way to do these calculations by tabulating, as follows

:
6
bo
OS
1
<
0146
OS o
coos cocq
i CM
f
.3
a B
5fc
<
0-204
035
0-703
1-529
035
071
1-56
0-990
4300 1-5944 0-393
0-418
01815
1-4911 0-310
1-980 0-8300 0-0244
1058
0-836 0-3631 1-6727 0-471

1-254 0-5625 1-8721 0-745
2-970
1-2900 0-4544 2-847
3-592
3-67
(For
x=0,
e* 5x
=l
and
o 2 o9 a;=1)
so
that
logarithms are not necessary.)
The agreement
is
satisfactory.
The discrepancies
are due merely to the fact that the given ordinates were
taken to two places of decimals only, and were therefore
somewhat inaccurate. The curve was, as a matter
of fact,
obtained by
plotting the equation

7/
= 0-15e'
:
5a;
+0-2e
"
2a;
.
Here one may ask

had
z
2
given
to
the
4-p 1 z-\-p 2 0,
" But what would happen if we two solutions of the equation the wrong symbols, that is, called
zx
,
2-69,
and
1-52,
since nothing indicates
which
THE RF ORCE
212
is

and which
is
zx
z2
f r it
is
mere chaDce which
of
the two
we obtain
!
first
in the calculation."
:
The answer to this is very simple Nothing would For if z x became z 2 and z 2 became z l9 then it happen would follow that A x would become A 2 and A 2 would become A lf and in the end the two quantities which
,
ought to be together in the equation of the curve would

naturally
come
together,
being designated by corre-
sponding symbols,
other.
l9
z x in one case,
2,
z 2 in
the
One need not

is
therefore trouble
.
as
to
which
solution
called z x or % 2
As a second example,
use the ordinates
?/
let
us take the same curve, and
= 0-491,
to
y z = 5-778, corresponding
^=1-036, y 2 = 2-371 and a?=l, a? =3, x = 5 and
x=7,
respectively.
Following exactly the same method, we get the two

preliminary equations
2-371
:
+1-036^+0-491^2=0,
5-778+2-371^+1-036^2 = 0. J
Solving,
we
get
p x = 4-189, ^ 2 = + 4-010.
principal equation
:
Hence we have the
^-4-189^+4-010 = 0.
Solving this equation gives
^ = 2-709
and
z2
= 1-480
The two
final
equations are
!/o
=A'+A", h+A'zt .f
of
We
shall use
A' and A" instead
and
remind ourselves
of the fact that these values corre
THE RF ORCE

*pond to values of
vvhile
213
reckoned from the point
x = l,
and
correspond to values of
referred to
jhe origin
x = 0.
0'49l=A' + A",
Here, these two equations become numerically
= 2-709^' + 1480^"J or l-330 = 2-709^'+2-709^", l-036 = 2-709,4' + 1480^ From which we get 0-294 = 1-229^4", whence ^"=0-239,
l-036
and ^'=0491 -0-239=0-252. ôw, y Q y x y 2 and y 3 correspond to successive

, ,
numbers
of spaces 0, 1, 2, 3, or, generally,
~, here
so that the general equation in

x-l
x-l
is
really
or,
numerically,
y = 0-252 x 2 -709^ + 0-239 X

where
480^
is
reckoned from the point
x=l.
This equation must be put in the shape
y=A
where
^+A
2e
a^ x
,
is
reckoned from the origin.
To do
this
we note that
x-l
0-252x2-709
=A =A
ea i x
(a)
x-l
and
0-239x1-480
2e
a >*.
(b)
THE RF ORCE
214
Taking logarithms we get

(a) log
0-252
+ ^ log 2-709 = log A +a

x
x log e,
or
1-4014
+ X 0-4328-^ X 0-4328 = -0-5986 +0-2164^-0-2164 = -0-8150+0-2164# = T-1850+0-2164a? = log^ +0-4343rt

1
1 a?.
Hence,
log^^l-1850, and ^=0-153,

and
(b)
0-2164=0-4343^
Similarly,
or
a i=^^^= '^ 8
log0-239+^^logl-480=log^ 2 +a 2 ^loge,
L3784+I X 0-1704 | X 0-1704
= -0-6216+0-0852^-0-0852 = -0-7068+0-0852^ = 1-2932+ 0-0852 x= log A +04343 a x, whence log .4 = 1-2932 and ,4 = 0-1964. (As a check, A +A = 0-3496 or 0-35 nearly, the ordi
2 2 2
nate at the origin.)
Also
0-0852=0-4343a 2
or
a 2 =^|||=0-1965,
the equation of the curve being
y = 0-153 e" 498 *+0-1964e'
1965x
.
THE RF ORCE

The equation,
as
215
we have
.
seen,
.
is
O-2*
really
#
15e
0-5 ,
;
2e
The answer
is
a satisfactory approximation, considering
that the ordinates were given with but three places of

decimals, that
is,
not strictly accurate.
As a
the
third example, let us take the
ordinates y y 1 = 0-255, y 3 = 1-036, corresponding to x = 3, x=l, x=-\-\ and a? = +3 respectively, the value of x being negative, with x = 3. We get the two preliminary equations:
0-491
1
= 0-143,
same curve, with y 2 = 0-491, and
+ 0-255j
+0-143p 2 ,1
,
036 + 0-491^ + 0-255p 2
which give
(It will
correct,
jp^ 4-422
and
p = 4-452.
2
be found that to get three places of decimals
one must work the intermediate calculations to

this
five or six places.)
From
we
get the principal equation

z
2
- 4-422s + 4-452 = 0,
2X
from which we get
= 2-872
and
z2
= 1-550.
:
These values give for the
final
equations
0-U3=A'+A",
0-255:
2-872^
+ l-550^",J
from which we get ^' = 0-02523, ^"=0-11778.
The equation
?/
is
therefore
x+3
x+3
= 0-02523 x 2-872
in the
+0-11778x1-550
2
j
and must be put
form
y=A
THE RF ORCE
^
216
We shall work this example with a greater accuracy than heretofore, for a reason which will be soon apparent. Taking logs to five places, we get
(a)
2-40192
+|x 0-45818+^x0-45818
=log^4 1 + a 1 a?loge,
-l-59808+0-22909a?+0-68727=log^ 1 +04343a 1 a>.

Hence
Also
log
x
= 1-0892
and
^=
0-1228.
0-2291= 0-4343 a x and a 2 =0-528.
(b)
1-07108+|x0-19039 + |x0-19039
=log^ 2 +a 2 a?loge,
-0-92892+0-095195^+0-28558=log^ 2 +0-4343f7o./-.
Hence
Also
= 1-3567 and A = 0-2273. 0-095195 = 0-4343^ and a = 0-228.

log ,4 2
8 2 2
The equation
of the curve is therefore

0-528 *
# = 0-r228 e
This
is
+ 0-2273 e
'
228 *.
not in good agreement with the
known equation
of the curve,
namely,
//
= 0-15e'
5a:
+0-2e
2a;
.
The reason
curve
so
in
is
is
that the curvature of this portion of the
small,
and the selected ordinates do not vary

of
It
much
as
in the portions
the curve
considered
a
slight
the previous examples.
follows that
inaccuracy in the value of the ordinates, such as occurs
when
limiting the
number
of decimals to three, as
we
THE RF ORCE

iave
;
217
done,
introduces a relatively
more considerable
than is the case for more curved portions of the :urve. In the present case the range of variation of the >rdinates is 1-036 -0-143 =0-893, and a difference of
rror
)-001 in
an ordinate constitutes an error
of 1 in
vhile in the second
example the range
is
893 5-7780-410
;
5-368, so that a difference of 0-001 constitutes an error

of only
1
in 5368.
Had we worked
with ordinates
and calculated with a corresponding accuracy, we would have obtained a closer approximation. (Do it, and satisfy yourself that
3orrect to four places of decimals
it is so.)
in
As a fourth and last example let us consider a curve which a x and a 2 are negative. Let ?/ =3090-15, ^=143-56, y 2 =9-40, y 3 be
=M0
four
,
ordinates
corresponding
to
x= 10, x= 6,
x = 2 and x
+2
x = 10 and S =4. We have MO+9-40/^+143-56^

;
here
9-40+143-56^+3090-15^2:
J}
Whence we
Pl
get
= -0-2429
s
2
and
p = +0-008244.
2
We
have therefore the principal equation

-0-24292 +0-008244=0,
the solutions of which are s^ =0-2022 and z 2 =0-0408.
So that we have
3090-15 =,4' +A",
U2>-m=A'z 1 +A"z 2 =0-2022A'+0-0mA",

from which ^"=2981-8 and ^^lOS-3.
THE RF ORCE
=
218

of the curve
is
The equation
therefore
x+10
4
.
z+10
y =108-3 +0-2022
+2981-8+0-0408
From
(a)
this,
we
have, taking logarithms
2-03464+| xT-30578+|x 1-30578
^log^+a^loge
hence
3-47449
^=1-99
and
^ = -0-3996.
=\ogA 2 +a 2 x\oge
(b)
+f x 2-61066+|x2-61066
which gives
A
y
=1-003
and
a 2 = 0-807.
The equation
of the curve is therefore

1
.99e- ,3996a:
this
+ 1 -003e--
807a;
.
We
have worked
example with a high degree o
accuracy, to show that,
when the curvature
is
we]
foi
marked, one can get a very close approximation,

in this case, the equation
from which the given dat

,
was obtained
y =2e-' ix +e~" 8a; practically identica with the equation obtained by calculation. The previous examples show clearly how to procee
is
whatever
it is
may
be the given position of the curve whic

its
required to analyse in
components.
c
t
The calculations are rather tedious, the solution two equations with two unknowns being necessary
obtain the principal quadratic equation.
tions
These
calculi
may
be simplified as follows.
THE RF ORCE

I
219
When
analysing a curve into two components,

:
we
lave, generally speaking, the three equations
#2 +M/i +^22/0=0,
(a)
(b)
(C)
y a +pm+p*yi=Q>
+/^+2=0
in order to find
2,
We
of
the values of
p 1 and p 2 p and p 2 are calculating p and p 2

x
,
only want
otherwise
not required at
therefore,
all.
Instead
eliminate
of three
we can
these
two quantities from the above system
equations, the result will be an equation containing

2
and y
y v y 2 and
t/ 3 ,
the last four quantities being
known
numerically.
In order to eliminate
multiply
(a)
p x between
by ylt and we
2
(a)
and
(b)
we
by y 2 and
2
(b)
get
p2 +PiyiU2+P2Uoy2=0,\
y&i +PiPiy2 +P2?h

and,
= o, J
by subtracting
or
so that
P2^x-y^j2)=y2-yzy^
2
?/2 -.?/3?/i
yx-yî2
Similarly, in order to eliminate
(6),
p 2 between
,
(a)
and
we multiply
(a)
by y l5 and
2
(b)
by y
r
and we get
2/22/i+/?i2/i
+p 22/o2/r i=0,)
(
iNh+Piy2yQ-\-P2ihy'o=0,J
and subtracting
?/ 2 //i-//32/o+Pi2/i
-Pil/22/o=0
THE RF ORCE
220
so that
MCM,
third equation
2
?/ 2
Replacing
p x and > 2 in the lMh-y&i 2

I
(c),
we
get
-.?/ 3 //i
==0
(rf) -ifî)^+(if4f-ysifi)*+(yt*-yî)=o. This transformation is really what we have done in each case for every particular example worked out in the previous pages, only we worked with particular numerical data instead of generally, as we have just
or
&fx
done.
It is really equation (d)
which
of
is
wanted, and
if
wc
could write
it
down
is
straight
away we would be
spared
the solution of the system

equations.
it is,
the two preliminary
It
not, however, easy to
remember
ae
and as a
slip in writing this

it
equation would
leac
tc
naturally to a wrong result,
would not be advisable

(d)
adopt this method of shortening the calculation, namely

the writing
down
of
equation
,
at
,
once from
the
numerical values of y y lt y 2 and y 3 if it were nol for the fact that a very simple and easily rememberec
expression
is
exactly equivalent to this equation

little
(d).
Consider the following

z
2
table
1
?/o
Vi
2/s
Hi
2/ 2
Vi
what mathematicians call a " determinant.' You need not be frightened by the name it is mereh
This
is
;
THE RF ORCE

short,
221
convenient and easily remembered

has that table to do with equation
:
way
you
it
of
writing the equation (d).
What
(d)
will
3xclaim in wonder
nothing could be more unlike

!
You must surely notice that But wait a moment little table and equation (d) have something all the letters and symbols used in equation in common (d) are to be found in the table, and reciprocally in
both this
:
fact,
the table
is
but a short
way
of representing the
algebraical expression constituting the left-hand

of equation (d), so that,
member
given the table, one can readily
deduce from
it
the corresponding expression.

is
When
write
the table
such a small one, with only nine

all
elements, people
who know
is
about determinants can
down the
expression at sight merely from looking

It
at the table.
easy to learn
how
the letters or digits forming the lines
to do this, for and columns of
the table are put precisely in such a definite position

that,
by picking them up
in a definite
is
manner, always
the same, the correct expression

other.
obtained, and none
In the case of a simple determinant of this kind,
the expansion or development of the determinant, that

is,
the writing
down
of the corresponding algebraical
expression, can be
if
done very
:
easily quite mechanically
we proceed as follows To the right of the little table above, the first and the second column, so
:
let
us copy
z*
1/2 1/b
%
//i
1
//o
!/l
i"2
/*>
1/2
l/l
1/2
VZ
1/2
THE RF ORCE
222

let
Now
us draw diagonal arrows, like this

s
2
\l
VAA
)
X/
\A \
V2
of
2/2
2/i
V*
\
2/2
Let us now form the products

being one term, and
let
the quantities
this
which are on any one arrow, and take
product as
us give the sign -f to the terms
corresponding to the arrows pointing in one direction
and the
is
sign
to the
terms corresponding to the
arrows in the other direction.

-f-
Which
set of
terms
and which
it is
is
is
not really of any import-
ance, but
usual to give the sign
to the terms
corresponding to the arrows which slope

right.
down
to the
We
have, then, for the terms corresponding to the

:
several arrows
Arrow No.
No.
No.
1.
-\-y-fz
2
.
2.
3. 4.
+#<&&.
No. No.
No.
5.
6.
+y -y y -y y -y y
2
Y
1
*.
z. 2z
2
.
2 z.
Adding algebraically these various terms we have
THE RF ORCE

/hich
d).
is
223
exactly the left-hand
member
it
is
of the equation
To complete the equation

is
only necessary
o express that this

herefore
s2
1/2
equal to zero, and
we have
1
!/o
Vi
0.
y*
y*
Vi
we have just done, The arrangejives immediately the principal equation. nent of letters is quite easy to remember without
Expanding
this determinant, as
:
nistakes.
It
may happen
that the signs are everywhere
vrong in the principal equation we get in this way.

This does not matter in the least, since both sides of the
equation (d) can be multiplied by 1, which will have

'or
effect to
change
all
the signs.
The
signs of the
depend on the manner in which the preliminary equations have been solved, whether the first equation has been subtracted from the second or the second from the first.
principal equation merely
This method, however, can only be used for deter-
minants having nine elements.

results
if
It will lead to
applied to determinants having
wrong more than

less
three lines
and three columns.
Other methods,
of the latter kind.*
easy but nevertheless quite simple, must be resorted

to
when expanding determinants

and
see
Let us now return to the examples we have worked

out,
how
this shorter
method works.
* See Determinants Made Easy, by the same author, to be published

later.
THE RF ORCE
224

1.
Example
^2
*
Here we have
=0
Us
becomes
1-56
0-71
1-56
0-35
0-71
=0.
3-67
first
Repeating on the right the

left,
two columns on
th
we
get
%
0-71
1-56.
:
1-56
0-71
0-35
0-71
1-56
3-67
This, as
1-56
3-67
we have
2
seen, leads to the expression
0-71x0-7l +3-67x0-35s+l-56xl-56 -3-67 xO-71 -1-56 x0-35s 2 -l-56 x0-71*=<
four-figure logarithms,
Working the products to three places we get
of decimals b
0-504s 2 +l-284s+2-434-2-606-0-546z 2 -M08=0.
That
is,
-0-042s 2 +0-176s-0-172=0,
or multiplying both sides
by 1 and dividing by
0-42
z2 -4-215s +4-095=0,
which
before,
is
practically the equation which

it
we
obtain*
as
and we solve we did above.

2.
to get the
two
final
equatior
Example
Proceeding similarly, we write

z
1
2-371
1-036 2-371
0-410
1-036
2371
5-778
1-036
2-371,
5-778
THE RF ORCE
I
036
225
x 1 -036s 2 +0-41 x5-778s-f 2-371x2-371 -1-036x5-778-041 x2-371z 2 -2-371 xl-036z=0,
l-073z 2 +2-837z+5-620-5-985-1464 2 -2-456z==0,

at
,
is,
-0-091s 2 +0-381z-0-365=0,
multiplying both sides by

s
2
1 and
dividing
by 0-091
-4-187z+4-012=0,
is practically the same equation as the one und by the longer method first shown. You are advised to try this method and to use it to mfy the principal equations obtained in Examples 3
hich
id 4 above.
We know now how

cponential
to perform the analysis of an
curve into two
components.
iethod exactly applies to three or

ily the short
The same more components,
eterminant
)
and simple method of developing the in this case, and we are restricted the longer method. The principal equation can be
fails
ideed expressed as a determinant of sixteen elements
nstead of nine), and developed so as to give that

]uation
s
;
but the method of developing
is
not so simple
it
in the case of (9) elements,
and we must leave

6 aiX
?/ 2 ,
for
nother time.
For three components,

quidistant
ecessary.
y=A
,
+A
?/ 3 ,
a 2X
-
-\-A 3 6 a iX
-
six
ordinates,
?/
ylt
?/ 4
and y 5 are
(Generally, one needs twice as
many
ordi-
ates as there are

G.E.
components searched
P
for.)
THE RF ORCE
226

:
Proceeding as we have done for two components,

obtain the preliminary equations
Po = A x -\-A 2 -\-A. 3
y 1 =A 1 z 1 +A y2
J 2z 2 r
3z 3 ,
,
=A
2 2 2 1 z 1 -\-A 2 z 2 -hA 3 z 3 3
yÂ^+A^+A&s
y i =A 1 z 1
i
+A
i 2 z 2 '+A 3 z 3
/
....
y5 =A 1 z 1
The
Zl
-\-A 2 z 2 -{-A 3 z 3
5
,
principal equations
,
must have three

,
solution
=6
ia&
z 2 =e
a-^
and
s z 3 =e ^
(
and
2
it will
be of the form
i
Z?+PlZ
+p Z+P3=
Hence we have
Zl
3
+PlZl +P2%1 +i>3 =0,'

2
^3
+^1^3 +J23+i>3=0..
terms
of
Multiplying
n
%i
,
both
these
equations
z2
n
,
z 3 n respectively,
3,
where
is
a whole
or
num
or
smaller than
so that either
n=0
n
n=\
=o;
n-
we
get
3
n n
î î
+/>î
n
-i
+^2îî +^3î
z2
+p
1z 2
z 2n
z 3 3 z 3 n +PiZ 3 2 z 3 n
+p +p
!
n 2z 2z 2
2 z 3z 3
+p 3z 2 +p 3z 3 n =0.
n =0,
.
That
is,
n+3
^2
1,,-,
a>
n+2 n+2
ai
+l.
ri+1
n+3
+^1^2
+^2~2
+/->3^2
=0,|
S 3 n+3 +^^3 n+2 +P23 W+1 +/>3-3"^0J
THE RF ORCE

ively
227
Multiplying the terms of these three equations respec-
by
Av A
n+8
2,
and
3,
we
get
'
î^
+Mi%
Pl
n+?
+Paîi ,M
+p s4 11^0,
3
3z 3
n +*+
3z 3
n +*+p
A &+* +p A
sz 3
n =0.
Adding together the three left-hand members and the hree right-hand members, we still get an equality
:
+* +A z n +* +A &* +A #f* +A +p (A
+Pl (A
2
1z1
3 3 3z 3
W+2
)
^)
(8)
n n n +^3(^lî +^2^2 +^3^3 )=0
When n=0, n=l and n=2

successively
;x4 1 .t 1
:
this equation
becomes
+^
2 2
+^3^ )+^
3 2
+P2(A 1z 1
2 1
1
+A& +A
(A 1 ^ 1 2 +^2~ 2 2 +^3~3 2 ) 3 z i )+p i (A 1 +A 2 +Aa)=0.
[A^+A^+A^+pAA^+A^+A^
+p (A z 2 +A 2z 2 2 +A 3 z 3 2 )+p 3 (A z 1 +A 2z 2 +A 3 z 3 )=0. (iA 5 +4AH4^3 5 )+PiMrf^ 2^4 +4 334
1
)
^PÂ^+A^+A^)
1Z1
+p 3 (A
+A
2Z 2
+A
:
3Z 3
)=0.
Replacing the brackets by their equivalents given by

the set of preliminary equations,
we have
y2+Pi!/2+2^yi+PzPo=OA yi+ihy3 +P2?j2+P3yi=o, \

//5+Pi;/4+^2?/3+p3?/2 = 0,J
three
are
(9)
(io)
(11)
,
equations in which
y lf y 2
l9
y3
j/ 4 ,
and y 5
known
numerically, and
p p p3
2,
are unknown.
THE RF ORCE
228
They can be solved in the usual manner, and the numer: cal values of pv p 2 and p 3 ascertained, so that we ge
the final equation z 3 -\-p 1 z 2 -\-p 2 z+]) 3 =0.
This equation being solved gives three solutions, I

z2
and
z3
the values of which, being replaced in an
three of the preliminary equations
are evidently the simplest to use
the three give

will
,
first on<
lt
A
ai
and^4 3
From
21 =ai
22=^
and z 3 = e^s
a v a 2 and a 9
easily calculated, so that
we know
fully the three ei
ponential components of the curve.
To
2 solve the equation z 3 -\-p 1 z
+p z+p 3 =0,
2
;
we
m&
conveniently use a graphical method
for
instanc
we may put
the equation under the form
and one may plot
V=z 3 +P3 and y=-p!Z2 -p 2 z,

and
find the points of intersection of the
will
two curv*
There
be three such points.
At each
of these thr
points the ordinates of both curves are the same,

follows that the value of
the corresponding abscise
that
of
is,
the value of z corresponding to this value

is
is
y which
common
to both curves at one point

it
intersection,
fies
a solution of the equation, since

equalities
y'
sat
simultaneously both
y'=z 3 +p 3
and therefore
z
3
and
= p
z
3
p 2 z,
=0.
satisfies
the equation
2z
+p 3 =-piZ2 -p
or
+p
1z
-}-p 2 z-hp z
THE RF ORCE

These values of
accurate.
scale
z,
229
read
off
the graph, are not very
To obtain more accurate values, larger graphs must be plotted, restricted to the neighbourThese give a closer
to yield yet a closer
restricted portion
hood of the points of intersection.

approximation, which can be
result
of
made
by using
it
to plot a
still
more
a graph on a
still
larger scale.
The method
is
complicated, the plotting of the graphs

It
is
being somewhat cumbersome.
possible to simplify
the work considerably in transforming the equation z 3jrp 1 z 2jr.p 2 ^+Pz ^ t another equation of the form
= m
is,
z*-\-q 1 z-\-q 2 =0, z

2
.
that
is
not containing any term with
The
plotting
reduced then to
y=zz
a very
in ink,
simple graph which can be done once for

,
all
and y=qiZ-\-q 2 a straight line which requires but two points to be completely determined in position, and which can be drawn with a light pencil by means of a
ruler,
and rubbed out afterwards to allow the principal

as follows
equation of another curve to be solved in a similar
manner.
The term in z 2 is easily eliminated Let z=z'+k, then the equation becomes
(z'+W+2H(z ,J<-Jc) 2 +p 2 (z'+k)+p 3 =0,

or
z'*+3z'?k+3z'k 2 +k*+p 1 z' 2 +2p 1 z'k+p 1 k 2
that
is
THE RF ORCE
230
If
is,

we chose such a value
for
k that Sk-\-p 1 =0, tha

z'
2
k=px/3, then the
coefficient of
is
zero, henc
this
term vanishes, and the equation becomes
which
is
of the
form
s^+^s'+gÔ.
z' .
This equation, solved graphically, as has been ex

plained above, gives three values for
It
must b
ad'
borne in mind that these values of

values of
z,
z*
are not the require
since
z z'-\-k,
of
z'
so
that
one must
k = p 1 /3 to these values
of
z,
to get the sought value
that
is,
We
Let
shall
z=a'jpi/3. make the process
clear
by working
fully on
example.
six ordinates of a
:
compound exponential
+4
+6
curv
be given
x:
y:
-2
yo=2-415
let it
+2
+8
ft*UH
y2 =M55
y3 =l-755 y4 = 3-768 y 5 = 9-2i

thr*
and
be required to resolve this curve into
components.
Here,
2.
:
We
have the three preliminary equations
l-755+l-155p 1 +l-350/> 2 +2415>3=0.|..
3-768+l-755^ 1 +l-155^ 2 +l-350^3=0.|
9-222+3-768p 1 +l-75^ 2 +l-555/>3-0.J

Eliminating p 3 between
(1)
and
(2),
we
get
6-731 +2-679/>! +0-966p 2 =0.
THE RF ORCE

Proceeding similarly with
(2)
231
and
(3),
we
get
8-097 +3-06ty 1 +l-03Sjp 2 =0.
Solving
now
6-731
+2-679p 1 +0-966> 2 =0,'|
8-097 +3-O60>p 1 +l-O35p a =Oj

nultiplying the
>y 0-966,
first
equation by 1035 and the second
we
get
6-967+2-773/> 1 +l-000p 2 =0,)
(4)
7-822+2-956p 1 +l-00()p 2 =0,J
md
0-855+0-183^=0
Replacing in
(4)
and
get
p 1 =-^|=-4-672.
we
6-967-12-955+p 2 =0
Replacing/?,
1
and
p 2 =5-988.
andp 2
in (1),
we
get
-755 -5-396 +8-084 +2-415p 3 =0.
Whence
= p a ^
(1), (2)
4-443 1-840.
2-415
(As a check, replacing

in
p v p 2 and p 3 by
we
these values
get 0-002,
equations
and
(3) respectively,
+0-001 and +0-002, a sufficiently accurate
verification.)
The principal equation

s
3
2
is
therefore
(5)
-4-672s +5-988s-l-840=0
Let
=-^=+1-557,
and
let
z=z'+k;
in
%'
we get then, as
shown above,
an equation
THE RF ORCE
232

z'
2
,
without any term in

been
and
this equation
is,
as has
shown
That
is,
in this case
s'
8
-l -288s' -0-068=0
we
plot
(6
it
To
z'
3
solve this graphically
write
in the fonr
=1-288/ +0-068, and we
y=z' z
and
//= 1-288/ +0-068.
We get
a
first
the graphs shown in Fig. 40, from which
we ge
approximation
(b)
,~
'
(a)
~/ =+l-16,
= -0-04
and
(c)
3'
= -l-10.
For a
closer approximation, limits (a)

(c)
between the -0-1 for z 2 ',

This
is
we plot the same graph +1-1 and +1-2 for 2/, (6) am -1-05 and -1-15 for z 3 '.
First, the follow
really quite a simple matter.

is
ing table
made
straight line,
two points are needed for th and three points are enough for the curve)
(only
(&)
(a)
z\
y=z''i.
y=l-288z'+0-06S.
'
2'.
y=z'K
?/
= 1-288-r' +0-068
+ 1-331 + 11 + 115 + 1-521 + 1-2 + 1-728
+1-485
069
+ 1-614
-005 - 000125 -01 -001
-0-061
W
2'.
y = z'i.
,V=l"2882'+0-068.
-105 -1158 -11 -1-331 -115 -1-521
-1-284
-1-413
THE RF ORCE
233
4FP
&z
II:
16
04--
SI
m
/I
ill
-2
FlQ. 40.
THE RF ORCE
234
1-7
t
/
1-6
/-
s
S
?-W.
160
1-5
t
/-
1-4
/
1-3
1-1
1-15
Fig. 4 la.
1-2
THE RF ORCE

41c).
235
The graphs are now plotted (see Figs. 41a, 416 and The plotted points are shown as the centres of
06
i!
04
02
02
-04
-06
Fig. 41&.
small circles.
The values obtained from these
large
scale graphs are respectively

(a)
.^'=1-160,
(b) s 2 '
= -0-053
and
(c) 8 '
= -1-107.
THE RF ORCE
236

Z'-M5
-MO
-105 VI
-1-2
-1-3
*t
z&m ztffi
1-4
/
1-5
y
Fig.
41c
It is advisable to check
equation
verifying
them by replacing z' in the by these three values, and that a numerical equality is obtained. Doing
(6)
successively
THE RF ORCE

this in this case
is
237
;
we
get
therefore no serious
001, -0-002, +0-001 there error, bearing in mind that the

is,
third place in the values of z
of course, only approxi-
mate, being obtained graphically, and as we raise these

values, to the cube, a small error
is
magnified in this
check.
The values
of
are
-\-li
or
s'
+ 1-557,
that
is,
^ = +2-717,
and z 3 = +0-450 respectively. It is worth while to check these also by replacing in One although this check is more laborious. (5), will then make sure that no mistakes were made Doing this, in the elimination of the term in z 2
s2
.
= +1-504
we
find
-0-003, 0-000
and
0-000,
which
is
quite
satisfactory.
We
have then
!,
=2.415=A'+A"+A'",
=2-717,4'+l-504^"+0-45^"',
y/ 2
=l-155=^V+^V+^"V
=7-382,4'+2-262^" + 0-2025,4'".
Solving for A',
A" and A'", we
get
6-562=2-717.4'+2-717^"+2-mA'"\
450,4 '"J l-350=2-717^'+l-504^4"+0-450.4
/
Or
also
5-212=
l-213,4"+2-267^'".
17-828=7-382,4'+7-382,4"+7-3821A'",
M55=7-382,4'+2-262,4"+0-2025.4"'.
Or
16-673=
5-120^"+7-180^"\
THE RF ORCE
238

5-212=l-213A"+2-267il'",l 16-673=5-120A"+7-180^'".J
Now,
fr212-2-2MA'"
1-213
16-m-7'mA'"
5-120~
/
,
26-685-ll-607A'"=20-224-8-709ii"
6461=2-898A'"
and
A'"=|^=2-229,
y
-662 ~ 16-673-16-011 ~5-12
5-12
'
^ =2415-(^"+A
,
,,,
)=2415-2-358=0.057.
:
The equation
?/
is
therefore
= 0-057x 2-717
We
x+2
2
oc+2
x+2
+0-129x1-504
+2-229x0-450
'
can make the same remark as before concerning

,
the allocation of the symbols, z lt z 2

solutions of
z 3 to the three
the equation z -\-p 1 z
-\-27 2 z-\-p 3
= 0.
To
whichever solution we give any particular symbol does

not matter,
as,
automatically, the symbols A',
A" and
A'"
will fall to the
corresponding values of A, so that the
corresponding pairs of values will be correctly coupled

together in the equation of the curve.
We
proceed
now
in
putting the equation
in
the
general form
y = A j ei
as
-\-A 2 a > x -\-A 3 e^ x
shown
in the previous examples.
THE RF ORCE

(a)
239
Iog0-057+|log2-717 + log2-717=log^ 1 +a 1 o?log
>
+ |x0-4341+0-4341=log^ -l-2441 + 0-2171a?+0-4341=log^

2-7559
+0-4343a 1 #, +0-4343a 1 a?.
Hence
and
Also
-0-8100=^^,
^! =0-155.
0-2171 =0-4343 ax,
or
T-1900=log^ 1
a i = &^='5>
.
0-9171
The
first
component
is
therefore 0-155e' 5a;
Proceeding similarly, we get

(6) ^4 2 =0-194,
^2=0-204, giving for the second com.
ponent 0-194e- 204a;

(c) ^4 3
=1-003,
rt 3
= -0-399,
:
say, -0-4.
.
the third component being l-003e~* 4a!
The curve
is
therefore
,5a;
y=0-155e
+0-194e
204a;
+l-003e-
4a
As a matter
of fact, the given
compound curve had

:
been obtained by plotting the equation
so that the result of the analysis

It is so easy to
is
quite satisfactory.
make examples by taking any two

equations,
or
three
exponential
adding
equidistant
and working upon the data so obtained in order to get back to the equations one has started from, that it would seem almost superfluous to give any
ordinates
THE RF ORCE
240
further
cases,

exercises.
However, we give the following
calculated ordinates being given in every case
so as to start from a data as accurate as possible.
Exercises VI.
(For answers, see
p. 247.)
Resolve in two components the exponential curves

of
which the following ordinates are given

(i) X
V
(2)
+2 +3 +4 +5
0-42
0-50
0-60
0-71
+2 +3 +4 +5
+ 0-4205 + 0-4994 + 0-5943 + 0-7085
(3)
-5 -3
-1 +1
0-0787
01982
0-4225 0-2896
+1 +2 +3 +4
1-589
1-627
1-872
2-244
(5)
(6)
+1 + 1-5 +2 + 2-5
1-589 1-573
1-627
1-731
-10 -8 -6
004 011
0-29
0-71
-4
(7)
(8)
-10 00417 -8 01133
-6 0-2882 -4 0-7083
+ 10 + 20 + 30 + 40
10-589
7-773 5-935 4-705
THE RF ORCE

X
y
241
(10)
-4
+4 +8
6-33
1-50
1-27
-4
+4 +8
1-50
0-774 0-900 0-999 0-997
(11)
Resolve in three components the curve of which

:
he following ordinates are given

X
y
-4 -2
6-29
2-50
1-40
+2 +4
111
+6
104 103
.
las
)f
2)
The decay
of activity of a radio-active substance

t
been observed to vary as follows, days and
being the number
the activity on some arbitrary scale.
Analyse the decay of activity into two components.
From
Proc. Phys. Soc, vol. xxxii. p. 27.)

t
B
278
107
100 400 700 1000
70 50
THE RF ORCE
APPENDIX
POLAR COORDINATES.
The
of
will provide interesting (See
p.
106.)
following exercises on plotting polar coordinate}
and useful practice, by mean} become familiar with this kind o graphical representation of functions, which is specially
which one
will
useful in connection with trigonometrical functions
Some
of these give very elegant star, leaf or ros
patterns.
Plotting the functions in rectangular co
ordinates will also be both instructive and interesting

Exercises VII.
(See p. 248 for Answers.)
Plot in polar coordinates the following function}
giving
(1)
(3)
values between 0 and 360.
r=sin0.
(2)
r=cos0.
r=sin0 + cos0.
r
(4)
r=sin#-- COS 0.
r=sing.
(5)
= C0S Q sin 6.
(6)
(7)
r=cos^
8 ) r=s
TgH-cos g
/m
(9)
r=~2
sin
cos^-
(10)
r=sin|.
242
THE RF ORCE
APPENDIX
(11)
243
r=cos
e
(12)
r=am^-\
2~-
/10 (13)
,
r=-g
cos#
sin^.
(14)
r=2+cos30.
scale
(15) Plot
on the same pole and on the same
(a)
r=9;
(b)
r=e;
(c)
r=2ei 2
(16)
r=4(l cos0).
Plot this curve with the same
pole
and on the same
scale as (6) above.

if
(17)
In an aeroplane (monoplane),
Pn
is
the pres-
sure on the plane
when
inclined at an angle a to the
direction of relative motion of plane

is
and
air,
and
is
P
a
the pressure on the plane

it
when
the angle a
2 sin a
right angle,
is
found that
P n =P l
1
+ sin
2
The
a'
resistance to advance
a R=P n sina=P 2+sin sinV lifting power at soaring speed L
The
2 cos a sin a cos a =P =P n l + sin a

1
.
,
Taking P= unity, plot these three quantities with the same pole and on the same scale, for angles from a =0 to a=90.
THE RF ORCE
ANSWERS
Exercises
(1) l/a.
(2)
I.
(p.
28.)
.
l/x
a
.
(3)
2/m2
2
(4) al3x.
(5) jc/2.
(9) 16/as.
(6)
2a
3
.
(7) 03 /81.
(8)
8/a3
(10) l/8a*.
(14)
(11)
l/3a
2
.
(12) a*
(16)
+3 .
(13) sfa.
(17) 9/Nâ.
2a2
(15)
.
2#a*
~=+2
.
(18)
(22) (26)
(21)
bVx.
1.
2/V^2 3/^m.
(19) 1/2n/o* (23) 7/a. (27)
(20) a*
(24) Ifx.
.
2 (25) a* /3a*.
V&e3
^3 /4am
(28)
2a*sc
(29)
(30) 9/Va.
.
(31) 12a?*. (34)
(32)
S^"
1
.
(33)
1/x/a^
+8
6-3-^=.
(35) a*
AB*
.
(36)
3â*~+4^.
5
).
(37)
<
#?l^3/a3
(38) isJ(J<?/m
<
39 >
tW
__?
.
40 >
4'
(*-\ "tl*.
(41)
(42)
Exercises
(1) 1-544.
II.
(p.
36.)
(4) 1*807. (7) t
(2) 2-705.
(3) 5-13.
(5)
x = 6-137, y = 17*411.
= 033.
(6) fc=2*735.
(9)
=397
(8) .x
x = 0753.
244
THE RF ORCE
ANSWERS
(10) ni (\2)
245
= V8
n = l2
57' or 315
3'.
(11) a;
= 1*39
aj=l-170andaj=-0-17].
(9
(13)
(15)
(14)
= 224
y = 144, y= 1-0028. & = 7'502, a; = 2'283.
(16) loge
2=06931,
loge 5
= 1-6094,
e
log e 10 = 2-3026.
(17) loge 3-2 = 1-1632, loge (18) loge 74 3
0-11= -2-2073 = 3-7927.
(19)
= 43082, log 1-808 = 0'5922, = 2-3935, the answer is 12"27. x = 1 -4306, log 5 10 = 1 -4306. (20) x = 0*6055.
loge 10-95
(21)
(23) log7 3
= 27182. = 0-5645, log7 12 = 1-2770,
(22) 55'35.
log 7 4=0-7124, log7 27

1"38.
log 7 9 = li291,
= 1-6937.
(25) In
(24) In
system of base
system of base 2'512.
(26) log 12 l -5
(27)
(28)
= 0-1631, log 12 answer =0*4893, answer = 3374. x = + 0-395 and x = - 3'074. y = 1-001055, aj= -0-0767 and -0-2567.
(1) 4-38 inch.

(3) 1
(4)
(a) 0-573 inch
(5) 67 26',
(7) 8-33 inch. (9) (a) 3-41

;
(11) 84
(1) (a) l
(b)
_
Exercises III.
(p.
49.)
(2) 1"244 radians, 40 58'.
= 0-01746,
l'
= 0-000291,
(b) 2
ft.
1"
= 0-00000485
Clinch, -0035
inch, -000058 inch.

;
10-4 in.; (c) 172 feet.

(6) 0*7 radian.
1-177 radian.
(8) 48-2 feet.
(b) 0-83.
(10) 0"779.
0'.
(12) 0-783
in.,
2'929
in.,
303
in.
Exercises IV.
2
(p. 77.)
+ 14^ + 84c + 280.^+.... \Qx i + l6x y + 6x'iy 2 +xy 3 +...

i
THE RF ORCE
246
(d)
1

10//
+ 40?/ - 80?/ +
3
,
. . .
3 2 ) 64 - 96a; + 60a; - 20a; + (e
. . .
/ ,,
21a 6
189a 5
945a 4
(h)
l+^-^^ + yfsa;
+
-....
-....
{k) i
(2)
^-^+â;
l-6a; + 27a; 2 -108a.'3 +....
(3) l (5)
+ 5a; + 15a3 2 + 35^+....
(4)
(6)
l+3a: 2 +6a; 4 +10a; 6 +....
rl + w"w + ""
ox? !-*+ +....
-i
.
1+0-1**+**-.,
/\
5a5
/r.\
(7)
(8) 1
oa^ x +-+_ + _ +....

.
,
oa;
w
(q)
1
'
a3
2 1
"^/*"^
|
/3a.
2
3a;
15a;2
7
/2
35ar
2a9
*"
(10)5 /3 +
+ 3^3-^3+ ....
8
2
*"' p/1
(12) l
16
3
"
+ 2sin0 + 3sin + 4sin + ....

(14) 6-86828.
(13) 4-97583.
(15) 5-00638.
(17)
l
(16) 15-10007.
+ ^cosa; +
,
^^-
co S 2 ^ +
^4
.
>^- 2) cos^+....
/1D (18)
.
l-tanice 2 H
,
tana;(tana;-l)
*^=
-e
tan a;(tan x - l)(tan

6
2 (19) x1 '
a;
- 2)
- 2X
cosO~ 8x 3 2 cos^d~
i'
l6x*l2 cos 3 $~
""
THE RF ORCE
ANSWERS
o
(
247
radian.
n e=x+ * + *g+^ + * + ...,

1
0=0-201367
/oo\
Stance
9tan 2 #
27 tan 3 a^
'
+l+
(l-m)^ (l-m)(l- 2m)^ + 2m + 6m3

2
>t
(24) K
'
]^-k K ^+ttkz) k k K *
m*
2m
fe(fc-w)(fc-M
6m6
* "
"*""
Exercises V.
(1)
(p.
92.)
4 minutes and 17 minutes 18 seconds respectively.

-
min 42 (2) 14
secs
44
min-
44
8ecs-
(3)
(4) (6)
ix
=0-0805,
Q = 1252
;
units.
(5)
/x=0'01 nearly
69i minutes.
the
1st
1443 megohms.
is
=0-00346,
7T2 = 0-00264,
medium
(8) 12
1*3
times
more opaque.
(7) Jc (9) ft
= 0-126
0-845 centimetre.
Z = 100
per cent.
=000697,
kilometres very nearly.

;
(10)
The constant
T is
15*45
28 Cent.
Exercises VI.
(Note.
(p. 240.)
The following are the actual equations from which

work from have been
calculated,
the data given to
and
of
very close approximations to these should be obtained,

as
in
the
worked out examples.
In the case
Exercises (1) and (6), in which the data is given to two places only to simplify the calculations, the approxi-
mation will not be so good, but on reworking with the
THE RF ORCE
248

same ordinates given
(7)) a
to four places (Exercises (2)
and
much
x
closer approximation should be obtained.)
(1) (3) (5)
and
lr (2) 2/=0-lc
- 5x
.
+ 0-2e- 2*
(4) (6)
0.
(8)
(10) (12)
-0-5e y= Ft = 2* + -* o5 + 5-- ol 2/ = lO-2r = -0-l ^

,05a;
-
y =e 02t + and (7) y = bi-*x -&^.

t
.
-
(9) ?/
(11)
-
= 0-5- 6*+e 05r 005x = + 0-5-- 6z -0-l |/

.
2x
.
5=154-3e--
00118 <
+ 331-4e-
00855 '.
Exercises VII.
(1)
(p. 242.)
The graph
is
a circle of diameter = unity, with the pole
at its lowest point.

(2)
As
(1),
but with the pole at the
left
end
of a horizontal
diameter.
(3)
circle of
diameter = \% with the pole at the lower end
of a diameter sloping
(4) (5)
(6)
down
at 45 to the
left.
As
(3), (4),
the diameter sloping at 45 to the right.
As
the pole being at the upper end of the diameter.

leaf outline
A round
As
and
(6),
stalk on the right, at the pole.

(7)
with the point of attachment of the (Length of central rib = unity.)
but the pole and point of attachment of the

left.
stalk are on the

(8)
(9).
Two
dissymmetrical round leaf outlines, greatly

the
stalks
overlapping, with both points of attachment of
coinciding at the pole, in the lower portion of the graph, which

is
symmetrical with respect to a vertical line through the

(10)
pole.
A nasturtium leaf outline having the point of attachment

and
and a loop between this point and the base of the blade (upper portion).
of the stalk at the pole
(11) As (10), but the base of the blade round limb on the right of the graph.
is
on the
left
tin-
THE RF ORCE
ANSWERS
(12)
249
and
(13).
Two
a large one on the right and a smaller one on the
overlapping leaf outlines as (10) or (11), left, with a
common
loop on the right of the pole, between their two bases,
the graph being symmetrical with respect to a horizontal line
through the
(14)
pole.
three bladed ship's propeller with a blade horizontal

is
on the right of the pole, which

blades =3 units.)
(15)
at the centre.
(Length of
Three
spirals.
(16) (6), but slightly different in shape, as will be seen if both curves are plotted on the same scale and with the same
pole, as instructed.
As
(17)
Pn
is
gives a half ellipse on the right of the minor axis
which
vertical
and
of length
= unity,
the pole being at the
lowest point of the

at the pole.
ellipse.
R gives a half oval on the right of
the minor axis of the above ellipse, the point of the oval being
L gives a smaller and narrower full oval, approximately symmetrical with respect to the radius corresponding to = 35, and the point of which is at the pole.
THE RF ORCE
INDEX
Absorption of light, 87, 89, 90. Accuracy modulus, 193. Addition of ordinates of curves,
198.
Aeroplane, pressure on planes

243.
of,
Ammonites,
6.
Analysis (exponential), 2 ponents, 198. , 3 components, 225. (harmonic), 200.

(Rollo), 154.
com-
of common logarithms, 102. Capacity, 93. Catenary, 10, 11, 147. , equation of, 153. , materialisation of, 158. mimicry of parabola by, 163. , Centre of hyperbola, 134. Chain, suspended, see Catenary. Chance, probability of, 174.
Calculation of ithms, 98.
Napierian logar-
Appleyard
Circle, 124, 128, 248.
Arc, length of circular, 44. length of small parabolic,

,
Common
arithms.
logarithms,
see
Log-
168.
Compound
interest, see Interest.
Archimedes, 5. Archimedian spiral, 115. Area of hyperbolic segment,

143.
Condenser, 93. Construction of hyperbola, 132,
133. of parabola, 161.

bola, 133.
progression,
height
Arithmetical growing, 80.

38.
Continuous tracing of a hyperCooling of a body, 86, 88, 91, 92,

93, 94.
Asymptote, of hyperbola, 137. Atmosphere, fall of pressure with

of, 93.
Attenuation of telephonic current, 94. Axis of symmetry, 149, 168.
of system of logarithms, 31, 141. Bernouilli, 5. Bessel, 193. Binomial Theorem, 63. Bradley, 193. Bridge (suspension), 158.
Base
plotting 242. 88. growth Current telephonic, 94. Curves, 123, 242. building from two others, 198. mimicry 160.
,
Co-ordinates (polar), 108.

of,
(electric),
of,
19,
of,
of,
Cycloid, 50.
Dale
(Prof.), 201.
Dependent
250
variable,
15.
THE RF ORCE
INDEX
determinant, 220.
rule for expanding, 221. Dice, result of throws of, 176. Directrix of ellipse, 128. of hyperbola, 125. of parabola, 161.
,
251
of parabola,
Electrification, loss of, 86, 93.

Ellipse, 124, 128, 249.
of parabola, path 165. Function, 123. 125. (exponential), 29. 125. (inverse), (trigonometrical), 242.
of,
Focus
161.
13, (explicit), 19,
(implicit), 19, 18.
145. in Law of Errors, 190. on the slack rope, 146. Equation, of catenary, 153. in exponential analysis, 207. of hyperbola, 135. of parabola, 162. (preliminary), in exponential
(final),
Epeirae, 2. Epsilon, 10, 12, 33, 85, 112, 143, 158. from catenary, 154. from equilateral hyperbola,
Geometrical progression, 38, 140. Graphs, see Curves. Growth, arithmetical, 80.
current, logarithmic,
of electric
88.
88.
Gunner and
target, 175, 182, 184.
Homogeneous
,
expression, 61.
frequency, curve law 189. (probable), 195. (systematic), 187.

,
analysis, 207. Errors, absolute, 188. accidental, 187. , in calculation of logarithms, 102.
of,
of,
common
194.
Evolution by Binomial Theorem,

70.
centre 134. (conjugate), 137. construction by points 132. continuous tracing 133. directrix 125. equation 135. (equilateral), 137. family 126. focus 125. in oblique co-ordinates, 144. (rectangular), 137. referred to asymptotes, 139.
,
Hyperbola, 122. area of, 141. asymptote of, 137.

,
of,
of,
of,
, ,
of,
of,
of,
of,
Expansion, 50. convergent, 69, 99.

,
Independent variable,
Index, fractional, 24. minus, 23.
15.
divergent, 69, 73.
law of formation
of, 59.
zero, 21.
of length of arc, 75.

,
,
number of terms in, sum of terms of, 74.
53.
Index form, 24. Induction (mathematical), principle of, 55, 83, 141.
Expression, homogeneous, 61.
Integers of n figures,
55.
number
of,
Fabre (Henry),
1.
Factorial, 65. Family of curves, 126. Focus of ellipse, 128. of hyperbola, 125.
Intercept on the axis of y, 203. Interest (compound), 80. 81, 85. , principal doubled by,
,
true, 85.
Interest (simple), 79.
THE RF ORCE
252
Leaf patterns, 242, 248. Light, absorption of, 87,
90.
INDEX
Planorbes,
89,
7.
141. calculation (common), graphical table 113. (hyperbolic), 143. a logarithm, modulus 102, 120. (Napierian), 42,
,
Logarithms, 31. base of system

,
of, 31,
of, 98, 102.
31, 34, 40, 117.

of,
of
33, 30.
of,
33, 34, 39, 95, 112, 143, 151. (Natural), 33, 34, 96. , system of, 39, 141. tables of, 38. , Logarithmic tables, 38. growth, 88. spiral, 3, 106, 112, 115, 117,
Plotting, 19, 120, 123, 159, 228. in polar co ordinates, 242. 248. Pochin, 120. Polar co-ordinates, see Co-ordinates (polar). Pole, 3, 106, 248. path of, in rolling logarithmic spiral, 120. Potential, 93. Powers, see Index.
Pressure (atmospheric)
93.
fall
of
243.
Mimicry of curves, 160. Modulus (accuracy), 193. Modulus of common logarithms,
on planes of aeroplane, 243 Principal, doubling Probability of an 192. of an event, 181. for the gambler, 175. for the 175. Probability curve, 190. area 197.
79.
of, 81, 85.
error,
scientist,
of,
of
of,
102, 120. precision, 193.
Monoplane, pressure on planes

243.
Napier (John), 33. Nasturtium leaf, 248.

Nautilus,
6.
Probabilities ; two kinds of, 174 175. (calculus of), 194. Progression (arithmetical), 38. (geometrical), 38, 140. Projectile, trajectory of, 161. Propeller, 249.
Number
55.
of integers of
figures,
value
Radian, 43, 45.

of, 46.
Radio-active
substance,
deca
Opacity of medium, 93. Ordinates of curves, addition

of, 198.
of activity of, 241. Radius vector, 106. Reflector (parabolic), Residual, 188.
162.
Oval, 249.
Rose pattern 242.

Series, convergent, 69, 99. , law of formation of terms o
Parabola, 10, 126, 161. equation of, 162. length of small arc of, 168. mimicry of catenary by, 163. path of focus of, 165. properties of tangent to, 165. Pi or 7T, 33.
,
, , ,
56. (logarithmic), 98.

Shells, 7, 8.
Ship's propeller, 249. Simple interest, see Interest.
THE RF ORCE
INDEX
Sine law, 200.
mki|) film,
253
of watches,
Time from a number

of, 159.
shape
183.
Spirals, 108, 249.
(Archimedian), 115.
,
(equiangular), 109. instrument for tracing, 108. (logarithmic), 3, 106, 112, 115, 117, 243.
rolling of, 120.
dying-away of process, 88. Trajectory of projectile, 161. Triangle of forces, 148, 156.
Time-constant
Units (circular), 45.

(sexagesimal), 43.
Star pattern, 242.
Symmetry,
axis of, 149.

113.
of,
Variable, 14.
,
Tangent to a curve,
to parabola, 165.
dependent, 15. independent, 15.

(J.
properties
Walsh
W.
T.), 201.
Target diagram, 186. Telephonic current, 94.

Tide, prediction of, 200.
Watches, time
of, 183.
from a number
Web,
of Epeirae, 2, 4.
GLASGOW
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THE RF ORCE
e
7*^< c
f%
^^^y
^+
cÛ
/"
=
Â-^. ^ *sL<p **-#**+ +

y= c/rcr
/fi/-
'*<**
CUô 1
,JT*
a.
cl e
^ s= ê
^
=
i(eS**e") -*~+rO -H
we
>-
c
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A Wl
/
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EXPONENTIALS

MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

REMEMBRANCE OF HAPPY MOMENTS SPENT

THESE PAGES AS A TOKEN OF

The Truth about Some Simple Things called

The Meaning of Some Queer-Looking Expressions

Little Chat about the Radian

VI. Spreading out Algebraical Expressions

First Meeting with

Growing and Dying Away

More about Napierian Logarithms

CHAPTER IX. Epsilon's

The Logarithmic Spiral

Little about the Hyperbola

Epsilon on the Slack Rope Hanging Chain

Case of Mathematical Mimicry

tells the Future Curve and the Law of Errors

XIV. Taking a Curve to Pieces

In so doing he re-learned several things he

make the study

cesses as those of the Calculus so easy that one

oneself without the help of a teacher,

provided one has in one's hand the necessary guide and

from beginning to end.

There are few branches of mathematics which seem

longer looking askance at

that the appearance of

them a nerve-shattering shock, while the

the signal for undignified retreat.

been suggested to the author that there

difficulty in exorcising the evil spirit lurking in i

the members of the hyperbolic tribe, and in rendering

the proper talisman in his hands, than there was in

and rendering them

mind might have formed concerning

preparatory prospecting raid

into the field of " imaginaries "

and " hyperbolics "

This newcomer has no pretension to equal

setting forth with the desire to be

ness to Mr. Alexander Teixeira de Mattos for his kind

book, the writer

for a first chapter, yield the

pen to another and merely

am now confronted with

same time highly interesting and somewhat

of geometrical lore, substantial I

apt to pass untasted.

are generally indifferent to

EXPONENTIALS MADE EASY

facts appertaining to instinct.

do not write either

as such are not concerned with

which can find pleasure

any mind an insect.

can I manage this

would be to leave untouched the most remarkabl

with an array of lean

formulae, would be a task beyond the pretension

avoiding alike abstruse statements and extreme

preferably to those of the silky Epeira and the stripe

in my neighbourhood, We shall first observe

the radial threads are equidistant, each making eqt