Guide to Basic Surveying

Contents
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Introduction, Graphic recording Drawing scales, Publication issues, Drawing materials, Drawing symbols Field survey symbol sheet. Fig. 1 Building plan with explanatory captions scale1:100 . Figure 2 Methods of survey: Field sketch. Fig. 3. Annotated Field sketch. Fig. 4 Methods of survey: Dimensioned sketch A dimensioned sketch. Fig. 5 Methods of survey: Tape and offset survey (extended baseline survey) Fig. 6 Tape and offset survey in a single building. Fig. 7 Methods of survey: Plane table and alidade survey. Fig. 8 Plane table and alidade survey carried out to record detail. Fig. 9 Methods of survey: Elevations and Sections. Fig. 10 Plan and elevation Fig. 11, and section Fig. 12 through a black house Plan of a Perthshire township, drawn with plane tables scale 1:250 Plan of a Benbecula farmstead, drawn with plane table and offset scale 1:200 An Aberdeenshire farmstead, drawn with plane table scale 1:500 A Dumfriesshire settlement, survey and AP transcription scale 1:2500 Examples of location maps scales 1:1000 and 1:2500

Introduction There is a growing interest in our built heritage, the subject matter ranging from prehistoric monuments and historic townships to more modern military or industrial sites. Studying a subject can include carrying out documentary research and looking at extant remains. The record can include old documentation and maps, a written description, photography and sketches or measured survey drawings. This guide is intended to assist in the process of graphically recording extant remains. It has been created in the context of the Scotlands Rural Past project where the range of survey equipment available to the participants will be limited and describes traditional survey methods using plane table, alidade and tape measures. Most of the examples used in this guide are of post-medieval remains but the same survey techniques can be used to record all types of buildings and sites.

Graphic recording The purpose of graphic recording is to provide a set of drawn illustrations (e.g Figures 13 -17) to provide a record a site at a point in time that can be viewed and used for research by other interested parties. A graphic record of a building or structure normally takes the form of a combination of plan, elevation and section drawings. Perspective or 3D orthographic views can also be created as required. . A plan, (Figure 11a) in the case of a building, is a horizontal slice, usuallly above window sill level,to show floor layout, position of doors, windows, fireplaces etc. For an earthwork a plan is a view looking down on to the features from above. . An elevation, (Figure 11b) is a view looking on to an upstanding structure or wall to show position and height of features. . A section, (Figure 12) is a vertical slice through a building or structure to show floor levels, ceiling heights and wall thicknesses. For an earthwork a section would show a ground profile and the height of banks, etc. t of graphic recording, often undervalued, is the process of surveying itself. The surveyor is required to spend time looking at and understanding the site or building. Drawing, in either sketch or accurate scale form, is a subjective process requiring a clear understanding of what is to be drawn. If a complex feature is not understood on the ground it is unlikely that the survey drawing will produce a clear depiction. It is necessary to make informed decisions on what the key elements of a structure are and how to depict them using lines or symbols. The amount of detail will vary according to scale. Understanding the process of generalisation, i.e. using fewer lines to represent a structure at smaller scales, is also crucial to the success of the depiction. The smaller the scale, the more generalisation takes place but overall shape and form must not be lost.

Drawing scale A clear understanding of what a survey is trying to convey is essential in the selection of an appropriate survey scale. Before starting the survey time should be spent walking over the site to determine its extents and boundaries. What are you trying to illustrate: the site location, position in the landscape, position relative to other buildings, size and form of the structure itself or a detailed part of a building? Too small a scale can make it impossible to depict important archaeological detail, too large a scale ort, often without any useful gain in information. It is better to show the whole c areas as required to show more complex detail. tting the drawing onto the drawing board. If too large a scale is used, the resulting survey may need to be spread over more than one sheet. This becomes unwieldy and may cause problems if the drawings need to be re-sized for use in a report. The logical approach is to create a suite of illustrations that may include: . A small-scale map to show geographical location. . A larger scale map to show topographic setting of a building or group e.g. a mill with the mill lade and river. . A site plan to show the relative positions of a group of buildings. . A plan and elevation to show the character of an individual building. . replace. The following range of survey scales is used by RCAHMS: Location map Figure 17 Should be at an appropriate scale to show the geographical location of the site. Topographic or landscape map Figure 16 1:1250 - 1:2500 is used to show features within their topographic setting. The level of detail of man-made features at this scale is limited to outline shapes and eld banks, etc. Natural features can be illustrated using hachures or contours. Site plan Figures 13 -15 1:200 - 1:1000 is used for a site plan to show the relationship of a group of man-made features, such as a farmstead or prehistoric settlement, with related buildings. This scale allows the illustrator to represent some of the character of the structures, together with their relative positions also structural elements such as blockings and straight joints.
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Figures 2 & 11 Individual building or structure 1:50 - 1:100 is used to show the detailed character of a single building or monument, e.g. a hut-circle, cairn, replaces, drains, agstones and stairs can be depicted accurately without recourse to symbols. Details or features 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 up to 1:1 or enlargements can be used to illustrate particular features, such as carved stones, les and excavation details, as required.

Publication Survey drawings or derivatives are often incorporated into a publication or report. These reports are normally A4 or smaller in size, so consideration has to be given to the size of the original drawings otherwise over ect the printed quality. RCAHMS generally works to 50% reduction as a standard.

Drawing materials RCAHMS survey drawings are intended to provide a permanent record. To achieve this, Hi-Polymer (eg 6H) lead pencils are used on a polyester film, giving a waterproof, dimensionally stable archive medium.

Drawing symbols

Figure 1

A specific set of conventions and symbols is used to depict features at various scales. A sheet showing the symbols used by the RCAHMS at various scales is included on the following page.

Figure 1 - RCAHMS Field Survey Drawing Conventions

Grounded boulders Large footing stones at the base of the building have been drawn individually Short triangular hachures indicate a man-made slope which has been cut to create a drain behind the building

Hatching in the stonework indicates that replace has been inserted later Dashed lines show the position of the cruck timber (no longer present)

Upstanding walls may be left unshaded at a scale of 1:100

Hatching indicates a blocked window

Drain

Cruck slots in wall for roof supporting timbers

Door opening

Window opening Wall above sill level

A straight joint indicates that the building has been built in two phases, the lower compartment having been added on to the original building.

Dashed line indicates original line of wall before collapse

Wall below sill level

Dashed lines indicate that the facing stones of the wall have fallen out and that only wall core remains

Byre drain visible oor

Hatching indicates later addition

Figure 2 - 1:100 scale building plan with explanatory captions

Methods of survey The following pages provide an outline of several survey methods that can be carried out with simple surveying equipment: Field sketch Dimensioned sketch Tape and offset survey (extended baseline survey) Plane table and alidade survey Each of these methods can provide a very useful record in its own right. However, often the most effective way to survey a site is to use a combination of the different methods.

Field sketch

Figure 3 (below)

Undertaking a field sketch provides and extremely useful way to gain an overview of your site and is an ideal way to assess the number of buildings and other structures present, as well as aspects of their construction, phasing and spatial relationship. A well-drawn field sketch can provide a very useful record of a site or building in its own right, or may become the first stage in the process of producing an accurate scale drawing. At its simplest, a field sketch need only show building outlines and orientations (see below). In this example, building walls standing above sill height are shaded dark; walls below sill level are stippled; enclosure walls are shown in outline only. Cruck slots, doorways, window openings and fireplaces are all shown and highlighted below. Always remember to include a north point.

Cruck slot Window

Fireplace Sub division Doorway

Doorway

Figure 3 - Field sketch

Field sketch. . . . . . annotated

Figure 4 (below)

You can increase the value of your sketch by adding notes and measurements.This will assist your interpretation of the site when it comes to writing a site description. In this example, the distance between cruck slots has been recorded, and the locations of a blocked doorway, window lintels and a byre drain are all marked. Equipment required for field sketch: Paper and pencil

Figure 4

Dimensioned sketch

Figure 5

A dimensioned sketch takes the field sketch one step further. The aim is to annotate your sketch plan with accurate measurements to show wall lengths and thickness. It should include all the necessary dimensions for someone who has not seen the building to understand it and, if required, construct a scale drawing. Sketches should be neat, in proportion and large enough to allow the required dimensions to be clear and legible. Cumulative measurements, known as running sizes taken from a single point of origin are preferable to a series of separate measurements and usually run in a clockwise direction round a room, or building (see figure 5 opposite for clarification). The origin point for running sizes should be clearly marked. Room diagonals and wall thickness measurements should be included. This method is appropriate for plans, elevations or details of relatively simple buildings or structures. Equipment required for sketch survey: Drawing board, paper and pencil, 30m tape, 5m metal tape, survey pin, bulldog clips.

Direction of progress

Point of origin

Figure 5 - Example of a dimensioned sketch

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Tape and offset survey (extended baseline survey) Tape and offset survey can be used to create accurate, scaled plans of both small (e.g. a single feature) and larger areas (e.g. an entire township). This survey involves establishing a baseline, through, or parallel to, the features you want to map, and measuring the distance of the features from this known line (see figure 6). To create a baseline, stretch a measuring tape taught along the ground and hold it in place with pegs.To help you get a straight line, place survey poles in the ground at regular intervals so that you can check your line of sight. The length of your baseline is determined by the size of the area you want to survey. Once set up on the ground, plot your baseline though the centre of a sheet of A2 graph paper. To record points of interest, measure along the tape (or, baseline), then take a measurement at right angles from the tape to the point you wish to record (see figure 5). Plot these measurements on to your graph paper.The accuracy of a right angle can easily be checked by basic triangulation (3-4-5 triangle), or by using a cross-head ranging pole which allows you to sight a right angle off your baseline.

Figure 6 Single measurement along an offset is the most convenient way to plot a point. However, where the offset is more than 1m, it is more accurate to use triangulation: measure the distance to the feature from two separate points on the baseline and plot where they cross with a compass, or, a set of dividers (see figure 6 for clarification). If you are recording large areas, such as a whole settlement, it is best to set up a series of baselines across the site. If you are working in a group, you can rapidly complete a survey in this way, by dividing the site amongst different people. Equipment required for tape-and-offset survey: Drawing board, graph papers, pencil, compass, ranging rods (including cross-head), 30m and/or 50m tapes, steel hand tape, land arrows or pegs.
Ranging pole

Creating a right angle

Cross-site ranging pole

Ranging pole

Right angle offset subsidiary baseline

3-4-5 Primary baseline

Subsidiary baseline

Gridded paper or film

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baseline

Trianglated measurements from two known points can be plotted with compass or dividers offset

offset

Figure 7 - Example of a tape and offset survey used to capture detail in a single building
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Methods of survey: plane table and alidade survey This is a method of survey that allows a surveyor to plot and create an accurate scale drawing on site. The ts onto the drawing board. xed to a tripod, levelled, and orientated. An alidade is a sighting device used to observe the salient points of the site. Have a good look at the site Before you start the survey, time should be taken to walk round and have a good look at the site or building that you are going to record. On a building, the obvious features that you would want to record are the corners, replaces. More subtle features that you would look out for are changes in wall direction, straight joints, blocked doors or windows, oor covering, byre drains.

Figures 9, 13 -16 framework around which the rest of the plan can be constructed. This method is most useful for plans of single buildings or small sites within a radius of 30m from the plane table. Larger sites For larger sites multiple stations will be required. The second station must be plotted accurately onto the plan rst station and marked on the ground. It must rst station (see Figure 13).

Equipment required for a plane table and alidade survey: Select a survey station Once you have had a good look at the site, you will select a position for your survey station from which you have a line of site to as many of the main points as possible. It is particularly important to be able to see corners and places where a feature has a change in direction. Set up the tripod legs over your selected survey station. Prepare the drawing board lm is taped onto the drawing board with masking tape. The corners are lm pulled tight, and then the edges xed onto the tripod. Orient the drawing board When drawing a building you would orientate the long side of the board so that it is parallel to the long axis of the building. If possible, for a site plan, you would oriented the board so that north is up the page. For all plans it is important to check that the whole site is t on the board at your chosen scale. A pin xed point from which observations and measurements can be taken. The pin marks the position of your survey station on the board. Once the survey has commenced the plane table should not be moved. Carry out the survey The alidade is placed against the pin and used to observe in turn, selected points. Rays are drawn on lm and measurements between the pin and the points taken with the 30m tape. The measurement is written onto the drawn ray as a record. Subsequently, each point is plotted along the ray at the selected scale, with a scale rule. Observations and measurements are taken to as many points as required to allow the shape to be recorded. These plotted points create an accurate
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Plane table, tripod legs, alidade, spirit level, 30m tape, polyester drafting film, hi-polymer 6H pencil, masking tape, pin, scale ruler, compass, ranging rod for sighting, plumb bob.

Figure 8 - A plane table and alidade as supplied by SRP

Figure 9 - Example of a plane table and alidade survey carried out to record a single building
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Methods of survey: creating an elevation An elevation is normally created after a plan of a building has been completed. An elevation drawn lm gives a good, clear representation of a building. In a similar way to a plan, if the building is not going to be drawn on site, all measurements can be recorded onto a sketch. In order to measure elevation heights to add to the drawing, a datum line must be established across the face of the building. The datum is created using a string xed into position and levelled, using a hanging string level. This datum line would normally be set at a height that runs through the middle of the windows and doors so that tops and bottoms of the features can be measured easily and noted in a clear way. Where the datum string does not touch the building or it is cult to take a measurement, a builders spirit level can be used to transfer the datum onto the structure. A simple chalk line is marked to indicate the datum. Measuring an elevation is similar to carrying out a x requires one measurement along the datum line and one measurement up or down from the datum line. If a drawn plan exists, the elevation drawing would be lm over the plan the positions of the building corners, door and window openings or blockings that will be visible on your elevation. These positions are then lm on which you are going to draw your elevation. At these points, where the distance along the building is known, a 5m steel tape can be used to measure up or down from the datum line to obtain the height. The position of the datum line and of the points are drawn onto your elevation. Once the detail that has a known plan position has been plotted onto your drawing, you will have the bare bones of an elevation. You can now start adding detail for which you need a distance along the datum as well as a height. These

Figure 10 (below) 11 & 12 (opposite) distances and heights can be recorded onto a sketch survey or a second person can take measurements and call them out as you draw. Establish a horizontal zero point on the datum line. In the case of a straight sided building you might choose the left edge of the building. If surveying an irregularly shaped building you may chose a point to the left of any detail that you wish to measure in. (A scale rule is marked from the left so it is always easier to measure and plot the distances in the same direction.) A series of points are measured ne the shape of the building, ground level, openings, sills, lintels, string courses, chimneys, roof angles and heights. It is often easier to get a measurement for the height of the roof inside the building. Once the outlines have been plotted onto the elevation, it is easier to plot minor detail by measuring from the nearest building feature, for example a set of running sizes can be taken from the top to the bottom of the window to position the joints between the stonework. In this way all the minor detail that you wish to depict can be added bit by bit until the elevation is complete. The section drawing of the Benbecula black house which was created at the same time as the plan and elevation has been included to show the kind of detail that would be recorded on such a drawing. The methodology for creating a section drawing is not being dealt with in this guide. Equipment required for an elevation: String, line level, chalk, 30m tape, 5m steel tape, ranging rod, (data board, paper and pencil if doing a sketch survey), (plane table, tripod legs, polyester drafting film, hipolymer 6H lead pencil, set squares, T square, masking tape, scale rule, paper and pencil if drawing elevation on site).

Figure 10 - Example of a sketch survey for an elevation showing some of the sizes which need to measured.
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Stone detail may be completed from photography

Drain inserted later

Window converted to a door

Figure11a Plan and elevation Figure 11b of a Benbecula black house which has been converted to a byre, originally drawn at 1:50 but reproduced here at 1:100 Thatch Collar

Turf

Rafter

Figure 12 - Section of a Benbecula black house, drawn and reproduced at 1:50

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e rang 30m from Stat 2 ion

Figure 13 1:250 scale site plan of a Perthshire township, drawn with two plane tables
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ge n 1 ran io m tat 30 m S fro

n2 r plane tab

Cobbling with well defined edge drawn in on revetted terrace

Station 1 for plane table

level

Survey points should be taken on the same side of a feature to avoid confusion. In this case points have been taken on the outside edge of the wall.

Figure 14 - 1:200 scale site plan of a Benbecula farmstead drawn with a plane table supplemented with offset measurements. (The building on the right hand side is also shown in detail at scale 1:100 in Figure 11b on page 15.)
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Long dashed hachures are used to depict a natural slope Upstanding buildings

Horse-gang platform

Marsh symbols are used to indicate boggy ground

Stack stands

Footings of stone buildings and walls

Building visible only as a slightly raised banks of turf Footings of building with some visible facing stones

Outcrop

Quarry

Figure 15 - 1:500 scale site plan of an Aberdeenshire farmstead created using a plane table
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Stone dyke

Lines of broad rig & furrows added from aerial photographs

Turf field banks

Stone walled buildings

A series of turf banks and depressions show an Unenclosed Plaftorm Settlement

Short hachures are used to depict the hollow that defines the track

Figure 16 - 1:1250 scale landscape map of an 18th century Dumfrieshire settlement and field-system derived partly from an Ordnance Survey base plan and rig and furrow added from vertical aerial photographs.
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Figure 17 - Examples of location maps at mapping scales

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