DATA COLLECTION; MEASUREMENT & SCALING TECHNIQUES

MODULE 4

DATA COLLECTION
DATA Means Facts, information or premises, systematically collected and formally presented for the purpose of drawing inferences Collection : data collection is the process of obtaining valuable and reliable information for purpose of research

Primary Data:
The data directly collected by the researcher, with respect to the problem under study , is known as primary data. Primary data is also the first-hand data collected by the researcher for the immediate purpose of the study Secondary data Secondary data are statistics that already exit , They have been gathered not for immediate use. This may be described as those data that have been compiled by some agency other than the user.

Internal sources of secondary data Secondary data can be obtained internally i e within the firm
Internal sources of secondary data

Accounting Records

Internal Experts

Sales force reports

Misce reports

 External sources of secondary Data 1.Govt Publication

Central statistical organization (CSO) National Accounting Statistic Basic Statistics Relating to the Indian Economy Reserve Bank of India Bulletin Currency and Finance Report

2.Books and Periodicals 3.Non-govt Associations Indian cotton mills Federation publisher statistics on the cotton textile industry The American Statistics Index etc 4. Directories Yellow pages 5. Industry Experts 7. Special collection 8. Internet 9.Database format

SYNDICATED DATA Syndicated services are provided by certain organizations, which collect and tabulate marketing information on a continuing basis. Reports abased on the marketing information collected by such organizations are sent periodically ( weekly, monthly, or quarterly) to clients who are subscribers. syndicated services may be regarded as an intermediate source falling between the primary and secondary sources

Syndicated data can be collected using the following

Surveys: Periodic surveys Panel surveys Shared survey Periodic surveys: theses are surveys that are conducted at regular intervals- weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually Panel surveys those surveys that are conducted among a group of respondents who have agreed to respond to a number of mail, telephone and personal interviews over a period of time

 Shared surveys Shared surveys conducted by a research firm use questionnaires that contain a pool of questions which are of interest to different clients. Hence, these are known as multi-clients surveys ands are sometimes called omnibus surveys.

 Secondary data is used by managers as it is cheaper, and takes less time to gather, thus saving them lot of money and time Secondary data can help identify , clarity and redefine the research problem secondary data might also hold a solution to the problem Secondary data may provide alternatives methods that can be used for primary research Secondary data generates requisite information for better creativity

Advantages of secondary data

Disadvantages of secondary data

Lack of availability Lack of relevance Inaccurate data Insufficient data

Modes of data collection

1.Observation :
Information is collected by observing the process at work Difficulties in observation Inadequacies of our sense organs Interdependence of observation and inference Effects of interaction between the observer and the observed

 It is a physical and mental activity

Characteristics of observations

It is selective. The research selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of nature, scope and objectives of the study Observation is always purposeful It captures the natural social context in which persons behavior occurs

 Methods of observation
Structured unstructured observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem has been formulated precisely and the observers have been told specifically what is to be observed. They may be given a simple form to record their observations Unstructured observation : observers are free to observe whatever they think is relevant and important

Disguised- undisguised observation In disguised observation, the respondents do not know that they are being observed In non-disguised observation, the respondents are well aware that they are being observed Ex; observers often pose as shoppers Direct- Indirect observation In direct observation, the event or the behaviour of a person is observed as it occurs. Indirect observation implies that some record of past behaviour is observed

Observation under natural settinglaboratory setting Observation in a laboratory setting, on the other hand , enables the observer to control extraneous variables which influence the behaviour of people.

 The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the event Observation is done in natural surroundings. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the information, such information can be obtained by the researcher through observation ex ;- small children it is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning There is no element of artificialness in observational studies, especially when the observed person are unaware of their behavior being observed

Advantages of observation method

Disadvantages of observation
The observer might wait for longer period at the point of observation extensive training of observers is required This is an expensive method It is very difficult to gather information on (1) opinions (2) intentions

DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is a tool used to collect the data

Questionnaire Objectives
It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents can and will answer. A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview. A questionnaire should minimize response error.

Question content Researcher has to find answers to 5 major questions while deciding the question content they are 1. what is the utility of the data collected? 2. How effective is a question in producing the required data? 3. Can the respondent answer the question accurately? 4 what is the chance of the responses being influenced by external events? 5. Is the respondent willing to answer the question accurately?

Characteristics of questionnaire
It must be simple, the respondents should be able to understand the questions It must generate relies that can be easily be recorded by the interviewer It should be specific , so as to allow the interviewer to keep the interview to the point It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation It must keep the respondent interested throughout

a) The utility of data b) Effectiveness in producing data c) The participants Ability to Answer Accurately d) The Respondents willingness to answer accurately e) Effect of external events

Principles for preparing a questionnaire

A short letter is enclosed Enclose a self addressed stamped envelop for the respondents convenience in returning the questionnaire Assure the respondent that his answers will be kept in confidence promise the respondent that he will not be solicited after he fills up the questionnaire if possible, offer special inducements ( free gifts) to return the questionnaire If the respondent is interested , promise a copy of the results of the survey to him

Types of questions
1. open-ended questions; Participants to respond in his /her own words without being restricted to pre-defined response choices is known as an open-ended question What do you think of the performance of the Indian hockey team in the recent Olympics? Which brand of soft drink do you like ? Coke or Pepsi?

1) OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: Respondents are given complete freedom to answer in their own words. Advantage a) eliminates "forced choice" bias b) unlimited response varieties Disadvantage a) promotes investigator bias b) responses difficult to code and analyze Best Use a) small scale exploration b) establishing rapport c) as final question d) to collect facts: e.g., age

Close-ended questions 1.Binary These are also known as dichotomous questions as they permit only two possible answers. The respondent has to choose one of the two permissible answers . These questions have the response options yes or No or True or False Agree or Disagree

CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS: A) Yes No Questions: Respondents are limited to a positive or negative position. Advantage a) minimizes investigator bias b) responses obtained quickly c) coding is simple and inexpensive Disadvantage a) Best Use simplistic / limits range of commitment b) wording can cause biases a) telephone interview b) self-administered questionnaire when topic permits

 Ranking questions These questions require the participant to rank the response options listed on a continuum basis in order of preference Ranking questions are used to get information that reveals participants attitudes and opinions The factors that influence your decision to buy from a particular supermarket are listed below please rank them from the most important (1) to the least important ( 7) Conveniently located .. Helpful sales staff .. Recommended by a friends or relative .. Regular discounts offered .. Instant home delivery .. Availability of everything I need. Competitive pricing.......................

Excellent Very Good 5 4

Average 3

Fair 2

Poor 1

Multiple-choice question
These questions cover all significant degrees of response, the respondent has to select an option that best describes their feelings. These are mostly a variation of binary questions Multiple Choice Questions: Respondents are limited to choice of more than two positions. Advantage a) minimizes investigator bias b) responses obtained quickly c) coding is simple and inexpensive d) permits greater range of commitment than yes-no questions Disadvantage a) good questions are difficult to write b) wording can cause biases Best Use a) personal interview b) self-administered questionnaire c) telephone interview if item is not too complicated

Checklist questions These are questions where the participant has the freedom to choose one or more of the response options available Q. Which premium brand of shirts do you possess? ( tick as many of the following as apply) Allen Solly Louise Phillippe Van Heusen Color Plus Zodiac

Process construction of questionnaire

Information sought Type of questionnaire to be used Writing a first draft Re-examining and revising questions Pre-testing and editing the questionnaire Specifying procedure for its use

Questionnaire Design Preliminary Concerns Consider the data collection method. Consider the measurement scale and statistical analysis to be used. Wording Use correct grammar and sentence structure. Avoid slang and colloquialisms. Wording should be as simple as possible without being condescending to respondent. Use a conversational tone. Wording should be as closely as possible to the manner in which people would talk to each other. Wording should be neutral and clearly communicate the intent of question.

Types of Interview
Interview
Structured/ formal interview Unstructured interview Stress interview Group interview method Panel interview In- depth interview Decision- Making interview

Merits of interview
The interview method of data collection is often fast and cheap This method brings the respondent who supplies information and client who use it, closer. This method is quite flexible, because different questions are asked according to the respondents attitude and participation The findings emerge in a form which is fully understandable to the clients

Demerits of interview
It does not indicate how extensive the attitudes expressed by the participants are: The data is not at all projectable This method of data collection cannot cover large areas Mush of the results depend on the moderator

 Scales of measurement Criteria for good measurement: measurement 1.Reliability Reliable measuring scales provide stable measures at different times under different conditions. Ex; coffees vending machine gives the same quality of coffee every time then it can be concluded that the measurement of the coffee vending machine is reliable .

2.Validity The ability of a scale or a measuring instrument to measure what it is intended to measure can be termed as the validity of the measurement . 3. Objectivity 4. Simplicity 5. Accuracy 6. Economy

Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules.

One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. Rules must not change over objects or time.

Scale Characteristics
Description By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description. Order By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

Scale Characteristics

Distance The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units. Origin The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.

Measurement and Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

Scale Nominal

Primary Scales of Measurement Numbers

Assigned to Runners
Finish
7 8 3

Ordinal

Rank Order of Winners

Third place 8.2 Second place 9.1 First place 9.6

Finish

Interval

Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Time to Finish in Seconds

Ratio

15.2

14.1

13.4

Primary Scales of Measurement

Scale Basic Characteristics Common Examples Marketing Examples Brand nos., store types

Permissible Statistics Descriptive Inferential

Percentages, mode Chi-square, binomial test

Nominal

Numbers identify & Social Security nos., classify objects numbering of football players

Ordinal

Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference relative positions of rankings of teams in a rankings, market objects but not the tournament position, social magnitude of class differences between them Differences between objects can be compared, zero point is arbitrary Zero point is fixed, ratios of scale values can be compared Temperature (Fahrenheit) Celsius)

Percentile, median Rank-order correlation, Friedman ANOVA

Interval

Attitudes, opinions, Range, mean, index nos. standard deviation

Product-moment correlation, t tests, regression

Ratio

Length, weight

Age, sales, income, costs

Geometric mean, harmonic mean

Coefficient of variation

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

Scaling Techniques

Comparative Scales

Noncomparative Scales

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Rating Itemized Rating Scales Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties. In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. Same known reference points for all respondents. Easily understood and can be applied. Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons

Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands.
For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use.

Recording Form:
Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Sassoon Head & Shoulders Pert
a

Jhirmack Finess Vidal Head & Pert e Sassoo Shoulders n 0 0 1 0 1a 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

Number of 3 2 0 4 1 A 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

Paired Comparison Selling

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.

A paired comparison taste test

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Form
Brand 1. Crest 2. Colgate 3. Aim 4. Gleem 5. Sensodyne 6. Ultra Brite 7. Close Up 8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White 10. Stripe Rank Order _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________

Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale

Instructions On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale Form Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power
Sum

Segment I
8 2 3 53 9 7 5 13 100

Segment II
2 4 9 17 0 5 3 60 100

Segment III
4 17 7 9 19 9 20 15 100

Non comparative Scaling Techniques

Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.

Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Version 3 Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Very bad

Perception Analyzer
A relatively new research tool, the perception analyzer, provides continuous measurement of gut reaction. A group of up to 400 respondents is presented with TV or radio spots or advertising copy. The measuring device consists of a dial that contains a 100-point range. Each participant is given a dial and instructed to continuously record his or her reaction to the material being tested.

As the respondents turn the dials, the information is fed to a computer, which tabulates second-by-second response profiles. As the results are recorded by the computer, they are superimposed on a video screen, enabling the researcher to view the respondents' scores immediately. The responses are also stored in a permanent data file for use in further analysis. The response scores can be broken down by categories, such as age, income, sex, or product usage.

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated. The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree disagree agree nor agree disagree 1. Big-Bazzar sells high-quality merchandise. 2. Big-Bazzar has poor in-store service. 3. I like to shop at Big-Bazzar 1 1 1 2X 2 2X 3 3X 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 Strongly

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated. When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.

Example of Likert Scale

Listed below are different opinion about Big-Bazzar .Pls indicate how strong you agree or disagree with each by using the following scale: 1=strongly disagree;2=disagree;3=neither agree nor disagree;4=agree; 5=strongly agree

Big bazzar Sells high quality merchandise (2) Big bazzar has a poor instore service (2) I like to shop at big bazzar (3) Big bazzar do not offer a good mix of different brands within a product category(4) The credit policies at big bazzar is terrible (3) I do not like the advertising done by the big bazzar (3) Big bazzar sells a wide variety of merchandise (4) Big bazzar is the best place to shop (4)

Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. Big-Bazzar is : Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable

--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable

Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring SelfConcepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged 2) Excitable 3) Uncomfortable 4) Dominating 5) Thrifty 6) Pleasant 7) Contemporary 8) Organized 9) Rational 10) Youthful 11) Formal 12) Orthodox 13) Complex 14) Colorless 15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.

Basic Noncomparative Scales

Scale Continuous Rating Scale Basic Characteristics
Place a mark on a continuous line

Examples
Reaction to TV commercials

Advantages
Easy to construct

Disadvantages
Scoring can be cumbersome unless computerized

Itemized Rating Scales

Likert Scale

Degrees of agreement on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale Seven - point scale with bipolar labels

Measurement of attitudes

Easy to construct, administer, and understand

More time - consuming

Semantic Differential

Brand, product, and company images Measurement of attitudes and images

Versatile

Controversy as to whether the data are interval

Stapel Scale

Unipolar ten - point scale, - 5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero)

Easy to construct, administer over telephone

Confusing and difficult to apply

Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions

1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories 2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data 3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least some respondents, an odd number of categories should be used 4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced

scale

5) Verbal description

An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible A number of options should be tried and the best selected

6) Physical form

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Jovan Musk for Men is:
Extremely good Very good Good Bad Very bad Extremely bad

Jovan Musk for Men is:

Extremely good Very good Good Somewhat good Bad Very bad

Rating Scale Configurations

Tide detergent is:
1) Very harsh 2) Very harsh --1 ----2 3 --4 --5 --6 --7 Very gentle Very gentle

3) . Very harsh . . Tide . Neither harsh nor gentle . . . Very gentle 4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat harsh harsh nor gentle gentle

____ ____ Gentle Very gentle

-3
5) Very harsh

-2

-1
Neither harsh nor gentle

+1
Very

+2
gentle

+3

Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is.

Like very much Dislike very much

100 75 50 25 0

Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5.

Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing

CONSTRUCT SCALE DESCRIPTORS

Attitude Importance Satisfaction Purchase Intent Purchase Freq

Very Bad Not at All Important Very Dissatisfied

Bad Not Important Dissatisfied

Neither Bad Nor Good Neutral

Good Important Satisfied

Very Good Very Important Very Satisfied Definitely Will Buy Very Often

Probably Will Definitely will Not Not Buy Buy Never Rarely

Neither Dissat. Nor Probably Satisfied Will Buy Might or Might Not Buy Sometimes Often

Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a class of procedures for representing perceptions and preferences of respondents spatially by means of a visual display. Perceived or psychological relationships among stimuli are represented as geometric relationships among points in a multidimensional space. These geometric representations are often called spatial maps. The axes of the spatial map are assumed to denote the psychological bases or underlying dimensions respondents use to form perceptions and preferences for stimuli.

Conducting Multidimensional Scaling

Specify the purpose for which the MDS results would be used. Select the brands or other stimuli to be included in the analysis. The number of brands or stimuli selected normally varies between 8 and 25. The choice of the number and specific brands or stimuli to be included should be based on the statement of the marketing research problem, theory, and the judgment of the researcher.

Input Data for Multidimensional Scaling

MDS Input Data

Perceptions

Preferences

Direct (Similarity Judgments)

Derived (Attribute Ratings)

Conducting Multidimensional Scaling Obtain Input Data

Perception Data: Direct Approaches. In direct approaches to gathering perception data, the respondents are asked to judge how similar or dissimilar the various brands or stimuli are, using their own criteria. These data are referred to as similarity judgments. Very Dissimilar Crest vs. Colgate 1 23 4 Aqua-Fresh vs. Crest 1 23 Crest vs. Aim 1 23 4 5 . . . Colgate vs. Aqua-Fresh 1 23 Very Similar 5 6 7 4 5 6 7 6 7

The number of pairs to be evaluated is n (n -1)/2, where n is the number of stimuli.

Similarity Rating Of Toothpaste Brands

Aqua-Fresh Aqua-Fresh Crest Colgate Aim Gleem Macleans Ultra Brite Close-Up 5 6 4 2 3 2 2

Crest

Colgate

Aim

Gleem

Macleans

Ultra Brite

Close-Up

Pepsodent

7 6 3 3 2 2

6 4 4 2 2

5 4 3 2

5 5 6

5 5

Conducting Multidimensional Scaling Obtain Input Data

Perception Data: Derived Approaches. Derived approaches to collecting perception data are attribute-based approaches requiring the respondents to rate the brands or stimuli on the identified attributes using semantic differential or Likert scales.
whiten teeth

Whitens Does not teeth ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

Prevents tooth Does not prevent decay ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tooth decay . . . . Pleasant Unpleasant tasting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tasting

If attribute ratings are obtained, a similarity measure (such as Euclidean distance) is derived for each pair of brands.

A Spatial Map of Toothpaste Brands

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 Dentagard Macleans Ultrabrite Pepsodent Colgate Close Up Aqua- Fresh Gleem Aim Crest

-1.0 -0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Using Attribute Vectors to Label Dimensions

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 Whitens Teeth Dentagard Macleans Ultrabrite Pepsodent Close Up Colgate Aqua- Fresh Gleem Aim Crest Fights Cavities

Cleans Stains -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

2.0

Advantages of MDS

Does not require assumptions of linearity, metricity, or multivariate normality. Can be used to model nonlinear relationships. Dimensionality solution can be obtained from individuals; gives insight into how individuals differ from aggregate data. Reveals dimensions without the need for defined attributes. Dimensions that emerge from MDS can be incorporated into regression analysis to assess their relationship with other variables.

Assumptions and Limitations of MDS

It is assumed that the similarity of stimulus A to B is the same as the similarity of stimulus B to A. MDS assumes that the distance (similarity) between two stimuli is some function of their partial similarities on each of several perceptual dimensions. When a spatial map is obtained, it is assumed that inter-point distances are ratio scaled and that the axes of the map are multidimensional interval scaled. A limitation of MDS is that dimension interpretation relating physical changes in brands or stimuli to changes in the perceptual map is difficult at best.

Thurstone scale
Thurstone scale was the first formal technique for measuring an attitude. It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, as a means of measuring attitudes towards religion. It is made up of statements about a particular issue, and each statement has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be. People check each of the statements to which they agree, and a mean score is computed, indicating their attitude.

Thurstone scale
In an attempt to approximate an interval level of measurement, psychologist Robert Thurstone developed the method of equal-appearing intervals. This technique, for developing an attitude scale compensates for the limitation of the Likert scale in that the strength of the individual items is taken into account in computing the attitude score. It also can accommodate neutral statements.

Thurstone Equal-appearing interval Scale

1. Generate a large set of possible statements. 2. Get a set of judges to rate the statements in terms of how much they agree with them, from 1 (agree least) to 11 (agree most). 3. For each statement, plot a histogram of the numbers against which the different judges scored it. 4. For each statement, identify the median score, the number below 25% (Q1) and below 75% (Q3). The difference between these is the interquartile range. 5. Sort the list by median value (This is the 'common' score in terms of agreement). 6. Select a set of statements that are equal positions across the range of medians. Choose the one with the lowest interquartile range for each position.