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FORMANDTRANSFORMATIONINTHENOCTURNE FROMBRITTEN'SSERENADEFORTENOR,HORNAND STRINGS

MichaelBaker
Tempo/Volume67/Issue264/April2013,pp3039 DOI:10.1017/S0040298213000053,Publishedonline:19April2013

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Tempo 67 (264) 3039 2013 Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0040298213000053

form and transformation in the nocturne from brittens serenade for tenor, horn and strings
Michael Baker

Abstract: The Nocturne from Benjamin Brittens Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings (1943) presents a number of interesting melodic and motivic features effectively modelled by aspects of diatonic transformational theories. Following a brief review of important transformational operations in diatonic set theory (transposition within Mod-7 diatonic space, diatonic interval cycles, and signature transformation), this article presents an analysis of the Nocturne drawing upon both traditional and recent developments in diatonic transformational theory. Doing so illustrates an intricate compositional technique, one that traces motivic associations in the vocal line, the horn part and the accompanying strings. A close reading reveals that these motivic techniques stem from the generic concept of echoing and reverberation at the heart of Tennysons poem.

Of the many writings on the music of Benjamin Britten (19131976), most are concerned with his numerous operas, including Peter Grimes, Billy Budd, Death in Venice, and The Turn of the Screw.1 For instance, Philip Rupprechts Brittens Musical Language (2001) presents a number of melodic, rhythmic and structural analyses of Brittens music, focusing on textmusic relationships in several of his best-known operas. Whereas discussion of Brittens music focuses heavily on the operas, comparatively little is written on the analysis and interpretation of his many song cycles, and this includes the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings (1943), one of Brittens most beloved and often performed works.2 The Nocturne from this work presents a number of interesting melodic and motivic features that are effectively modelled by aspects of diatonic transformational theories. Following a brief review of important transformational operations in diatonic set theory (including discussion of transposition within Mod-7 diatonic space,
1

Benjamin Britten (photo Boosey & Hawkes)

Detailed discussion of the operas figures prominently in studies of the composers style, including Peter Evans, The Music of Benjamin Britten (London: JM Dent, 1989), Arnold Whittall, The Music of Britten and Tippett: Studies in Themes and Techniques (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), Mervyn Cooke, The Cambridge Companion to Britten (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), and Philip Rupprecht, Brittens Musical Language (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). A notable exception can be found in Arnold Whittall, Tonality in Brittens Song Cycles with Piano, Tempo No. 96 (1971), pp. 211, which includes highly detailed analyses of key relationships between songs of several cycles; however, due to its instrumentation, the Serenade is absent from this discussion.

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Example 1: Three transformational operations

diatonic interval cycles and signature transformation), I will present an analysis of the Nocturne that draws upon both traditional and recent developments in diatonic transformational theory. I will then compare the relationship between these operations to important aspects of the text for this song, illustrating that the transformational path Britten traversed in this work echoes the overall meaning of Tennysons poem. ~~~ Example 1 outlines three distinct transformational operations on diatonic pitch objects. Example 1a illustrates that in chromatic pitchclass space, the operation Tn transposes notes by n semitones (Mod-12). This is the familiar Mod-12 transposition within chromatic space of pitch-class set theory. Observe that, when applied to diatonic pitch objects (melodies, motives, etc.), transposition of this sort is also understood to transpose the underlying diatonic scale and key signature, along with the notes. That is, the motive in Example 1a begins in C major, and, as a result of T2 (Mod-12), again on on scale degree 1 in the key of D major. scale degree 1 In contrast, Example 1b shows that in diatonic pitch-class space, the operation tn transposes notes by n scale-steps within the prevailing diatonic collection (Mod-7). Whereas transposition within chromatic pitchclass space preserves the exact intervallic quality between adjacent notes of a motive or melodic fragment, transposition within diatonic pitchclass space preserves the numerical size but not the exact quality of inter in vals. Accordingly, the motive in Example 1b begins on scale degree 1 in the same key, the result of t2 (Mod-7).3 C major, then on scale degree 3 (Observe the use of upper-case and lower-case Ts on Example 1 to denote transposition within chromatic space and diatonic space, respectively. This convention will be employed throughout this article.) Whereas transposition within chromatic and diatonic pitch-class space has been widely discussed in the scholarly literature, the notion
3

For basic reading on transposition operations in chromatic and diatonic spaces see David Lewin, Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 1625 and Robert Morris, Composition with Pitch-Classes (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 237.

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of signature transformation has remained relatively unexplored. In his work on the topic, Julian Hook presents an analytical model useful for explaining situations such as those shown in Example 1c, where a melodic motive remains fixed in place on the same note names, with a shift from one key signature to another.4 The label Sn refers to the number of sharps added to or flats removed from the key signature, while the label Fn shows the number of flats added or sharps removed. Hook illustrates this phenomenon in a wide variety of pieces, including Schuberts Valse sentimentale, D. 779, Brahmss Double Concerto, op. 102, Debussys Sonata for Violin and Piano (1917), and Michael Torkes The Yellow Pages.5 Similar to transposition within diatonic pitch-class space, the exact intervallic quality between adjacent notes in a motive-form is often altered under signature transformation. Relationships between versions of two closely related diatonic pitch objects can be described based on three features: the chromatic species (the specific combination(s) of tones and semitones between adjacent notes in a pair of motive-forms), the diatonic collection (the specific key signature(s) in operation between two motive-forms), and centricity (the specific note name(s) that a pair of motive-forms begin on). Each of the three distinct transformational operations illustrated in Example 1 preserve one of the above features while altering others. Thus, the chromatic transposition T2 preserves the chromatic species while altering the collection and centricity, the diatonic transposition t2 preserves the collection while altering the species and centricity, and the signature transformation F4 preserves the centricity while altering the collection and chromatic species.6 Let us briefly revisit the notion of diatonic pitch-class space to examine the three distinct single-generator interval cycles that arise within this space, as illustrated in Example 2.7 The term singlegenerator cycle implies that only one interval is called recursively to create the cycle within Mod-7 diatonic space. The first cycle arises when t1 is applied consecutively to notes within a diatonic collection, resulting in a series of stepwise transpositions from one note to another within the cycle. Observe that clockwise motion along this cycle results in t1, while counter-clockwise motion results in t6, the inversion of t1 (Mod-7). The second cycle arises when t2 is applied consecutively, resulting in transposition by diatonic third between adjacent notes in the cycle. Again, observe that the inversion, t5,
4

5 6

Julian Hook, Signature Transformations in Music Theory and Mathematics: Chords, Collections, and Transformations, ed. Jack Douthett, Martha M. Hyde and Charles J. Smith (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008), pp. 13760. For more on the concept of signature transformation see Julian Hook, Enharmonic Systems: A Theory of Key Signatures, Enharmonic Equivalence, and Diatonicism, Journal of Mathematics and Music, 1 (2007), pp. 99120 and Alexander Sanchez-Behar, Counterpoint and Polyphony in Recent Instrumental Works of John Adams (Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 2008). For application of signature transformation to the analysis of works by other minimalist composers, see Sanchez-Behar, Counterpoint and Polyphony, 657. Furthermore, each of these three transformational operations can be viewed as a combination of the other two: the chromatic T2 of Example 1a results from a combination of signature transformation (S2) followed by diatonic transposition (t1). Similarly, the diatonic t2 of Example 1b can be viewed as a combination of chromatic transposition (T4) followed by signature transformation (F4). Finally, the signature transformation of Example 1c can be seen as emanating from the combination of chromatic transposition (T8) followed by diatonic transposition (t2). Thanks to Professor Julian Hook for pointing this out to me. For basic reading on diatonic interval cycles see John Clough, Diatonic Interval Cycles and Hierarchical Structure, Perspectives of New Music, 32 (1994), pp. 22853 and John Clough, Nora Engebretsen and John Kochavi, Scales, Sets, and Interval Cycles: A Taxonomy, Music Theory Spectrum, 21 (1999), pp. 74104.

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Example 2: Single-generator interval cycles in diatonic pitch-class space

results from counter-clockwise motion along this cycle. The third cycle arises when t3, or diatonic transposition by fourth is applied consecutively. Of these three diatonic interval cycles, the t1 and t3 cycles are probably the most immediately recognizable, representing the diatonic scale and the diatonic circle of fifths. In contrast, the complete diatonic third cycle is a bit less common in musical usage.8 ~~~ The Nocturne is the second full-ensemble movement from Brittens Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, composed in 1943 and premired by Peter Pears (tenor) and Dennis Brain (horn), with Walter Goehr conducting.9 Pears was Brittens life-long companion, and he premired many of the composers opera roles, including Billy Budd and Peter Grimes. Brain was the most important hornist of the 20th century, and was instrumental in commissioning this and other modern masterworks for the horn. The Serenade consists of settings of English poetry ranging from the anonymous 15th-century Lyke-Wake Dirge (which uses archaic Middle English) to poems of William Blake, John Keats, and Alfred, Lord Tennyson.10 The entire work is flanked by a prologue and epilogue, performed on the horns natural harmonic series, and the performer is specifically directed not to alter the colourful out-of-tune seventh and eleventh partials of the series.11 The overall formal design of the Nocturne can be described alternately as either a ternary or a modified strophic form. As shown in Example 3, from a tonal perspective the work begins in E flat major, shifts to an apparent C major for the second section, then returns to E flat major for the final section, hinting at ternary form. This change in tonality is coupled with a change in dynamics, beginning at forte with a change to pianissimo at rehearsal 5. Britten even goes so far as to write sempre pianissimo and da lontano (or as if from a distance), with dynamics setting this section apart from its preceding
8

10 11

An excellent example of a complete t5 cycle occurs at the opening of Brahmss Symphony No. 4 in E Minor, op. 98, where a cascading melody proceeds by descending diatonic thirds in bars 14, only to be answered by a series of ascending thirds (or diatonic t2 cycle) in bars 58. For an analysis that intimates this characteristic, if not in the specific language of diatonic set theory, see Arnold Schoenberg, Fundamentals of Musical Composition, translated and edited by Gerald Strang and Leonard Stein (London: Faber and Faber, 1967), pp. 811. While it is beyond the scope of this essay to discuss cyclic techniques and inter-movement relationships, the Serenade contains many devices that link the individual movements into a larger whole, a topic I intend to examine in the future. One such device is the so-called Lombardic or Scotch snap rhythm of a short-long pattern with accent on the shorter note, which occurs in the Prologue, Pastoral, Nocturne and Epilogue. For a concise primer on the poems of the Serenade see Arthur Graham, A Short and Pragmatic Approach to Poetry for Singers, Journal of Singing, 54 (1998), pp. 1524. Curiously, early reviews of recordings of the Serenade were quick to criticize Brains performance of the Prologue and Epilogue, assuming that he had simply played this music horrendously out of tune! See Tempo No. 33 (1954), pp. 3840.

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Example 3: Britten, Serenade for Tenor, Horn, and Strings (1943), Nocturne, melody and transformations in the tenor part. Copyright 1944 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd

and following sections. The horn is played muted at rehearsal 6 for its middle gestures, in contrast to the open, fuller sound in the other sections. On the other hand, one may also view the work as a modified strophic setting of three related though different versions of the same overall musical idea. A brief glance at Example 3 reveals that the three sections are quite similar in melodic shape, pointing to a varied strophic procedure, rather than three distinct formal sections, which generally arises from a marked contrast of thematic ideas. However, rather than forcing a one or the other decision in this regard, it is perhaps more productive to view the work as situated somewhere between these two formal archetypes, and the incongruity between the tonal and thematic design demonstrated in this work plays upon these established conventions of large-scale formal organization. Example 3 provides the tenor melody for each of the metered sections. The opening melody begins with a complete t5 cycle within Mod-7 diatonic space, which then gives way to a more conjunct melodic line. Beginning with the triplets at the end of the metered section the melody recalls aspects of the t5 cycle. Generally speaking, the opening melody might be described by the familiar musical pattern of statementdeparturereturn, where the final triplet gesture, in an admittedly altered form, echoes the spirit of the opening t5 cycle that began the work. Moving to the second metered section beginning at rehearsal 5, we see that Britten draws upon signature transformation in the melody, keeping the melodic notes fixed in place on the same note names despite the signature change from E flat major to apparent C major. I use the term apparent C major because the melody consistently draws upon F rather than F, yielding more of a 1-sharp diatonic collection than a pure C major. As such, the signature transformation of S4 relates the opening melody to the second version, with a few substitutions. Near the end of this strophe the melody trails off to chromatic T4 (Mod-12) of the original version, providing a sense of departure, but not of return. The third metered section returns to the key of E flat major; however, the pitches have been transposed to diatonic t2 (Mod-7) of the original version, with a few notable alterations. For instance, consider the A in measure 4 of rehearsal 7, which serves as a faint reminder of the Lydian mode, echoing the prior use of this mode in the second section. Near the end of this statement of the melody there are two substitutions, using E and B in place of D and G, which would have arisen by the strict adherence to the diatonic transposition. These alterations are presumably made to allow the melody to end

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Example 4: Britten, Serenade, Nocturne, melody and transformations in the horn part (presented at concert pitch). Copyright 1944 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd

then 5 . (On the emphasizing the tonic harmony, on scale degrees 1 score, observe the newly-added bass-line at rehearsal 7, which also opens with a snippet of the t5 cycle, beginning on the pitch E.) Observe that in each of the subsequent sections, the melody remains intact despite the transformations applied to it, supporting our modified strophic interpretation over ternary form. Furthermore, note that the diatonic transposition operator t2 (Mod-7) from version A to version C is the inverse of t5 which gives rise to the diatonic third cycle that begins the work. As such, there is a keen relationship between the characteristics of the melody itself and the relationship between versions of the melody, as if the idea sounded forth at the beginning of the song echoes and resonates with all parts of the musical structure, even giving rise to the overall form of the piece. Example 4 presents a summary of motivic transformations in the horn part (given at concert pitch). The horn plays exclusively in the cadenza-like sections that occur between the metered sections illustrated in the prior example. The horns gestures are marked by motions along the cycle of diatonic thirds, echoing the use of this technique in the vocal melody. Each of the three sections (labelled A, B, and C) can be divided into three melodic gestures (labelled 1, 2, and 3). The opening horn gesture (rehearsal 4) grows directly out of the end of the tenor melody. Notice that, with the exception of the pitch D, all of the members of the 3-flat diatonic collection are sounded in the first two gestures, and the first appearance of this pitch is at the apex of the horns melodic line. That is to say, Britten artfully withholds this pitch until the climax of the horn melody, providing a sense of completion to the underlying diatonic field.12 (Furthermore, it is worth noting that the accompanying tremolos at rehearsal 4 provide each of the notes of the 3-flat diatonic collection, except the pitch D.) Gesture A1 is related to B1 by a chromatic transposition of T4 (Mod-12), however, gesture A2 is related to B2 by signature transformation, specifically S4. Recall that the tenor melody of rehearsal 5 begins with the signature transformation, then trails off to chromatic T4 (Mod-12). As such, the horns alteration at gesture B2 corrects this wrong turn taken by the tenor, and completes the overall formal trajectory of statementdeparturereturn that had organized the
12

This technique is akin to the notion of aggregate completion in atonal music, where the last chromatic pitch to enter completes a chromatic field, usually as a marker of formal boundaries. A good demonstration of this is provided in David Lewin, Musical Form and Transformation: Four Analytical Essays (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 10421, where the arrival of the pitch E, the last chromatic pitch to enter, marks a formal boundary in Debussys Fireworks prelude.

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tenors opening melodic idea. Furthermore, it is worth noting that both the chromatic transposition and signature transformation discussed here would result in the same 1-sharp diatonic collection for these middle gestures. That is, chromatic T4 (Mod-12) from E flat major would yield the key of G major, as would the signature transformation S4.13 The third set of horn gestures begins with the diatonic t2 (Mod-7), picking up on the transformation in the tenors third strophe. However, the horn changes directions again at gesture C3, redirecting the course of the music back to the original diatonic transposition in the original key signature. The large-scale pattern of statementdeparturereturn is thus completed in dramatic manner, coupled with the horns loudest dynamic, on fortissimo. Let us now finally examine Tennysons poem, in order to see how the analysis sketched in this essay resonates with aspects of poetic meaning. Alfred, Lord Tennyson (18091892), The Splendour Falls.
The splendour falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story: The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory: 5 Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, Bugle blow, answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. O hark, O hear! How thin and clear, And thinner, clearer, farther going! O sweet and far from cliff and scar 10 The horns of Elfland faintly blowing! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying: Bugle blow, answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. O love, they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill or field or river: 15 Our echoes roll from soul to soul And grow forever and forever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying.

The inclusion of this poem in the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings seems almost predestined, given the featured poetic imagery of bugles and horns.14 However, closer inspection of the poem reveals that it centres on the notion of echoing and reverberation.15 There are direct references to the concept of echoing in lines 5, 12, 15, and elsewhere. These references are musically portrayed by the motivic interplay between voice and horn in the cadenza sections, which alternate in an echo-like texture. The string accompaniment pattern at the opening and throughout the metered sections also symbolizes echoing, marked by a Lombardic rhythm set with forte followed immediately with piano
13

14

15

This is true for all transformations with even-numbered intervallic designations, and is closely related to the so-called M transformation. Thanks to Professor Julian Hook for pointing this out to me. Britten set another work for tenor and obbligato horn to poetry by Tennyson in Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal, a work that was considered for inclusion in the Serenade. See Donald Mitchell, Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal: Brittens Other Serenade, Tempo No. 169 (1989), pp. 227. For interpretations of The Splendour Falls along these lines, especially focusing on the abstract notion of echoing in the poem, see Catherine Barnes Stevenson, Tennysons Mutability Canto: Time, Memory, and Art in The Princess, Victorian Poetry, 13 (1975), pp. 2133 and Gerhard Joseph, The Echo and the Mirror en abme in Victorian Poetry, Victorian Poetry, 23 (1985): 40312.

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throughout. Another musical representation of the idea of echoing can be found in the concluding vocal gestures for each of the unmetered sections, where the tenors repetition on the words dying, dying, dying dynamically fades each time, aurally depicting the fading of a sound as it echoes, trailing off into silence. Furthermore, consider the impact of the notion of echoing on the rhyme scheme of the poem, which is marked by several points of alliteration, direct word repetition, assonance and interior rhyme.16 There are numerous instances of alliteration, especially at lines 2, 3, 5 and 7. The first line of the poem illustrates the concept of interior rhyme, with the splendour falls followed by castle walls; interior rhyme also occurs at lines 3, 7, 9, 13 and 15. The most striking instance of assonance occurs at lines 15 and 16, with the long o sound of our echoes roll from soul to soul followed immediately by and grow forever and forever. The long o sound even spills forth into the next line, with blow, bugle, blow, although this line also serves as a refrain and helps to round out the poem as a whole. In addition to these techniques, there are numerous instances of direct repetition of words within and between lines throughout the poem. Tennyson even applies a special rhetorical device known as polyptoton, which involves the repetition of words derived from the same root but with different endings.17 This occurs at lines 7, 8, 9 and 10, where the words thin and clear are mapped onto thinner and clearer, followed by farther mapped onto far and blowing mapped onto blow. This technique even links the end of the second stanza to the beginning of the third, with the hypnotic concluding repetition of dying, dying, dying mapped onto die. It is tempting to suggest that the structural use of assonance, alliteration, internal rhyme, and other types of poetic music are meant to convey the generic notion of echoing and reverberation that lies at the heart of the poems meaning. However, the meaning of echoing described here is not only to be taken literally as an immediate repetition, but also as a metaphor for lasting influence, more poetically as an eternal reverberation of long ago sounds. This is again marked by the poetic lines 15 and 16, which describe that the echoes pass from one person to another (or one generation to another) and grow on, eternally affecting all who hear them. This subtle take on the concept of echoing is matched beautifully by Brittens setting of the poem. Consider that the melody sounded in the initial strophe is repeated, with variation, for each of the subsequent versions. Furthermore, the principle of transposition by diatonic third in the t5 cycle issued forth at the beginning of the piece becomes the dominant musical technique of the song as a whole, and gives rise to the diatonic t2 between versions A and C of the tenor melody. It is as if the essential spirit of the diatonic third cycle remains present and reverberates continually throughout the song, influencing and guiding its overall musical path. Moreover, the horns off-stage performance of the Epilogue may

16

17

See Deborah Stein and Robert Spillman, Poetry into Song: Performance and Analysis of Lieder (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 368, 324, and 328 for definitions and distinctions between assonance, alliteration, and interior rhyme. Oxford English Dictionary Online, referenced 30 January 2011. Several sources, including the Oxford English Dictionary, cite Tennysons line My own hearts heart, and ownest own, farewell, from Maud (1855), as a classic example of polyptoton. See also Heinrich Plett, Literary Rhetoric: Concepts, Structures, Analyses (Leiden: Brill, 2009).

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Example 5: Britten, Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings, Pastoral, melody and transformations in the tenor part. Copyright 1944 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd

also be read as a representation of this poetic trope, framing the entire Serenade with an eternal echoing of long-ago sounds. Let us now consider further instances of these devices in other works by Britten to show that their presence in the Nocturne is not an isolated occurrence. Example 5 illustrates an instance of signature transformation in the Pastoral from the Serenade. The example aligns two versions of the same melodic idea, the first occurring in the 5-flat diatonic collection, and the second occurring in the 4-sharp collection. As such, a signature transformation of S9 links the first to the second occurrence in this case. Notice that the 4-sharp collection might be perceived as being centred in C-sharp minor, which would be the enharmonically spelled parallel minor of D-flat major. However, Brittens handling of the melody does not represent a simple replacement of scale degrees between parallel keys, and it is more productive to refer to the alteration in terms of a net change in accidentals rather than centricity (i.e., D-flat major or C-sharp minor). Furthermore, observe the enharmonic relationship of G as A at the close of this example, which aptly reflects the sentiment in John Cottons poem, that small items can take on a much larger appearance when seen in a certain slant of light. In this sense, the G, which might seem like a foreign pitch in the key of D-flat major, is revealed to be the dominant scale degree in disguise.18 Britten scholars Edward Lundergan and David Forrest have pointed out the composers use of interval cycles as a means of generating melodic content; however, these studies have focused on cyclic motion within chromatic pitch-class space, rather than within Mod-7 diatonic space as presented here.19 In addition to the examples from the Nocturne outlined in this paper, Britten employs a complete diatonic t5 cycle at the close of the Hymn movement of the Serenade. However, as Example 6 shows, a considerably more famous instance of motion along the diatonic third cycle occurs in the opening of Interlude #1 from Peter Grimes, composed around the same time as the Serenade. ~~~ Many of the motivic devices employed in Brittens Nocturne can be explained by aspects of diatonic transformational theory. The coordination of these devices gives rise to the formal interplay between the competing ternary and modified strophic interpretations outlined above. Furthermore, the relationship between the opening
18 19

A similar instance of signature transformation occurs in Brittens Hymn to St. Cecilia, Op. 27 (1942), composed a year prior to the Serenade. Edward Lundergan, Musical Metaphor: Cyclic-Interval Structures in Brittens War Requiem, Choral Journal, 38 (1998), pp. 920, David Forrest, Prolongation in the Choral Music of Benjamin Britten, Music Theory Spectrum, 32 (2010), pp. 125.

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Example 6: Britten, Peter Grimes, Op. 33 (1944), Interlude #1, clarinet part (presented at concert pitch) Copyright 1944 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd

musical gesture and the song as a whole highlighted in this paper plays into the overall meaning of Tennysons poem, that of echoing and eternal reverberation. While this paper focuses on one analysis of one piece, the concepts of signature transformation and diatonic intervallic relationships may prove useful in the analysis and interpretation of other works by Britten and his contemporaries.