GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Laboratory Manual

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General Chemistry - Lab Manual

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Introduction The Lab Manual serves as your text for the lab portion of this course (CHEM 111 General Chemistry). You must carefully read through the experiment to be performed. Keep the lab manual with you during the lab hours. Objective Learn chemistry the hands-on way, with the general chemistry laboratory experiments.

Table of contents S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Particulars Laboratory safety rules Introduction Qualitative analysis Analysis of acid radicals (Diluted HCl group) Analysis of acid radicals (Con. H2So4 group) Analysis of acid radicals (miscellaneous group) Analysis of base radicals Analysis of unknown sample (salt) Predicting shapes of molecules using molecular models Measurement of Density Measurement of melting points and boiling points Page

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Laboratory Safety Rules

Laboratories are interesting and potentially dangerous place to work. Laboratory Safety is a very important aspect of science. Without it, experimentation could result in very serious injury. To reduce the risks involved with experimentation, there are certain procedures that we should all follow.

Safety is the first priority in our lab

1. 2. Wear lab coat. A lab coat should be worn during laboratory experiments. It provides protection at all times. Dress properly. Long hair and loose clothing (such as ties and ghutra) are a hazard in the laboratory. They may either catch fire or be chemically contaminated. Long hair must be tied back, baggy clothing must be secured. Wear shoes. Shoes must completely cover the foot. Sandals are prohibited because of the hazard from the chemical spills. Wear eye protector. Wear appropriate eye protection (goggles) at all times in the laboratory and in any area where chemicals are stored or handled. Such protection will protect you against chemical splashes. Do not wear contact lenses (even with safety goggles). Contact lenses prevent rinsing chemical splashes from the eye. Vapors in the laboratory (eg. HCl) dissolve in the liquids covering the eye and concentrate behind the lenses. Soft lenses are especially bad as chemicals dissolve in the lenses themselves and are released over several hours. Behave responsibly. The dangers of spilled acids, chemicals and broken glassware created by thoughtless actions are not tolerated. Do not smoke. Smoking is not just an obvious fire hazard; it also draws chemicals in laboratory air (both vapors and dust) into the lungs. Do not eat or drink. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory glassware as containers for food or beverages. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water when leaving the laboratory. Avoid breathing fumes of any kind. To test the smell of a vapor, collect some in a cupped hand. Obtain your instructors written permission before you smell any chemical. Never smell a chemical reaction while it is occurring. Work in a hood if there is the possibility that noxious vapors may be produced.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8.

9.

10. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory. Carefully read the experiment before coming to the laboratory. An unprepared student is a hazard to everyone in the room. 11. KEEP YOUR WORK AREA NEAT AND CLEAN. Clean up spills and broken glass immediately. Clean up your work space; wipe all surfaces and put away all chemicals and equipment at the end of the laboratory period.
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12. Never work alone in the lab. There must be at least one other person present in the lab. In addition, an instructor should be quickly available. 13. Do not perform any unauthorized experiments. Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. This includes using only the quantities instructed, no more. Carefully follow all instructions, both written and oral. Consult your instructor if you have any doubts about instructions and laboratory manuals. 14. Be careful while heating liquids. Add boiling chips to avoid bumping. Flammable liquids such as ethers, hydrocarbons, alcohols, acetone, and carbon disulfide must never be heated over direct flame. 15. Careful about spatters. Spatters are common in general chemistry lab. Test tubes being heated or containing reaction mixtures should never be pointed at anyone. If you observe this practice in a neighbor, speak to him or the instructor. 16. Always pour acids into water when mixing. Otherwise the acid can spatter, often quite violently. 17. Never use mouth suction in filling pipettes with chemical reagents. Always use a suction device. 18. Do not force a rubber stopper onto glass tubing or thermometers. Lubricate the tubing and the stopper with glycerol or water. Use paper or cloth toweling to protect your hands. Grasp the glass close to the stopper. 19. Dispose of all chemical waste properly. Dispose of excess liquid reagents by flushing small quantities down the sink. Consult the instructor about large quantities. Dispose of solid in crocks. Never return unused chemicals to their original container. 20. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to your instructor immediately. Do not panic. 21. In case of fire or accident, call the instructor at once. Note the location of fire extinguisher and safety showers now so that you can use them if needed. Wet towels can be used to smother small fires. In case of chemical spill on your body or clothing, wash the affected area with large quantities of running water. Remove clothing that has been wet by chemicals to prevent further reaction with the skin. If a chemical should splash in your eye(s), immediately flush with running water for at least 20 minutes. Except for superficial injuries, you will be required to get medical treatment for cuts, burns or fume inhalation.

22. Most importantly, think about what you are doing. Plan ahead. If you give no thought to what you are doing, you predispose yourself to an accident. 23. Report if you have any diagnosed allergies or other special medical needs to your instructor.
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QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS The object of qualitative analysis is the identification of the constituents of a substance. In the qualitative analysis procedure, the chemical constituents and properties of an unknown substance are determined by systematically reacting the unknown with a number of different reagents or chemicals. A visible chemical reaction that can be utilized in qualitative analysis may involve: Formation of precipitate (ppt.) Change in color Evolution of gas or vapor

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SALT In this course, we are going to analysis the chemical constituents of simple SALTS. A salt is made of two parts: one from the acid and the other from the base. Eg. HCl + NaOH ----------- NaCl + H2O The part derived from the acid is known as the acid radical (Eg. Cl-) The part derived from the base is known as base radical (Eg. Na+)

ACID RADICALS Acid radicals to be studied in this course can be divided according to their behavior towards dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hot concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in three groups. 1) Diluted HCl group: Acidic radicals evolving gases or vapors with dil. HCl. Eg. Carbonates [(CO3)2-] Bicarbonates [(HCO3)-] Nitrites 2) Concentrated H2SO4 group: Acidic radicals evolving gases or vapors with hot conc. H2SO4. Eg. Chlorides (Cl-) Nitrates [(NO3)-] 3) Miscellaneous group: Acidic radicals unaffected by either acids (HCl and H2SO4). Eg. Sulphate [(SO4)2-]
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BASE RADICALS Base radicals to be studied in this course are sodium (Na+) and magnesium (Mg2+). 1. Carbonates (CO32-) Dil. HCl Group Acid radicals SALT Con. H2SO4 group Miscellaneous group Base radicals 1. Sodium (Na+) 2. Magnesium (Mg2+) 2. Bicarbonates (HCO3-) 3. Nitrites (NO2-) 1. Chlorides (Cl-) 2. Nitrates (NO3-) 1. Sulphates (SO42-)

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Experiment: 1

Date: ANALYSIS OF ACID RADICALS (DILUTED HCl GROUP)

The dil. HCl group contains salts derived from unstable acids which decompose giving gases which can be identified by odor, color, etc.

1) Carbonates (CO3)2Pure carbonic acid does not exist, and its solution in water rapidly decomposes into CO2 and H2O. They exist as salts of carbonic acids (H2CO3). All carbonates are insoluble in water except those of the alkali metals (Na, K) and (NH4)+. Example for the salt of CO32- = Sodium carbonate (NaCO3) Main test: 1) Dil HCl + Solid Effervescence (emit small bubbles of gas) and evolution of CO2 gas that is colorless and odorless gas; detected by the turbidity of limewater. If the carbonate is soluble in water, carry the following reactions (the confirmatory tests). Na2CO3 + 2HCl ----------- 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O Confirmatory tests: 2) Barium chloride (BaCl2) solution + Salt solution W hite precipitate is formed of Ba2CO3. On cold, the precipitate is soluble in mineral acids (eg. HCl, H2SO4). BaCl2 + Na2CO3 ----------- BaCO3 + 2 NaCl 3) Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution + Salt solution W hite precipitate is formed of Ag2CO3. On cold, the precipitate is soluble in NH4OH and HNO3. 2AgNo3 + Na2CO3 ----------- Ag2CO3 + 2 NaNO3

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4) Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) solution + Salt solution On cold, a white precipitate is formed of MgCO3. MgSO4 + Na2CO3 ----------- MgCO3 + Na2SO4

2) Bicarbonates (HCO3)Also known as acid carbonates or hydrogen carbonates. All bicarbonates are soluble in water (not all metals form bicarbonates). Example for salt of HCO3-: Sodiumbicarbonate (NaHCO3) Main test: 1) Dil. HCl + Solid The same results as in case of carbonates (Effervescence (emit small bubbles of gas) and evolution of CO2 gas that is colorless and odorless gas; detected by the turbidity of limewater). NaHCO3 + HCl ----------- NaCl + CO2 + H2O Confirmatory test: 2) Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) solution + Salt solution W hen MgSO4 solution added to a cold salt solution (NaHCO3), no precipitate is formed, because Mg(HCO3)2 is soluble in water. W hen the solution is then boiled, a white precipitate is formed of MgCO3. MgSO4 + 2NaHCO3 ----------- Mg(HCO3)2 + Na2SO4 Mg(HCO3)2 + Heat ---------- MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

3) Nitrites (NO2)Nitrous acid is only known in the form of its salts. All nitrites are soluble in water, except AgNO2. Example for the salt of NO2-: Sodium nitrite (NaNO2).

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Main test: 1) Dil. HCl + Salt (Solid) Brown fumes of NO2 evolved (resulting from the decomposition of HNO2), and the solution of acquires a pale blue color. NaNO2 + HCl ---------- HNO2 + NaCl 3HNO2 ---------- HNO3 + 2NO + H2O 2NO + O2 (air) ---------- 2NO2 (Brown) Confirmatory test: 2) Salt solution (concentrated) + Silver nitrite (AgNO3) solution W hite precipitate is formed, which is soluble in boiling water. NaNO2 + AgNO3 ---------- NaNO3 + AgNO2 3) Salt solution + One drop of KMnO4 + 2 drops of Dil. H2SO4 The deep violet color of permanganate disappear at warm temperature, because nitrites are reducing substances. 5NaNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 ---------- 5NaNO3 + K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 +3H2O 4) Salt solution + Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) solution + Few drops of H2SO4. The solution becomes brown color, because nitrites are oxidizing substances. 2NaNO2 + 2FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 ---------- 2NO + Fe2(SO4)3 + 2NaHSO4 + 2H2O 2NO + O2 (air) ---------- 2NO2 (Brown) 5) Salt solution + Bromine water Bromine water is decolorized, because nitrites are reducing substances. NaNO2 + Br2 + H2O ---------- NaNO3 + 2HBr 6) To the salt solution, add a crystal of KI and a starch paper, and then acidify with dil. H2SO4.
-

A deep blue color appears on the paper due to the liberation of iodine. 2NaNO2 + 2KI + 2H2SO4 ---------- I2 + 2NO + 2H2O + K2SO4 + Na2SO4
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1) Carbonates (CO3)2S.No. 1 Experiment Salt (solid) + Dil. HCl Salt solution + BaCl2 solution Salt solution + AgNO3 solution Salt solution + MgSO4 solution Observation Effervescence (emission of small bubbles of gas). W hite precipitate is formed (on cold). W hite precipitate is formed (on cold). W hite precipitate is formed (on cold). Results Presence of Carbonates or Bicarbonates. Presence of Carbonates. Presence of Carbonates. Presence of Carbonates.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is

2) Bicarbonates (CO3)2S.No. 1 Experiment Salt (solid) + Dil. HCl Observation Effervescence (emission of small bubbles of gas) and evolution of colorless gas detected by the turbidity of lime water. NO precipitate is formed (on cold). W hen solution is boiled, a white precipitate is formed. Results Presence of Carbonates or Bicarbonates.

Salt solution + MgSO4 solution

Presence of Bicarbonates.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is

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3) Nitrites (NO2)-

S.No. 1

Experiment Salt (solid) + Dil. HCl

Observation Brown fume evolved and the solution acquires a pale blue color.

Results Presence of Nitrites.

Salt solution (Concentrated) + AgNO3 solution

W hite precipitate is formed, soluble in boiling water.

Presence of Nitrites.

Salt solution + One drop of KMnO4 + 2 drops of dil. H2SO4. Warm this mixture.

Deep violet color of permanganate disappears. Brown color is formed

Presence of Nitrites.

Salt solution + FeSO4 solution + Few drops of dil. H2SO4

Presence of Nitrites.

Salt solution + Bromine water

Bromine water also decolorized.

Presence of Nitrites.

Salt solution + Crystal of KI + Starch paper (immerse in solution) + Few drops of dil. H2SO4

A deep blue color appears Presence of Nitrites. on the paper.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is ..

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Experiment: 2

Date: ANALYSIS OF ACID RADICALS (CON. H2SO4 GROUP)

The Conc. H2SO4 group contains Cl- and NO3-. Their corresponding acids are set free when the salts are treated with a less volatile acid eg. H2SO4.

1) Chlorides (Cl-)
They are salts of hydrochloric acid (HCl). Nearly all chlorides are soluble in water except AgCl, Hg2Cl, and PbCl2 (PbCl2 is soluble in hot water). Example for the salt of Cl-: Sodium chloride (NaCl). Main test: 1) Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 Evolution of colorless gas (HCl gas) that fumes in air, and forms white clouds (NH4Cl) with a wetted paper by NH4OH. Confirmatory tests 2) Salt solution + Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution W hite cloudy precipitate of AgCl is formed, which is soluble in ammonia but insoluble in hot dil. HNO3. The precipitate turns gradually form violet to black on exposure to light. NaCl + AgNO3 ---------- AgCl + NaNO3 AgCl + NH4OH ---------- Ag(NH3)2Cl (soluble silver diamino-chloride complex) 3) Salt solution + Lead acetate (Pb(C2H3O2)2) solution A white precipitate of PbCl2 is formed, which is soluble in hot water but reprecipitate on cooling.

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2) Nitrates (NO3-)
All nitrates are soluble in water. Mercury and nitrates yield a precipitate of the basic salt on treatment with water, but are soluble in dil. HNO3. Example for the salt of NO3-: Sodium nitrate (NaNO3). Main test: 1) Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 + Heat Reddish brown vapors of NO2 accompanied with vapors of HNO3 are evolved, which fumes in air. 2NaNO3 + H2SO4 ---------- 2HNO3 + Na2SO4 4HNO3 ---------- 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O Confirmatory tests 2) Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 + Copper turnings + Heat The same result as the above case but the fumes increase and the solution is colored blue due to the formation of copper nitrate. In this case copper reacts with liberated nitric acid giving off NO2 and NO that with oxygen of the air gives also NO2. 3) Brown ring test Salt solution + 2 to 4 crystals of FeSO4(green crystals) then shake well + add 1 to 2 ml of H2SO4 slowly down the side of the test tube. We observe a brown ring is formed at the interface between two solutions. The ring is due to the formation of [Fe(NO)SO4] compound. On shaking or warming the mixture, the ring disappears. Note: If Pb or Ba nitrates is used, a white precipitate of Pb or Ba sulphates is formed on adding the ferrous sulphate.

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1) Chlorides (Cl-) S.No. 1 2 Experiment Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 Salt solution + AgNO3 solution Observation Evolution of colorless gas. W hite curdy precipitate is formed. The precipitate gradually forms violet to black on exposure to light. 3 Salt solution + Pb(C2H3O2)2 solution W hite precipitate is formed. Presence of Chlorides. Results Presence of Chlorides. Presence of Chlorides.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is .

2) Nitrates (NO3)S.No. 1 Experiment Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 Observation Evolution of reddish brown vapors. Evolution of reddish brown vapors (higher than the previous experiment). The solution colored blue. 3 Salt solution + 2 to 4 crystals of Brown ring is formed. FeSO4 (shake) + add 1 to 2 ml of H2SO4 slowly down the side of the tube. Presence of Nitrates. Results Presence of Nitrates.

Salt (solid) + Conc. H2SO4 + Copper turnings + Heat

Presence of Nitrates.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is .
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Experiment: 3

Date: ANALYSIS OF ACID RADICALS (MISCILLANEOUS GROUP)

The miscellaneous group includes the remaining acid radicals (such as SO42- and PO43-) which are not apparently affected by dil. HCl and Conc. H2SO4. Example for the salt of SO42-: Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).

1) Sulphates (SO4)2Most sulphates are soluble in water, CaSO4 is difficulty soluble in water, SrSO4, PbSO4, BaSO4 are insoluble in water. Confirmatory tests 1) Salt solution + Barium chloride (BaCl2) solution W hite precipitate of barium sulphate is formed which is insoluble in hot dil. HNO3.

2) Salt solution + Lead acetate solution W hite precipitate of lead sulphate is formed. The precipitate is soluble in ammonium acetate, or NaOH. Also, the precipitate is appreciable soluble in hot dil. HNO3. 3) Salt solution + Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution W hite precipitate is formed from concentrated solutions only.

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1) Sulphates (SO4)2-

S.No. 1

Experiment Salt solution + BaCl2 solution

Observation W hite precipitate is formed.

Results Presence of Sulphates.

Salt solution + Lead acetate solution

W hite precipitate is formed. W hite precipitate is formed.

Presence of Sulphates.

Salt solution + AgNO3 solution

Presence of Sulphates.

Results: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the acid radical present in the given sample is ..

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Experiment: 4 ANALYSIS OF BASE RADICALS This group contains magnesium (Mg2+) and sodium (Na+). 1) Magnesium (Mg2+) Example for the salt of Mg2+: Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4). Confirmatory tests 1) Salt solution + Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3) solution -

Date:

W hite precipitate of magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.5H2O is formed on boiling or long standing. The precipitate is soluble in ammonium salt solution.

2) Salt solution + Ammonia solution Partial precipitation of white gelatinous magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 is produced. The hydroxide is soluble in ammonium salt solution and very sparingly soluble in water. MgSO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O ---------- Mg(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 3) Salt solution + Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution W hite precipitate of magnesium hydroxide is formed (insoluble in excess of the reagent). The precipitate is soluble in ammonium salt solution. 4) Salt solution + Sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) solution W hite crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH4)PO4.6H2O is formed in the presence of ammonium chloride (to prevent the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide) and ammonia solution. The precipitate is sparingly soluble in water, but is soluble in acetic acid and in mineral acids (eg. HCl, H2SO4).

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Scratching the side of the test tube with a glass rod accelerate precipitation from the solutions.

2) Sodium (Na+) Example for the salt of Na+: Sodium chloride.

1) Salt solution + Sodium cobaltinate solution No precipitate is formed with sodium salts (distinction from potassium salts).

2) Flame test 1. Imparts a golden yellow color to Bunsen flame.

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1) Magnesium (Mg2+)

S.No. 1

Experiment Salt solution + (NH4)2CO3 solution. Boil the mixture. Salt solution + Ammonia solution

Observation W hite precipitate is formed.

Results Presence of Magnesium.

W hite gelatinous precipitate (partial precipitation) is formed. W hite precipitate is formed.

Presence of Magnesium.

Salt solution + NaOH solution Salt solution + Sodium phosphate solution + Ammonium chloride + ammonia solution

Presence of Magnesium.

W hite crystalline precipitate is formed.

Presence of Magnesium.

Result: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the base radical present in the given sample is

2) Sodium (Na+)

S.No. 1

Experiment Salt solution + Sodium cobaltinate solution Flame test

Observation NO precipitate is formed.

Results Presence of Sodium.

Imparts a golden yellow color to Bunsen flame.

Presence of Sodium.

Result: I have performed the above experiments. From the observation, I confirmed that the base radical present in the given sample is

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Experiment: 5 ANALYSIS OF UNKNOWN SAMPLE

Date:

The salt (unknown sample) contains both acid radicals and base radicals. Carryout the following experiments in the given order. Part 1: Qualitative Analysis of Acid Radical Part 2: Qualitative Analysis of Base Radical PART 1: Qualitative Analysis of Acid Radical Diluted HCl group: Carbonates (CO3)2-, Bicarbonates (HCO3)-, and Nitrites (NO2)-. Concentrated H2SO4 group: Chlorides (Cl-) and Nitrates (NO3-). Miscellaneous group: Sulphates (SO42-). Experiment Salt (Solid) + Dil. HCl Observation Emission of small bubbles of gas (colorless). Conclusion Gas is CO2. The radical may be carbonate (CO3)2- or bicarbonate (HCO3)-. (Perform confirmatory test-1). Reddish brown gas evolved and the solution becomes blue. Gas is NO2. The radical may be nitrites (NO2)-. (Perform confirmatory test-2). NO emission of gas. Absence of diluted HCl group. (Perform next experiment). Salt (Solid) + Con. H2SO4 Emission of colorless gas that forms white clouds with a wetted paper with NH4OH. Evolution of reddish brown gas after heat. Gas is HCl. The radical may be chloride (Cl-). (Perform confirmatory test-3). Gas is NO2. The radical may be nitrates (NO3-). (Perform confirmatory test-4). NO emission of gas. Presence of Miscellaneous group. The radical may be sulphates (SO42-). (Perform confirmatory test-5).

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Confirmatory test-1 (for Carbonates and Bicarbonates) Experiment * Salt solution + BaCl2 * Salt solution + AgNO3 * Salt solution + MgSO4 * Salt solution + MgSO4 W hite ppt. is formed after heating. Presence of Bicarbonates (HCO3)-. Observation W hite ppt. is formed on cold condition. Conclusion Presence of Carbonates (CO3)2-.

Confirmatory test-2 (for Nitrites) Experiment * Salt solution + AgNO3 Observation W hite ppt. that turns to yellow and black. Deep violet color of permanganate disappears. Conclusion Presence of Nitrites (NO2)-.

* Salt solution + One drop of KMnO4 + 2 drops of dil. H2SO4. Warm this mixture * Salt solution + FeSO4 solution + Few drops of dil. H2SO4.

Presence of Nitrites (NO2)-.

Brown color.

Presence of Nitrites (NO2)-.

Confirmatory test-3 (for Chloride) Experiment * Salt solution + AgNO3 * Salt solution + Lead acetate Observation W hite curdy ppt. that turns to violet and black. W hite ppt. Conclusion Presence of chloride (Cl-). Presence of chloride (Cl-).

Confirmatory test-4 (for Nitrates) Experiment * Salt soln. + 2 to 4 crystals of FeSO4 (shake) + add H2SO4 slowly down the side of the tube. * Salt soln. + Cu rurnings + Con. H2SO4 Observation Brown ring. Conclusion Presence of nitrates (NO3-).

Reddish brown fumes and the solution become blue.

Presence of nitrates (NO3-).

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Confirmatory test-5 (for Sulphates) Experiment * Salt solution + BaCl2 * Salt soln. + Lead acetate * Salt solution + AgNO3 Observation W hite ppt. Conclusion Presence of Sulphates (SO42-).

PART 2: Qualitative Analysis of Base Radical This group contains magnesium (Mg2+) and sodium (Na+). Experiment * Salt solution + Ammonia *Salt solution + NaOH * Salt solution + (NH4)2CO3 NO ppt. Observation W hite or gelatinous ppt. Conclusion Presence of Magnesium (Mg2+). Presence of Sodium (Na+).

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Experiment

Observation

Conclusion

Result The given sample is (base radical + Acid radical)

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Experiment: 6

Date:

PREDICTING SHAPES OF MOLECULES USING MOLECULAR MODELS Objectives 1. To draw Lewis structures of the given molecules. 2. To make models of molecular structures using VSEPR model. 3. To describe and name the molecular geometry (shapes) of each model. Introduction The chemical and physical properties of molecules and ions are directly related to the geometry of the species. The spatial arrangement of atoms and electrons in a chemical species will affect the function and reactivity of the species. Understanding the geometrical structure of chemical species gives insight into studying chemical reactivity and reaction rates. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory states that bonds and lone pairs are regions of high electron density in an atom that repel each other until they get as far apart as possible. This effect determines the atoms three-dimensional geometry and bond angles. See table 1 for more details. In order to get correct answers from VSEPR theory, you must first have a correct Lewis structure. Lewis structures help us to organize the valence electrons in a structure as bonding and lone pairs on each of the atoms. Knowing how many electron pairs are arranged around a central atom allows us to predict the geometry of the molecule. In this lab, you will create several models of molecules using a Ball-and-stick models which are often used to demonstrate molecular shape (painted wooden balls represent atoms, and wooden sticks represent bonds). Table 1. Molecular Geometry based on VSEPR Model Number of atoms bound to central atom 2 3 4 5 6
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Number of lone pairs of electron around central atom 0 0 0 0 0

Geometry Linear Trigonal Planar Tetrahedral Trigonal Bipyramidal Octahedral

Bond angles 180 120 109.5 120 (equatorial) & 90 (axial) 90 Page: 24

2 2 3

1 2 1

Bent (or) V-shaped Bent (tetrahedral) Trigonal Pyramidal

104.5 104.5 107.5

VSEPR diagrams 1) Linear 2) Trigonal Planar 3) Tetrahedral 4) Trigonal Bipyramidal

5) Octahedral

6) Bent

7) Bent

8) Trigonal pyramidal

.. ..
:

Procedure 1. For each of the molecules, determine the number of lone pairs and bonded pairs around the central atom by drawing the Lewis Dot Structure. 2. Use the model kit to build the structure. Arrange the atoms to maximize the distance between all the electron pairs. Remember that lone pair electrons cause more repulsion than electrons between atoms. y y y y Use yellow (or any colour available) balls for hydrogens. Use black balls for other atoms that desire an octet. Use short sticks for non-bonded electron lone pairs. Use long sticks for single bonds.

3. Describe the structure you have created as linear, V-shaped, trigonal planar, trigonal pyramidal tetrahedral, square planer, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral. 4. Estimate the angle between the atoms attached to the central atom.
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Observations (Complete the following table for the indicated species) # of atoms bonded to central atom # of lone pairs on central atom

Molecule

Lewis Structure

VSEPR Diagram

BeCl2

BF3

NH3

SF6

H2O

PCl5

CH4

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Questions & Answers

1. What does VSEPR stand for? VSEPR stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion.

2. Why it is important to know the shape of molecule? Explaining the shapes of molecules is important in understanding how molecules react.

3. When you made molecules, it was important to fill all of the open holes. What would an .....open hole in a molecule represent? An area of electron density may be: 2. a lone (nonbonding) pair

3. a single bond 4. a double bond 5. a triple bond

4. List three of the models you built that were molecules. Linear: V-shaped: Trigonal Planar:

5. Draw a Lewis Dot Diagram for ammonia. Using your Lewis dot diagram, explain why your .molecular model for ammonia looked like it did. Use the terms paired electrons and .unpaired electrons in your answer. See textbook (Chemistry by Zumdahl, 8th edition)

6. What effect does the presence of lone-pair electrons have on the bond angles in a .molecule? The lone-pair electrons in a molecule reduce the bond angles.
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Experiment: 7 MEASUREMENT OF MELTING POINT AND BIOLING POINT

Date:

Objectives To determine the melting temperature of a solid, and melting temperature of a liquid.

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Experiment: 8 MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY Objectives

Date:

To determine the density of unknown samples (solid and liquid) at room temperature. By the end of this experiment, the student should be able to understand: The relationship between mass, volume and density. The relationship between experimental measurements, precision and significant figures. Use of laboratory equipments, such as electric balance, graduated cylinder, pipette and Vernier Caliper. Introduction Substances (i.e. molecules) have physical properties of mass, volume and density. Density is defined as the ratio of the mass divided by the volume. Typically, densities are reported in units of g/cm3 (for solids) or g/ml (for liquids). Please note that 1 ml = 1 cm3. Density = Mass / Volume (or) d = m/V Measurement of density 1. Density of a solid is determined by weighing a sample of the solid and then measuring the volume it occupies. The volume of a solid can be determined by 2 methods. By measuring the dimensions of the solid and calculating its volume. Example: A solid cylinder has a length of 3.270 cm and a diameter of 1.345 cm. Volume of the solid cylinder = l (length) x T x d2 (diameter) / 4 = 3.270 x 3.141 x 1.3452 / 4 = 18.358 / 4 = 4.645 cm3 By measuring the volume of liquid that is displaced by the solid.

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Example: A lump of solid is submerged in water in a 50 ml graduated cylinder. The water level was 25.5 ml before adding the solid; and 30.0 ml after adding the solid. The volume of the solid = 30.0 25.5 = 4.5 ml (or) 4.5 cm3 2. Density of a liquid is determined by weighing a known volume of the liquid. A VOLUMETRIC FLASK is a glass container which holds a defined volume of liquid. The mass of the liquid is determined by weighing the volumetric flask first empty and then fill of the liquid. Weight of liquid = Weight of empty flask Weight of flask with liquid 3. The density of solid or liquid can be calculated from the formula: Density = Mass / Volume. 4. Because the volume (as well as the density) of a substance changes with its temperature, it is necessary to keep a record of the temperature at which densities are measured. Note: 1. With any equipment scale or (balance, mark is pipette, etc.), if
It reads properly 20.15 ml or 20.16 ml or 20.17 ml Write it as: 20.16 0.01

reading

the

essential,

the full precision of the device is to be obtained (precision is defined as the extent to which a given set of measurements of the same sample agree with their mean. Example. 20.16 0.01).

2. For aqueous solutions, the meniscus (the concave surface of the liquid in the glass) should be read at the bottom of the curve. Also, the reading should be performed with the eye at the level of the meniscus.
This reads 43.0 ml (Not 43.5) Write it as: 43.0 0.02 Eye level

3. The volume of a solid with cylindrical shape is calculated from its length and diameter, which can be measured with the help of Vernier Caliper.
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Procedure 1. Determining the density of a cylindrical solid. a. Obtain an unknown solid and vernier calipers from your instructor. b. Weigh the solid on the electric balance. c. Measure the solid dimension (length and diameter), using the calipers. d. Calculate the volume of the solid (V = l x T x d2 / 4; T= 3.141). e. Calculate the density of the unknown solid (Density = Mass / Volume). f. Repeat the above procedure once again. Calculate the average density.

g. Use the thermometer to measure the room temperature and record it.

Trial 1 Mass of solid* Diameter* Length* Volume of solid (V = l x 3.141 x d2 / 4) Density of solid (Density = Mass / Volume) Average density = (Density 1 + Density 2) / 2 Room temperature* *The precision is required for mass, diameter, length and temperature.

Trial 2

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2. Determining the density of an irregular solid. a. Obtain an unknown solid of irregular shape. b. Weigh the solid on the electric balance. c. Pour distilled water into a 100 ml graduated cylinder to approximately 50 ml mark. Note down the level of the water accurately (V1). Always read the bottom of the meniscus. d. Hold the cylinder (with distilled water) at 45 angle and slowly slide the unknown solid into the water. Try to avoid having air bubbles trapped by the solid. Note down the level of the water accurately (V2). e. Calculate the volume of the solid (V = V2 V1). f. Calculate the density of the unknown solid (Density = Mass / Volume).

g. Repeat the above procedure once again. Calculate the average density.

Trial 1 Mass of solid* Volume of water without solid (V1)* Volume of water with solid (V2)* Volume of solid (V = V2 V1)

Trial 2

Density of solid (Density = Mass / Volume) Average density = (Density 1 + Density 2) / 2 Room temperature* *The precision is required for measured mass, volume and temperature.

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3. Determining the density of liquid. a. Obtain an unknown liquid from your instructor. b. Clean the 10 ml volumetric flask with acetone in a fume hood and leave it for five minutes to dry. c. Weigh the dry volumetric flask (with stopper). Consider it as m1. d. Fill the volumetric flask with the unknown liquid exactly up to the mark. e. Weigh the flask (with unknown liquid and stopper). Consider it as m2. f. Calculate the mass of the liquid (Mass= m2 m1).

g. Calculate the density of the unknown solid (Density = Mass / Volume). h. Repeat the above procedure once again. Calculate the average density.

Observation Mass of flask + stopper (m1)* Mass of flask + stopper + Liquid (m2)* Mass of liquid (m2 Volume of liquid* Density of Liquid (Density = Mass / Volume) Room temperature* *The precision is required for measured mass, volume and temperature. m1)

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