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Age and Second Language Acquisition Amanda Partsch Lauren Lewis

In the words of Federico Fellini, A different language is a different vision of life. Although there is much truth to this quote, it does not touch on another truth about learning a different language; that it is a complex process that many people may not ever fully achieve. This is due to the fact that there are many factors that can affect ones ability to reach second language proficiency. Some of these factors include: gender, socioeconomic status, the amount of exposure to the language, the amount of exposure to the culture, and also age. Recently, there has been much research discussing the affect of age on second language acquisition. A significant amount of this research has been focused on determining the ages of a critical period during which language abilities peak, and after which they level off and language proficiency becomes more difficult to achieve. It has been suggested that this period ends at puberty, which makes learning a second language past the age of twelve a more difficult task. As a result of many studies, it is now common knowledge that the age at which one begins learning a second language has been shown to influence the rate of acquisition and ultimate proficiency in various aspects of that language. Since Lenneberg first pioneered the idea of the critical period in his publication, Biological Foundations of Language, there have been many studies on the effect that age

3 has on the acquisition of a second language. Lenneberg theorized that language acquisition is an innate process determined by the biology of the brain. There are certain biological factors that limit the brain to a critical period for language acquisition from age two to puberty. Lenneberg believed that after the complete lateralization of the brain, it no longer had the ability to reopen the part of the brain that deals with learning language. When brain lateralization occurs, it loses plasticity making it more difficult to acquire a second language past puberty (Lenneberg, 1967). Since Lennebergs publication, many studies of the effect of age on the acquisition of language have focused on proving or disproving his hypothesis of the critical period. Many studies have tested this hypothesis by comparing findings in the area of pronunciation between adults and children. In her article, The Effect of Age on Acquisition of a Second Language, Virginia P. Collier criticizes some studies that deal with pronunciation, in particular. These studies found that after assessing students acquisition of pronunciation after three years of exposure to a second language, that the younger students had retained more accent free pronunciation when compared to adolescents just past puberty. Collier criticizes these studies saying that, perhaps the effort to test the hypothesis of the critical period has called too much attention to the pronunciation aspect of language proficiency, and also to the adult/child dichotomy. Collier instead believes that researchers and educators alike should be interested in more than just pronunciation, which is why she analyzed the length of time required to achieve proficiency in multiple content areas. She found that typically, 8-12 year-olds reached the set norms first within four and five years. The group of 5-7 year olds, slightly younger than the first group, reached the norms in about five to eight years. The group of

4 post-pubescent (12-15 year-olds) experienced the greatest difficulty reaching age and grade norms. Luckily, she also found that the effect of age diminishes over time as the language acquirer becomes more proficient in the second language (Collier, 1988). One of the most unfortunate ways to test this famous hypothesis came when a thirteen-year old girl was discovered in a home in the Los Angeles suburbs in 1970. That girl was perhaps one of the most shocking, yet important discoveries in the realm of language study. That girl is known as Genie. With her days spent in total isolation, restrained to a potty chair, Genie grew up with very little sense of language. This marked the perfect opportunity to test the critical period hypothesis. There have been very few recorded accounts of feral children throughout history, especially in recent years, which made Genies case extremely significant, yet highly controversial. Sadly, Genie never achieved the type of language proficiency many had hoped she would. She was able to acquire only about 100 words over a period of four years. Although Genies story is not one of her personal triumph, it has helped further the science of language acquisition and human development. It is not exactly clear whether Genies inability to acquire language came as a result of missing her critical period, or as a result of severe trauma, but many researchers believe that it has brought them closer to unlocking more of the brains fascinating mysteries regarding language development. When Piaget in his work, The Language and Thought of the Child, distinguished between egocentric and socialized speech and noticed the many other interesting aspects of speech in children, he opened the door to the many studies about the most significant part of language development, childhood (Piaget, 1926). According to

5 Piagets shrewd observations and also Lennebergs hypothesis, the childs brain undergoes the most significant changes during the years of two and twelve. A childs mind is like a sponge. This is a common saying brought upon by the seemingly innate ability young children have to pick up on things rather quickly. This includes, among many other amusing things, language. One particular study in this interest is a study conducted to measure the lexical comprehension in infant bilinguals. This study found that children even as young as thirteen months can be considered bilingual due to their ability at this young age to understand translation equivalents (words from two languages that have the same adult meaning). This study also proves that comprehension is a central feature of the bilingual acquisition process, and that it is already actively in motion as early as infancy (De Houwer, 2006). While most language studies focus on early childhood versus adulthood, adolescence is an interesting time period that is commonly overlooked. Since one in every six adolescents in the United States was either born in a foreign country or speaks a language other than English at home, second language acquisition in this group is rapidly increasing and deserves more attention from researchers (Szuber, 2007). The main focus here will be on immigrants who arrive to the United States during adolescence. It is evident that young children learn language in more natural setting while adults learn it in a structured classroom setting; but what of the adolescents who fall in between? The answer seems to be that they have the advantage and disadvantage of freely changing from one environment to another, and therefore control the amount of the language they are exposed to (Szuber, 2007). The reason this can be a disadvantage is that when feeling uncomfortable they can hide behind their native language and not receive enough

6 exposure to the new one. Unlike younger immigrants who are typically immersed in English, and unlike adult learners who mostly learn by equating the second language with their first, adolescents have a variety of choices about the amount of contact in either language both in and outside of the classroom (Szuber, 2007). This means they may speak either language at school, with their peers, in their neighborhoods, or at home with siblings and parents. The study of fifty nine native Polish adolescent immigrants in Chicago shows they speak the least English with their parents, some with their siblings, and most with peers and teachers at school (Szuber, 2007). According to the Critical Period Hypothesis, the time frame in which these adolescents are learning their second language is past the time they can easily acquire language. They must be more conscious and give more effort to learn another language, but will most likely never achieve native-like proficiency (Szuber, 2007). Critical period aside, there are other reasons it may be more difficult for immigrants to learn a second language during puberty. Clearly they are handling anxiety from having to adapt to a new environment. In addition to this stress, they are experiencing typical pubescent traumas such as self-consciousness, self-image problems, and low self-esteem. It is no wonder that adolescents feeling anxious tend to revert to their native language and are timid about speaking a new one at this point in their lives (Szuber, 2007). Therefore, the combination of biological and environmental factors greatly affects second language acquisition in adolescents. By now it should be no surprise that the odds are stacked against an adult attempting to learn a second language. There are several arguments that support two very

7 different sides to this issue. First, there is the nativist perspective, which includes major contributions from Noam Chomsky and Eric Lenneberg. Chomsky developed two very important theories in language acquisition. He claims that we humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device in our brains that we unknowingly use to acquire our first language. He also came up with idea of Universal Grammar, a set of basic grammatical rules that are common to all human languages, which we are equipped with at birth. Lennebergs Critical Period Hypothesis, which was discussed in detail earlier, is another theory that points out the adults loss of inborn language abilities. While older learners tend to make faster initial progress, it eventually levels out and does not usually result in proficiency (Szuber, 2007). The other side of this debate is the non-nativist perspective which argues that environment, rather than biology, plays the most important role in determining second language acquisition success. Non-nativists suggest that there is no decline in an adults ability to learn another language if he or she remains healthy. The greatest obstacle to second language acquisition is doubt, from both the learner and the teacher that must be overcome in order to succeed. Another factor is that classroom activities often times are not appropriate for adult learners (Schleppegrell, 2003). While younger students use a more communicative approach to language learning, older students are forced into a more traditional one (Ruiz de Zarobe, 2005). Rather than the oral exercises and memorizations that make up older students language lesson, the material should be placed into existing cognitive structures. The reason for this is that as adults we already have the advantage of high cognitive abilities (Schleppegrell, 2003). Although we cannot deem one idea as

8 completely correct, it is obvious that adult second language learners must make a huge effort if they ever hope to be considered proficient. In conclusion, language acquisition is a complex process that we may never fully understand. Learning a first language is a natural occurrence that we do with minimal effort. However, acquiring a second language can be much more difficult depending upon the age at which it is attempted. As a child, second language acquisition is very similar to first in that the learner does not have to think about it. By the time a child reaches puberty, the critical period for language acquisition comes to an end. An adolescent must try hard to learn a new language while fighting the usual complications that are common during this time. Adults have the most work cut out for them, but if the methods used to teach adults second languages continue to improve more adults may reach second language proficiency. This topic seemed far more interesting and appropriate than any other that we could have done. Our research was full of information a group of twenty year olds studying another language and how to teach that language to post-pubescent kids would want to know. At first, I was dismayed by a great deal of this information. I always knew it was easier to learn a second language as a child, but everything I read seemed to allude to the idea that it is impossible as an adult. As someone who has wanted to be fluent in Spanish since the seventh grade (after puberty had begun), it was quite discouraging to discover that I may never be proficient despite my years of hard work and effort. However, at the same time it was comforting to find out my thoughts and worries on this topic were not abnormal but rather almost universal for second language learners! I felt I

9 had a lot in common with the Polish immigrants in that I plan out what I am going to say before I say it out loud and I get nervous about making mistakes, especially in front of native speakers. Instead of simply acquiring language without any effort, we adolescents and adults must put fort every bit of effort we have. Already knowing a language can be a disadvantage in that we convert everything in our heads and when certain phrases do not translate exactly, it is frustrating and difficult to stay motivated. As they non-nativists point out, it may not be all about the critical period; external factors can play a role in how we learn a second language. If our teachers keep the environment interactive and come up with interesting ways to relate new information to our prior knowledge, we may stand a chance in becoming fluent in a second language. As future teachers of language, whether it is Spanish, French, Latin, or even English, we must make sure to utilize these concepts when teaching adolescents a second language.

10 References

Collier, V.P. (1988). The effect of age on acquisition of a second language. New Focus.

De Houwer, A. (2006). Early understanding of two words for the same thing: A CDI study of lexical comprehension in infant bilinguals. International Journal of Bilingualism, 10 (3), 331-333.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York, NY: Wiley.

Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Ruiz de Zarobe, Y. (2005). Age and third language production: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Multilinguism, 2(2), 105-111.

Schleppegrell, M. (2003). The older language learner. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from James Rhem and Associates. Website: http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/87-9dig.htm

Szuber, A. (2007). Native Polish-speaking adolescent immigrants exposure to and use of English. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilinguism, 10 (1), 26-56.