ABSTRACT

ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Mr. G. Chakraborty*
In India, the requirement and necessity of fire resistant design was not considered seriously till recently. However, of late the consumption of steel in both industrial as well as infrastructural sectors is noticeable and the mindset of people is in the process of change. Gradual increase in consumption of steel is taking place in other sectors also. The structural designers have been taking noticeable interest in designing the residential buildings using steel as a prime material of construction. The popular trend of cost effective and fast track construction in India is in the art of using steel and concrete compositely so that the properties of both steel and concrete could be effectively utilized. The composite section could be designed as steel section encased in RCC members (as in the case of a composite column) or bare steel section connected to the RCC with the help of shear connectors (as in the case of a composite beam). While using bare steel sections, the designers shall have to be careful in detailing the fire protection methods to be applied to protect the members. The Indian code of practice related to fire protection constitutes a bare outline of fire ratings of individual components of buildings, which are considered as a mere guideline only. Salient features of INSDAG study on (B+G+20) Storeyed Residential Building with Steel-Concrete Composite option and another publication on (G+3) & (G+6) Storeyed Residential Buildings with Steel-Concrete Composite Option have been included in this paper. This paper describes the basic principles used in fire protection system for buildings and their practical use in construction. It covers description of various measures and methodologies to be followed to ensure a building protected against fire hazards and safety requirements related to fire protection. Reference has been made to available British Standards (BS 5950 part 8 1990, Structural use of steelwork in building, Code of practice for fire resistant design), American Standards as per ASTM C 35-83, applicable IS: 1641 through 1643 and other relevant literatures. Detail calculations in excel spreadsheets along with curves generated on section factor vis--vis cost of intumescent paint per square metre per metre length of member / per MT have been derived and studied elaborately in the detailed paper for most commonly used Indian Standard rolled sections and parallel flange sections. It also includes Life Cycle Cost (LCC) with due consideration of fire protection envisaged. The detail of fire resisting materials available, have also been elaborated in this paper. The pattern of reduction in yield and ultimate stresses with the rise in temperature followed by formation of collapse mechanism, have been quantified by proper scientific and analytical methods. These are explained with worked out examples in the detailed paper.

* Manager (Civil & Structural), INSDAG; INSDAG, 1st. Floor, Ispat Niketan, 52/1A, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, E-mail for correspondence: gchakro1@vsnl.net ; gchakro@hotmail.com

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

ABSTRACT All over the world, engineers are taking noticeable interest in using structural steel as the basic material of construction for fast track projects. The application is also finding more usefulness for unique properties of steel suiting to specific design requirements. But due to high thermal conductivity of steel, it is often required to evaluate the strength of the bare unprotected or protected steel elements under different fire hazards conditions. This consideration necessitates proper design to protect the steel element with the help of fire retarding material and for allowing sufficient time to egress the dwellers from the house in case of fire. Different materials including solid boards, paints etc. are now available depending on the desired fire resistance of the member used as columns, beams etc. Further, fire design of steel structures, have been studied and change in the trend (requirement of different parameters with respect to detailing) obtained from tests carried out to substantiate performance based design. Since INSDAG has carried out design studies on steel intensive buildings, which have indicated encouraging cost savings, lesser life cycle cost and higher life expectancy of buildings with SteelConcrete Composite Option, it is felt high time to study the details of fire protection systems that could be effectively utilized by the designers / builders while executing the steel intensive buildings in practice. In this paper, it has been indicated that the data pertaining to the actual behaviour of the steel elements under fire is still insufficient. Though some tests have been done at the laboratories by the researchers, the available test data do not match with the performance in practice. Moreover, the data generated by the manufacturers of fire resistant materials are also not available because these are all proprietary in nature. However, in this paper, the strength reduction of steel members (subjected to tension, compression and bending) under different fire conditions including the critical temperature have been elaborated with graphs. Similarly, the creep stress reduction rate with rise in temperature, cost of fire resistant paints with the variation in geometrical properties of the section etc. are also elaborated with the help of family of curves. The designer may find them helpful in interpreting some intermediate values. Various aspects of stipulations of a number of International Codes have also been compared. Some typical details of fire resistant boards, vermiculite fire resistant plaster and Intumescent paints have been included in brief and the designer may find the details from the manufacturers catalogues. Detail calculations pertaining to the load bearing capacities of members under fire are furnished in accordance with BS 5950 (Part 8) / EC 3 (Part 1.2). It is observed that limiting factors for strength calculations of members need to be introduced for the sake of assessing the performance level of the member, which has undergone a fire hazard. KEYWORDS Beams, bending, box protection, critical temperature, creep strain, columns, compartment fire, compression, creep rate, critical elements, exfoliation, fire resistance, fire resistance rating (FRR), gypsum, heat sink, instantaneous strain, limiting temperature, load ratios, tension, mass-to-heated perimeter ratio, modulus of elasticity, proportional ratio, reduction factors, suspended ceiling, section factor, spray-on insulation protection, thermal strain, trusses, ultimate strength, vermiculite, yield strength. INTRODUCTION The need for fire protection of building structures were not significant in India since the requirement of fire resistant design was not considered seriously till recently. Unlike other building materials, use of bare structural steel requires special attention in respect of protection against fire and corrosion. Development of high strength and structurally more efficient materials resulted in construction of skyscrapers of the order of 120 storeys such as Petronas Towers, Malaysia; Sears Tower, United States; Jing Mao Building, China; etc. On the contrary, the tallest building in India, Hotel Oberoi Sheraton (116 m), is only 35 storeyed building structure constructed in reinforced concrete. Even though in the last two decades a number of multi-storeyed buildings have been constructed in India, the tall building technology is at its infancy, particularly using structural steel. However, of late the consumption of steel in construction sectors is noticeable and the mindset of people is changing. Also, gradual increase in consumption of steel is taking place in other sectors also. Now, the world is progressing towards performance based building design and it is important, that proper tools be made available to the engineering profession so that they may take full advantage of the new technology including steel intensive fast track construction. The British code, BS 5950 part 8 and Euro-Code 3 part 1.2 have included special stipulations as per updated performance based technology. Lot of literature have been published on the subject of performance based / engineered structural fire safety. Unfortunately, most of this information is scattered throughout technical journals from

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

different countries and organizations, and not easily accessible to the practicing engineer. Analysis for fire protection is now being done consulting specialist literatures available on the basis of output of research work and successful outcome of test results. In practice, it is seldom that any important building is being constructed without structural steel. As a matter of fact, steel is the most preferred building material because it has got the inherent characteristic of higher strength to weight ratio, high ductility and easy maintainability apart from other innumerable advantages. Under the current prescriptive code regime such as that prescribed by the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) or Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA), there is no requirement to undertake an engineering approach to structural fire safety, since the fire resistance ratings of materials / assemblies are determined through standard tests. However, there is growing criticism that these standard tests may not be relevant based on current construction practices / materials, and that they do not accurately reflect a real compartment fire scenario given the difference in the time temperature curves between standard versus real fires. This paper includes a method that can be used to determine required fire resistance ratings based on a realistic engineering approach. STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL DURING FIRE During a fire, steel, whether in the form of a column, beam, or truss will be exposed to hot gases, and the exposure will depend upon the configuration of the structural member. As the structural member is heated, the mechanical properties such as tensile and yield strength, and modulus of elasticity, decrease. If the yield stress of a particular type of structural steel decreases below the corresponding allowable working stress, the element / member will be subjected to large deformation and will fail. This form of failure is known as the instantaneous deformation concept with limitations as follows [3]: 1. The model provides a general indication of when the failure in the structural member is likely to occur but not the degree to which the member will deform or the pattern of deformation of the element / member is subjected to during the failure process; and The model does not provide insight into the condition of a structural member that is heated to just at or below the critical temperature maintained.

2.

To account for these unknowns a process known as the creep has been considered which allows for the entire deflection history of the member to be calculated during the course of the fire. This deflection history is determined by calculating the strain-time history based on the compartment time-temperature relationship. The total strain consists of three components which are: 1. 2. 3. Thermal strain, which is a function of the thermal stress at elevated temperatures; Instantaneous stress related strain, based on the stress-strain relationship under the thermal environment created due to occurrence of fire; and Creep strain (for the thermal environment) caused due to occurrence of fire as a function of time.

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE The critical temperature of steel is defined as the temperature at which the material loses much of its strength and can no longer support the maximum design load, permitted by the provisions of the building codes [5]. TIME-TEMPERATURE HISTORY OF FIRE EXPOSED MEMBERS There are numerous configurations under which structural steel may be found within standard building construction. The configurations summarized below represent what might reasonably be found in most instances: 1. 2. 3. Un-insulated steel structures, such as exposed columns, trusses, or beams; Insulated steel structures, such as columns, trusses, or beams with applied fire protective layer; and Structural steel that is shielded from the fire as in a suspended ceiling.

For the above cases, behaviour & pattern of time-history of fire exposed steel members will vary.

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

FIRE RESISTANCE The fire resistance of a structural member may be defined as its ability to withstand exposure to fire without loss of load bearing function / load carrying capacity or ability to act as a barrier to spreading of fire. This provides time to permit people to evacuate a building before it collapses and is essential in confining fire to the compartment in which it starts. In a situation of fire, the strength of members varies remarkably and in fact it is inversely proportional to the rise in temperature resulting from fire. Its high thermal conductivity makes steel absorb heat much more quickly than other materials; thus if the structural member has a relatively small mass, its temperature will increase very rapidly. Both the yield stress and modulus of elasticity of steel, the two material properties most important in determining load-carrying capacity, decrease considerably with increasing temperatures (Figure 1). At a temperature of 593 C, these values will reduce by at least 40% compared to that of ambient room temperature levels, and thus the strength of the steel member will be barely sufficient to resist applied loads (assuming normal safety factors).

Effect of temperature on modulus of elasticity (E) and yield stress ( ) for steel equivalent to A36 steel. E0 and 0 represent ambient conditions Source: The Fire Protection Handbook, 16th edition 1986

Fig. 1

The mass-to-heated perimeter ratio for a structural steel member is a good indicator of its inherent fire resistance. A heavy steel column can absorb considerable heat and may not reach its critical temperature before 30 to 40 minutes of exposure to a fully developed fire. On the other hand, open web steel joists and other lightweight types of steel construction may fail within five to ten minutes of exposure to the same fire. This typical phenomenon of rate of heating of a steel section is basically a function of its Section Factor, which is defined by the following expression: Hp , where Hp = Heated perimeter of section and A = Cross-sectional area of section, A The units are generally expressed in metres-1 and typical section factors for hot rolled steel sections are in the range of 100 to 250 m-1. However, for cold-formed sections, the typical values are in the range of 300 to 800 m-1, which clearly indicates that the cold-formed sections will be heated up more quickly than the hot rolled sections. As the heating process progresses, simultaneous reduction in strength of members take place. The nonlinear pattern of variation of stress ratio and / or elastic modulus ratio as per figure 1 shows the reduction in strength with respect to rise in temperature. When the member section is supporting any concrete floor slab, the top part of the member directly in contact with the concrete floor will not be affected by fire and will be totally ignored while calculating the heated perimeter and due to this effect (which is known as Heat sink effect), the values of section factor for a typical member section changes from place to place. This insulating or Heat Sink effect may be taken into account while calculating the heated perimeter. In order to achieve fire resistance ratings of one hour or more, a steel member must be protected by an insulating skin, which will keep its temperature below the critical point. Generally encasements in concrete, brick, clay tiles, lath and plaster, and similar materials are commonly used for this purpose. But, now, less expensive forms of protection are

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

available, such as cementitious coatings and sprayed on mineral fibres (most widely used mineral in the form of Vermiculite), which can be applied directly on the steel members.

Figure 3

Strength and deformation characteristics of a mild structural steel as a function of temperature (from Lie, Fire and Buildings)

Figure 2

Section factors for cold-formed sections box protection

A final aspect to consider when using steel in construction is its significant coefficient of linear expansion under thermal loads. At temperatures of up to 1000 C, it is given as: = where, = coefficient of thermal expansion, in degrees Celsius, T= temperature in degrees Celsius. If the structural member is axially restrained against displacement (as a column is), the expansion due to heat will be translated into thermal stresses that will increase the overall stress level in the member and cause an earlier collapse. Without axial restraint, a steel member will expand and could set up eccentric loading of adjacent structural members by displacing one of their ends (for example, a beam displacing the top of a column or of a load bearing masonry wall). Good fire protection engineering dictates that either thermal expansion shall be prevented limiting steel temperatures, or its effects on the structure shall be accommodated in the design. As mentioned previously, the mass-to-heated perimeter ratio of the steel column is an important design parameter for fire resistance. The greater the mass, the greater the volumetric heat capacity, i.e., more heat required to raise the average column temperature. The heated perimeter (Hp) provides a measure of the total heat flow to the steel member. (0.004T + 12) x 10 -6

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

The most important problem with regards to the use of a theoretical approach is that it requires access to a good database on material properties under elevated temperatures. Thus, the knowledge of the thermal and mechanical properties as a function of temperature is critical to the accuracy of the calculation model. For example, the important mechanical properties for a steel member are the modulus of elasticity, yield stress, ultimate stress, proportional limit and creep parameters. An indication of the variability of the first four of these properties with temperature is shown in Figure 3 for a mild structural steel. The creep rate of a mild structural steel under a stress of 1500 kg/cm2 is shown in Figure 4 as a function of temperature. Further data on the effects of temperature on the thermal and mechanical properties of other materials can be obtained but, generally, the database presently available is insufficient. As more elevated temperature measurements are made for different construction materials, the full potential of this design approach will gain significance in practice. Indeed a separate limit state called the fire endurance limit state of collapse may be incorporated in the codes for checking the adequacy of the member during fire.

Fig. 4

Creep rate of a mild structural steel as a function of temperature (from Lie, Fire and Buildings)

METHODS OF FIRE PROTECTION FOR STRUCTURAL STEELWORK There are many passive fire protection means available to reduce the temperature rise of steel members when exposed to elevated temperatures. Some common forms of protection for steel, and methods to increase the fire resistance of steel members are as follows: Spray-on Insulation Protection This method of protecting steel is usually the cheapest form of passive fire protection for steel members. These materials are usually cement based with some form of glass or cellulosic fibrous reinforcing to hold the material together. The disadvantages of spray on materials are that the application is wet and messy and the finish is not architecturally attractive. The other important aspect of this insulation is the stickability of the material, or how well the material stays in contact with the steel member at normal and elevated temperatures. If the insulation falls off the steel it is obviously no longer protecting the steel and hence the cohesion and adhesion of spray on protection must be thoroughly tested. Board Systems Most board systems that are used to increase the fire resistance of steel members are made out of calcium silicate or gypsum plaster. Calcium silicate boards are made of an inert material and the board can remain in place for the duration of the fire. Gypsum plaster board has good insulating properties, and its resistance to elevated temperatures is improved with the high moisture content present in the board, which must be evaporated at 100 C before the board further increases in temperature. This gives a time delay when the board reaches 100 C, but reduces the available strength in the board after the water has evaporated.

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Vermiculite as fire protection material Vermiculite used as fire protection material is a micaceous mineral, which expands on heating called exfoliation. It is chemically known as Hydrous Magnesium Iron Aluminium Silicate with characteristic lamellar structure similar to mica. Intumescent paint as fire protection material Intumescent paint is a special paint that swells into a thick char when it is exposed to higher temperature, providing protection to the steel beneath. This allows the structural members to be attractively exposed but is more expensive than other systems. Components of intumescent coating system can broadly be specified into three, namely, a primer, a basecoat (the coat that foam and expand after reaction with direct fire) and a sealer coat. Depending upon the chance of occurrence and severity of fires, the primer and / or sealer coat may not be required to be applied. The components of Intumescent basecoats, usually comprises the following: A catalyst, which decomposes to produce a mineral acid such as phosphoric acid. Ammonium polyphosphates are common catalysts. A carbohydrate, such as starch, which combines with the mineral acid to form a carbonaceous char. A binder, or resin, which softens at a predetermined temperature within the upper limits of the reaction temperature range. A spumific agent which decomposes, together with the melting of the binder, to liberate large volumes of nonflammable gases. These gases include carbon dioxide, ammonia and water vapour. The production of these gases causes the binder to foam and expand to provide an insulating char many times the original coating thickness. Two generic types of intumescent coatings are manufactured for use by the construction industry and can be classified as thin film and thick film coatings. Out of the two, thin film intumescent coatings are most commonly used system. They can be applied very easily following normal painting techniques and can provide an aesthetically pleasing surface finish. The coatings can be solvent or water based and can be applied with a dry film thickness (DFT) of 0.25 1.0mm for 30 minutes fire resistance and up to 5.0 6.0mm for 120 minutes fire resistance. On the other hand, thick film intumescent coatings are normally epoxy based having dry film thickness in the range of 2.0 4.0mm for 30 minutes fire resistance and 15 20mm for 120 minutes fire resistance. Longer periods of fire resistance are also possible. These can be applied either by spray, trowel or casting techniques. Other Protection Methods Other protection systems that are often used in construction to increase the fire resistance rating of steel members include concrete encasement, concrete filling, water filling and flame shields for external steelwork. Concrete encasement, concrete filling and water filling protection systems are based on the same protection principles. They decrease the rate of the temperature rise of steel by absorbing heat energy from the steel. Concrete and water filling are used for hollow steel sections, while concrete encasement has an I-beam surrounded by concrete. Utilization of natural gypsum and industrial waste Opportunity to utilize or exploit large deposit of natural mineral gypsum and large quantity of industrial waste (phosphogypsum) to manufacture eco-friendly green building material will be a great boon to the manufacturing sector of the country. Such building materials go in harmony with the Earths ecosystem and geo-climatic conditions and are appropriate for the country like India to achieve houses for all and achieve sustainable development.

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

In this paper, detail study has been carried out to calculate the cost of intumescent paint for various types of available Indian Standard rolled steel structural sections using excel spreadsheet. A series of polynomial curves have been generated to show the variation of cost with respect to section factor for a typical structural section, like Indian Standard Angles (ISA), Indian Standard Medium Beam (ISMB) and Indian Standard Medium Channel (ISMC). The findings have been presented in the form of family of curves (Chart 1 through Chart 6) as follows:
Chart 1: Non-dimensional Section Factor (Hp/A)t versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per Sq. M. per M length for angle sections
21.80

Chart 3: Section Factor (Hp / A) versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per Sq. M per M length for Indian Standard Medium Beams (joist sections) 3.00

Non-dimensional Section Factor, (Hp / A)1000t

21.60

2.50

21.40

F a m ily o f 6 m m t hk . A ngle s

2.00 Hp / A

21.20

F a m ily o f 8 m m t hk . A ngle s

1.50

21.00
F a m ily o f 10 m m t hk . A ngle s

1.00

20.80

0.50

20.60 50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

110.0

120.0

130.0

0.00 139.5 181.6 227.6 266.4 293.6 320.7 355.5 405.8 482.5 Cost of Intumescent Paint (in Rs.) per Sq. M per M length

Cost of Intum escent Paint (in Rs.) per Sq. M per M length

Chart 2: Non-dimensional Section Factor (Hp / A)t versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per MT for angle sections
Family of 6 mm thk. Angles

13000.0 Cost of Intumescent Paint (in Rs.) per MT

Family of 8 mm thk. Angles

11000.0
Family of 10 mm thk. Angles

9000.0

7000.0

5000.0 20.60 20.80 21.00 21.20 21.40 21.60 21.80 Non-dimensional Section Factor, (Hp / A)1000t

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Chart 4: Section Factor (Hp / A) versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per MT of Steel for Indian Standard Medium Beams (joist sections) 10000.0 Cost of Intumescent Paint (in Rs.) per MT 9000.0 8000.0 7000.0 6000.0 5000.0 4000.0 3000.0 2000.0 1000.0 0.0 1.12 1.33 1.40 1.49 1.60 Hp / A 1.72 1.74 2.04 2.67

Chart 6: Section Factor (Hp / A) versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per MT Indian Standard Medium Channels (channel sections) 12000.0 Cost of Intumescent Paint (in Rs.) per MT

10000.0

8000.0

6000.0

4000.0

2000.0

0.0 1.69 1.80 1.84 1.84 2.12 Hp / A 2.40 2.61 2.81 2.88

Chart 5: Section Factor (Hp / A) versus Cost of Intumescent Paint per Sq. M per M length for Indian Standard Medium Channels (channel sections) 3.50

3.00

2.50

Hp / A

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00 68.8 90.5 116.2 137.9 164.6 195.3 230.5 265.6 292.5 Cost of Intumescent Paint (in Rs.) per Sq. M per M length

DEVELOPMENTS IN DESIGN CODES In the European Union, the structural Euro codes, overviews were given to EC1 Part 1.2, on the Actions on structures exposed to fire, and to EC3 Part 1.2, on General Design Rules for the structural fire design of steel structures. EC1 allows a full parametric temperature-time curve for a compartment fire to be calculated using the fire load, the ventilation conditions and the thermal properties of the compartment materials. Fire Codes practiced in China In China the Shanghai region has recently drafted its first performance-based code of practice. The code embodies the fire resistance requirements for buildings. The code is set at a level, which is equivalent to the UK code BS 5950: Part 8, allowing design of individual members on the basis of their load levels and heating according to the ISO834 Standard fire. Fire Codes practiced in Japan The new Building Standards Law of Japan, which is launched in 2000. This allows three possible design routes prescriptive design (Route A), performance-based design equations based on individual member capacity which parallel the approach of BS5950 Part 8 (Route B), and a general framework which allows any calculation methods subject to acceptance by competent authority after extensive validation by approved bodies (Route C).

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BS 5950: Part 8:1990 The British Steel Code, (BSI, 1990) outlines the behaviour of steel in fire giving constant values for the thermal and mechanical properties of steel, and lists the reduction of strength in a table with different values for different levels of strain. The fire limit states are then presented which includes the safety factors used in design of steel members at elevated temperatures. AS 4100:1990 The Australian Steel Code is similar to the BS 5950 Part 8 except for a few minor alterations. These differences are in the upper temperature limitation for the time at which the limiting temperature is reached for unprotected steel, and the use of the exposed surface area to mass ratio (ksm) instead of the section factor as used in New Zealand Code, NZS 3404. Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 : 1993 Eurocode 3 is a large document containing much information concerning the fire design of steel structures and is covered in more depth in Sections 3 and 7. It contains three main methods of evaluating the design resistance of a steel structure or member. These are the global analysis, which covers analysis of the whole structure, portions of the structure as well as a section of the structure; or member analysis, which is the response of a single member to the elevated temperatures. Indian Standard Codes (IS: 1641, IS: 1642 & IS: 1643) The equivalent Indian Standard for fire resistant structures are IS: 1641 (latest version) through IS: 1643 (latest version). These are merely a compilation of various test results and have been reported in series of tables indicating fire rating in hours for various types of building components. In some cases, the minimum thicknesses have been specified for particular fire rating in hours. PRACTICAL DESIGN GUIDANCE (Steel Construction Institute reference code P288) SCI published the document Fire-safe design: A new approach to multi-storey steel-framed buildings. The publication presents initial recommendations based largely on observation of the Cardington fire tests. The recommendations are conservative and are limited to structures similar to that tested, i.e. non-sway steel-framed buildings with composite floors in the low fire risk category of up to 60 minutes fire resistance. The guidance gives designers access to whole building behaviour and allows them to determine which members can remain unprotected while maintaining levels of safety at least equivalent to traditional methods. The publication also contains the background to the recommendations and includes a review of experimental work in the UK and other countries. This paper presents the basis of the design recommendations together with a simple worked example. REQUIREMENT OF SAFETY MEASURE The recommendations have been prepared with three important safety considerations in mind: There should be no increased risk to life safety of occupants, fire fighters and others in the vicinity of the building, relative to current practice. On the floor exposed to fire, excessive deformation should not cause failure of compartmentation, i.e. the fire will be contained within its compartment of origin and should not spread horizontally or vertically. In all cases, the normal provisions of building regulations regarding means of escape should be followed. FIRE RESISTANCE DERIVED FROM CALCULATIONS Limiting Temperature Methods The limiting temperature of a member provides a simple way of safely relating the failure temperature to the load that the member supports in fire conditions. The method is applicable to both protected and unprotected members.

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All steel members lose strength in a similar manner but because of aspects such as temperature gradients and instability effects at elevated temperatures, it is not appropriate to apply the same strength reductions to structural members as are applied to the steel itself. In the limiting temperature method the failure of a member in a fire resistance test is characterised by the temperature of one element or part of the member called the critical element. This element is normally but not necessarily that part of the member which is heated most. For example the web of a beam may sometimes reach slightly higher temperatures than the bottom flange but it has been found that the bottom flange temperature is a better indicator of failure than the web and is therefore the critical element. As a member heats up in a fire it supports load until the temperature of the critical element exceeds the limiting temperature. At this point, a member in compression becomes unstable, or a beam undergoes large deflections, or a member in tension extends excessively. The ability to relate the applied load to the failure temperature in a fire allows the designer to relate the amount of fire protection required to the loading on a structure. In certain circumstances it may even be possible to show that no fire protection is necessary. However, fire resistance is expressed in terms of time. To achieve, for example, 30 minutes fire resistance one must know whether the temperature of the critical element would exceed the limiting temperature after 30 minutes exposure in a fire resistance test. For unprotected members the Code gives some guidance on how hot the critical element will get in any particular time. For protected steel members it is not possible to give absolute guidance in a code as all fire protection materials are different and most of the materials are proprietary in nature. Critical Elements For members supporting concrete or composite floors the critical element is the bottom flange. In any other situation it is the hotter flange. For structural hollow sections a flange should be considered as a flat side or 25% of the circumference of a circular section. For members in compression or tension the critical element can be taken as the hottest flange. Load Ratios The limiting temperature of a member in a given situation depends on the load that the member carries. Because of the range of member sizes and member lengths used in buildings it would be impractical to use actual imposed loads. It would be possible to produce a table for each available beam or column section giving the limiting temperature for a range of bending moments or axial capacities but it would obviously require a large number of different types of tables. However, a detailed analysis of fire test results and the use of computer models have demonstrated that in virtually every situation the limiting temperature is dependent on the fraction of the ultimate load capacity that a member supports at the time of the fire. We can therefore, assume that an ISMB 300 (Indian Standard Medium Beam) loaded to 50% of its ultimate capacity in flexure will fail at the same temperature as an ISMB 200 loaded to 50% of its ultimate capacity in flexure. BS 5950: Part 8 gives limiting temperatures for different types of member for a range of load ratios. It is important to understand the limitations of the data in the Table and how to calculate the load ratios in each situation. This is reproduced in Table 1 of this publication. The data in the Table is applicable to I sections and SHS.

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Table 1

Limiting Temperatures for Design of Protected and Unprotected Members (Clause No. 2.3 of BS 5950 Part 8)

Members in Tension For members in tension, BS 476: part 20 gives no method of test so the limiting temperatures are based simply upon the measured tensile properties of the steel at elevated temperatures. It was felt that in order to limit excessive elongation a strain limit of 0.5% should be imposed. Close to failure the total strain, including thermal strain could be at least 1.2%. This comprises 0.5% mechanical strain and 0.7% thermal strain. Any protective material should be capable of accommodating such movement without distress. The limiting temperatures are therefore based on the 0.5% strain strength reduction factors. Limiting temperatures for members in tension are given in case (7) of Table 1. The load ratio is calculated from the interaction formula of Clause 4.8.2 in Part 1 of BS 5950: Part 1.

where, Ae = effective area in tension, Mcx = moment capacity about the major axis, Mcy = moment capacity about the minor axis Members in Compression The information given Table 1 for compression members is primarily designed to be used for simple columns or pinned struts in braced frames. For columns in simple multi-storey construction, the load ratio R is given by the interaction formula of Clause 4.8.3.3.1 in BS 5950: Part 1.

where, F = axial load during fire, Mx = maximum moment about x axis during fire, My = maximum moment above y axis during fire, Ag = gross cross-sectional area, pc = compressive strength of member, m (equivalent moment factor) = 1.0 (Clause 4.7.7 - Part 1 of BS 5950), Mb = buckling resistance moment capacity about major axis, py = steel strength, Zy = elastic section modulus about minor axis

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

This approach may be used for compressive members for which, Part 1 allows the use of the simplified approach. The Code also allows a similar approach to be used for columns in sway frames but the calculations are more complicated and involve evaluation of notional horizontal forces. In designing to resist notional forces, it is possible to consider redistribution of these forces to columns not involved in the fire, assuming that the floor is capable of transferring in-plane loads. When calculating moments in the columns arising from these notional forces, points of contra-flexure may be assumed at mid-height of the columns. An alternative, simple approach for columns in sway frames is to use a limiting temperature based on a columns stressed to a load ratio of 0.67. This corresponds to a limiting temperature of 520 o C for a column with a slenderness ratio less than 70. The justification for this is largely based on the good performance of buildings traditionally designed to a single limiting temperature of 550 o C. Some of the test data on which Table 1 is based together with the limiting temperatures based on this approach was supplemented with information from EC3: Part 1.2 to obtain the design curves. Members in Bending The limiting temperatures for laterally restrained beams supporting concrete or composite floors, Case (3), are based on the analysis of a large number of fire resistance tests carried out by Corus and reported in reference. The resulting design curve was taken as a lower bound of the test results. For temperatures less than 600 o C the design curve was obtained by computer modelling. The load ratio R for laterally restrained beams is defined as:

Case 3 of Table 1 applies to unprotected members or to protected members, which comply with clause 2.3(a) or (b) of the Code (BS 5950 Part 8). These clauses relate to strain limits and to maximum strains experienced in fire tests. Virtually all of the commonly used fire protection materials will meet these requirements. The other cases for members in bending in the Table refer to less common situations. Beams not supporting concrete floors, are considered to be heated on all 4 sides and will therefore fail at somewhat lower temperatures. In some cases these beams might be laterally unstrained and in these cases the load ratio for beams subject to lateral torsional buckling, designed in accordance with Clause 4.3.7 of Part 1 is given by: R = M/Mb Where, M = equivalent uniform moment at the fire limit state, Mb = lateral torsional buckling moment This load ratio should be less than the load ratio calculated as for restrained beams. Application Limits for Unprotected Sections The application limits for use of the limiting temperature method to unprotected sections is controlled by the relationship of the limiting temperature to the design temperature. The design temperature for columns and tension members is given in Table 2 for common periods of fire resistance. For structural hollow sections a flange is considered as a flat side or 25% of the circumference of a circular section. Where the limiting temperature, as given in Table 1 for the applicable load ratio, is not less than the design temperature as given in Table 2, the member can be considered to have adequate fire resistance without protection. When the limiting temperature is less than the design temperature, fire protection by external or internal means must be provided. External Protection BS5950: Part 8 Method The method is based on the physics of heat transfer and is derived from a differential Equation. Using this equation as a base the simplified equation found in the Code was developed. The method gives the required thickness of protection for the particular limiting temperature (Table 1).

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Where, Hp/A = section factor of the member, ki = thermal conductivity of the fire protective material, i = thickness of protection material, s and f are the steel and fire temperatures respectively at time t. The equation appears in the Code in the following form: F is a reduction factor representing the effect of the density of the fire protection,

Where,

Practically, F

has a value in between 0.6 and 1.0, Where,

For materials that contain significant amounts of moisture, the density is modified to allow for the additional heat absorbed by the water.

It should be noted that this method is relatively conservative for low values of limiting temperature s. This method is consistent with EC3 Part 1.2 and is an implication of the ECCS approach. It is covered in Appendix D of the Code as a means of determining fire protection thickness. CONCLUSION This paper elaborates the concept of fire design for structural steel members. The behaviour and change in both physical and mechanical properties of structural steel has been explained with examples. The relationship between the time and temperature and has been studied and corresponding decrease in ultimate / yield stress with respect to rise in temperature has Hp been included. Section factor for a particular member is a unique property and when the steel member is directly A exposed to fire without having any protection for fire resistance, the section factor is a good indicator of its inherent fire resistance. A series of generated best fitted curves have been formulated and plotted both for section factor vs. cost of intumescent paint per m2 per m of member length and for section factor vs. cost of intumescent paint per MT. It is observed that a nonlinear variation takes place in descending order with respect to increase in section sizes, which implies that more the section size, more is the inherent capacity to resist fire. A robust steel column can absorb considerable amount of heat and may not attain its critical temperature before 30 to 40 minutes of exposure to a fully developed fire. On the other hand, open web steel joists and other lightweight types of steel construction with angle sections, lighter channel sections etc. may fail within five to ten minutes of exposure to the same fire for same duration. Various methods for protection of bare steel members against fire have been described. Advancement and development of major international code stipulations and calculations for a systematic fire design of structural members have been studied. The aspect of fire design for structural steel work can be broadly categorized into two steps, i) design of protective layer (i.e. the required thickness for fire protection for a specified hour rating) to be applied over the structural member and ii) the design of structural member which encountered tremendous amount of heat generated from rise of temperature due to

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ANALYSIS & COST ASPECTS FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

occurrence of fire (i.e. when the structural member is unprotected or when the hour rating of the protective material exceeded the prescribed limit due to occurrence of excessive fire). The calculation of fire rating in hours can be done based on BS 5950: Part 8. The steps for calculation has been described for members subjected to different types of stress resultants, i.e. for members subjected to bending, tension, and compression etc. With the rapid increase in use of steel in different sectors particularly in commercial as well as residential sectors, the knowledge of fire protection is an absolute necessity. This paper will help and provide general guide lines to fire protection of structural steel members in buildings for practicing engineers in India. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Lie, T.T., Editor, Structural Fire Protection, American Society of Civil Engineers, Manual of Practice No. 78. Law, M., Steel Structures, Ove Arup Partnership Stanzak, W.W., Structural Fire Protection an Engineering Approach, Technical Paper 377, National Research Council of Canada Lie, T.T., & Stanzak W. W., Structural Steel and Fire More Realistic Analysis, AISC Engineering Journal, Vol. 13, No 2, Second Quarter, 1976, p 35-42. National Research Council of Canada, National Building Code, 1995 Kodur, V., K., R., Harmathy, T., Z., Properties of Building Materials, Draft Paper, personal correspondence, April 2001 Literature from website of Corus BS 5950 Part 8:1990 EuroCode 3 Part 1.2:1993 BS 5950 Part 1:2000

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