VISUAL INSPECTION WORKSHOP

Visual Inspection of Welding Rationale

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Inspection is traditionally considered a Post- Processing activity. A machine component may be turned to a finished form and size --- then inspected for conformance to applicable drawings or specifications. A garment is inspected after sewing and all the buttons and other features are in place. In these similar instances, visual inspection is carried out after the production activities have been completed. In the case of weldments, experience has shown that Post-Processing inspection, even when supplemented with nondestructive examination (NDE), give no guarantee of suitability for intended service. How ever consistent results over a considerable period of time have demonstrated the effectiveness of a pre-planned sequence of visual inspections. If carried out at specific stages of weldment production, such programs give a high degree of assurance of meeting quality expectations---frequently without recourse due to NDE. With welding the factors influencing quality may manifest themselves at any stage of the production operation. In most circumstances, suitability timed visual inspection would have revealed the shortcoming at a stage when corrective action would be simple to implement and inexpensive to carry out. Weld and weldment quality are determined by: Weldment and joint design Materials of construction Procedure of welding (WPS & PQRs) Manner of weld application Inspection program

Visual welding inspection provides the basis for the effective control of these determinants. Quality of Weldments The term quality is widely used and applied. However, many times the general concept of quality is misunderstood. Quality is conformance to the applicable specifications. The required level of quality for a product or service is typically determined by the designer, based on suitability for service over the intended life span. All product variables must be specified in a manner that is capable of being measured. Dimensions are readily verified. Attributes such as surface finish, if significant, must be specified in terms allowing for precise determination or measurement. In carrying out an inspection, the inspectors task is to compare the actual with the required or specified product dimensions. Appearance alone is rarely the determinant of product quality. Visual Inspection Key points about the visual inspection of welding should be recognized. These include:

No inspection program will give an absolute guarantee as to weld and weldment suitability for intended service over the life of a product. However, by structuring an appropriate Inspection plan, commercially realistic degrees of confidence in a welded product can be achieved. While visual inspection is highly effective in the control and assessment of weld and weldment quality, there is one obvious limiting factor. Visual inspections are confined to exposed surfaces so subsurface discontinuities may not be detected. This is offset by structuring welding inspection programs to examine the minimum number of surfaces that will give the required degree of assurance. Nondestructive testing of welds and welding is an adjunct to the visual inspection program, not a substitute for it. The four NDE methods used in connection with welding each have their own areas of best application---along with limitations. Penetrant and magnetic testing are surface techniques, with magnetic being limited to ferro-magnetic materials. Radiography is directional, ultrasonic examinations require smooth surfaces for the transducer to make proper contact.

Visual Inspection of Welding Weldment and Joint design Without question, the most significant factor in the quality of a welded product is the arrangement of parts to be welded. The relationship of members and the manner in which the loads are handled determines the local stresses. Likewise, the placement of joints has great significance. However, these last two matters are the designers responsibility and are not the responsibility of the welding inspector. Joint design is another matter, one in which the welding inspector is vitally concerned. In one sense, joint design, along with the procedure of welding, could be identified as the most significant factors in weld and weldment quality. The most significant factors include but are not limited to: Welding and inspection access. Most cost-effective form. Minimize residual stresses. Ideally, joint design is proposed by the manufacturer and approved by the designer. Inappropriate joint designs are frequently imposed on manufacturers. In such instances, the welding inspector has a vital role to play in identifying potential problem areas. The initiation of the required corrective action through the appropriate channels should automatically follow. Joint designs are specified in the applicable welding procedure specifications (WPS). Initial Review Inspectors initially consider the joint design in the initial revue of welding inspection, when the applicability of the WPS is reviewed. At this stage, joint design and its form and configuration will have been decided. Conformance of joint shape, form, and dimensions to applicable criteria are to be checked. Pre-weld Checks The actual dimensions of joint form and fit-up are to be verified again to establish confidence. Once welding commences, only in exceptional circumstances can meaningful changes to joint type and dimensions be made. Only certain elements of a joint configuration may be altered without engineer approval. Materials of Construction While welding can be successfully used to make a wide range of welded joints in many materials, there

are certain limitations. These include: Not all metals are weldable. Of those that are, not all can be welded with the same degree of ease or using similar methods and procedures. Welding has the potential to cause significant physical and metallurgical changes that may adversely affect the suitability for intended service of the welded product. However, many fully weldable materials react differently to certain welding processes and procedures of welding. As with design this leaves the welding inspector with two important determinations to make. The compatibility of the filler metals to be used and the welding process to be employed are verified. These are the essential variables of the welding procedure and must be established by testy. Where previously qualified procedures have been specified, only verification checks are necessary. It is necessary to verify that all materials to be welded satisfy the established base metal requirements. Inadvertent changes of material can have far reaching consequences. Protection against this possibility by building in adequate checks is required by many codes of practice. In Section & of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, positive and verifiable identification of all parts to be welded is a requirement. Procedures of Welding Welding procedure specifications (WPS) are a breakdown of the welding variables to be used to make one or more joints under certain circumstances. In a general sense, there can be a limitless number of such combinations. In practice, by using care and attention, it is possible for a small number of WPSs to cover all the diverse situations that arise even when making complex weldments. Over time, manufacturers and constructors of welded products build up a library of qualified welding procedures from which unique WPSs can be generated. In the event that there is no suitable qualified (or, if appropriate, pre-qualified) procedure available, it is necessary to carry out further qualification testing. The significant point is that this possibility allows time for appropriate action, together with qualification of welding personnel if necessary. The WPS fields set out the welding parameters known as essential variables. Changes outside a certain code specified range requires the development and/or qualification of a new procedure. Manner of Weld Application Welders are responsible for the application of welding. However, welders do not act in isolation. Welder certification attests to the skill and ability of a welder to weld specified types of joints in certain materials under a range of restricted conditions. These conditions typically include the welding process, type(s) and form(s) of base metal, and joint position along with the technique and progression of welding. Welding inspectors verify that the welders, welding operators or tackers are certified to weld with the procedures to be used during production. This gives warning of any additional requirements as far as welding personnel are concerned. It should be kept in mind that welder certification test may or may not duplicate joints to be made in production. The test coupon, although it may be pipe, may well be used to qualify welders to weld plate. Restricting barriers are sometime placed on weld test coupons to limit access to the joint. This is to determine the welders capability to weld even on awkward joints. The welding inspector checks the condition of the welding equipment and suitability of the base and filler metals. The inspector checks joint fit-up and pre-heat conditions.

Welding inspectors are required to assure that welder skills are maintained throughout. Where there is

evidence of reduced skill, re-qualification or even retraining, may be necessary if substandard work persist. Inspection Program While the specific details of any given welding program will differ in detail, the basic requirements remain the same. Three phases have been identified. There is a fourth phase, which follows the completion of welding. The four phases in welding inspection are: Phase 1 Initial Review 1. Review contract, all codes and drawings 2. Develop all necessary inspection plans 3. Check welding procedures; welder status 4. Establish inspection documentation system Phase 2 Pre-welding checks 1. Check suitability, condition of welding equipment. 2. Check conformance of base and filler materials. 3. Check the positioning of members and of joints. 4. Check joint preparation, fit-up, cleanliness. 5. Check adequacy of alignment. 6. Check preheat (or initial temperature. Phase 3 in-process inspections 1. Check compliance with WPS. 2. Check quality, placement of key passes. 3. Check weld bead sequencing and placement. 4. Check interpass temperature and cleaning. 5. Check adequacy of back gouging. 6. Monitor any in-process NDE. Phase 4 Post welding activities 1. Check finished weld appearance, soundness, and cleanliness. 2. Check weld sizes and dimensions. 3. Check dimensional accuracy of weldment. 4. Carry out or monitor / evaluate specified NDE 5. Monitor any Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) or other post weld work. 6. Finalize and collate inspection documentation.

Inspection Program Phase 1 The purpose of any inspection program is to establish conformance to specifications. It is self-evident that the very first inspection task will be to find out what is required. The first activity is: Review Contract Documents and Specifications Depending on a large number of significant factors, the scope and detail given will vary over a wide range. Structural work is different from process piping; pressure vessel work and tankage

are not the same. Each will have their own specifications. However there are certain common factors and these should be ascertained at the earliest possible stage. If errors, omissions or incomplete data are uncovered at this point, prompt corrective action should be initiated. The minimum data to be obtained include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Code (S) of construction Materials of construction Applicable standards and specifications Drawings showing weld locations and types Inspection frequency, techniques, criteria

Develop an Inspection Plan As the name implies, an inspection plan is a detailed list of all inspection activities to take before, during and after welding. For phase one activities, a single inspection plan will suffice, as these are one time, upfront requirements. Inspection plans typically are in the form of a checklist. It is desirable that inspections take place as a part of the production process. Hold points, where production is halted to await inspection clearance, should be kept to a minimum.

Check Welding Procedures and Welder Status Most contractors, fabricators, and manufacturers have a number of welding procedures (WPS), qualified either by test or with pre-qualified status. In any given situation, existing procedures may or may not cover all the required welding to be carried out. In the event of deficiencies, it tacks some time to have new procedures developed and qualified. Taking action on this matter at the earliest possible stage is prudent. All necessary welding procedure specifications can be developed once the supporting procedures are qualified (PQR). Similar remarks apply to welder status. The limitations on welder qualification include the form of items to be welded (plate, pipe), the welding process or processes, electrode classifications, the welding positions, member thickness, and pipe diameter. Prompt action to have suitably qualified welders on the roster is a self-evident requirement. In the event that new procedures have to be qualified, existing welder certifications may or may not be sufficient. There is a provision in some codes that permits welder to qualify during production. This possibility should only be used as a bare necessity. Usually radiographic examination of a certain length or number of joints is required. If film images conform to specification, the scope of the qualification is typically much narrower than normal welder tests. If test do not conform, then the removal of all subject welds, not just repair, is typically required. Usually, welding procedures are not time constrained. Once qualified, procedures remain current indefinitely. Welder qualifications, on the other hand, are often for a specified time. The duration of currency may be 6 months or one year. Renewal by evidence of use of the process is frequently

automatic. In other cases, retesting after a specified period of time is required. Establish Inspection Document System Most organizations operating in the field of welded fabrication will have inspection documentation such as inspection and non-conformance reports. With these and other required documents however, it should be verified that the form of the documents satisfies the requirements of the applicable codes or specifications. Some companies require special documentation in addition to requirements specified by code. Today, with the use of computers, producing specialized forms is a simple matter. The time to identify and respond to special requirements is before the job commences. Pre-Weld Checks Phase 2 While industry is not unanimous on the need for formal procedures for phase 1 Initial Review, there is no doubt that phase 2 Pre-weld Checks, phase 3 IN-Process Inspections, and phase 4 Post welding Activities should be governed by formal procedures. For example Figure 1.1, where should the temperature-indicating crayon be applied in relation to the weld joint? Should it be 25.4mm, 50.8mm, or just what distance from the weld joint?

Figure1.1 Using a Temperature indicating Crayon Check Suitability, Condition of Welding Equipment The suitability of the welding equipment refers to its capability to produce sound welds using the applicable procedures. It is unlikely that a 150 amp, AC welding machine would be capable of successfully running 3.0mm E7018 electrodes; not withstanding maximum current requirements of say 120 to 130 amps. Additionally, secondary equipment must also be checked for suitability. For example, storage ovens for low hydrogen SMAW electrodes, e.g., E7018 must be capable of maintaining a temperature of at least 121 C. These electrodes are limited in terms of how long they are permitted to be exposed to the atmosphere without adversely affecting their low moister content.

Check Conformance of Base Filler Metals While it is an evident requirement that base and filler metals must conform to the WPS requirements, it may take foresight to ensure that it is possible to make this verification. Material Test Reports (MTRs), even Certified Material Test Reports (CMTRs) are fine; but how is the metal to be welded identified as being that referred to in the Test Reports? Material traceability is a must for all material being welded. Check Positioning of Members and Joints This is the appropriate time to verify that access for welding has been allowed. It is always possible that access problems were not identified from the drawings. Presetting of members to be welded is a prudent and effective way in which to offset, or at least reduce the effects of weld shrinkage. Some examples of presetting are shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Presetting of Joint Members Where presetting is involved there are three important accompanying factors to be considered, as follows: a. Amount of presetting b. The existence of non-uniform restraint c. The sequence of welding It is appropriate at this time to review the scope of qualifications of the welder (s) concerned with making the joint (s) under consideration. Welders are qualified to weld in one or more joint positions, on a range of metals in terms of composition, form (plate, pipe) and dimensions. Additionally, certain codes impose positional restraints on the scope of welding procedures. WPSs supported by procedures qualified on pipe butts usually have a wider scope of

positional capability than procedures qualified on plate. Welder qualification is generally similar. Check Joint Preparation, Fit-up, and Cleanliness The term Joint Preparation covers a wide range of combinations of plate edge treatment. On working drawings, the dimensional requirements for joint preparations should be shown by the use of the appropriate welding symbol(s). The purpose of edge preparation is to allow the electrode access to the joint root area. The arc must be able to impinge on all surfaces to be melted. This means there is no universal edge prep because there are many electrode sizes in use. It also means the dimensions of weld preparation are important. Consider the Joints in Figure 1.3 While the example in Figure 1.3 may represent extreme cases, it is evident that the tolerances applicable to weld edge preparations and to joint fit-up are significant and must be observed. The examination of weld edge preparation and fit-up is considered to be the most important of the Welding Inspection Program steps. Inaccuracies at this point predestine a weld to almost certain non-conformance.

Figure 1.3 Significance of Weld Preparation Elements The assembly of T-joints deserve particular attention. Most T-joints are fillet welded, generally from both sides. Separation between the members acts to reduce the effective weld size. With double-welded joints, separation cannot normally be seen after welding. Generally, specified weld sizes are required to be increased by the amount of separation to restore the specified weld

size. If from some prior event there is an excessive gap between members of butt joint there are several possible remedies short of member replacement. For small additions, joint edge(s) can be built up by welding. Alternatively, consider the use of a backing bar. After welding, the backing bar can be removed if necessary. Another possibility is to use a spacer which is gouged out after welding from the first side is completed. See Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 Regularizing Joint members Gaps

Check Joint Preparation, Fit-up, and Cleanliness Cleanliness of the joint is a general requirement. Arc heat melts and vaporizes everything in its vicinity. Cleanliness of the joint area is a general requirement and must be verified prior to welding. Loose scale, rust, oil, grease, cutting fluid residues, paint, and other surface contaminants should not be present for at least 50mm on either side of the weld center line. If the area to be welded is pitted with rust, it is highly desirable to grind the area to shiny metal. For new material, vigorous brushing should suffice. For steel no longer showing tightly adhering blue mill scale, grinding is preferred. Particular attention needs to be paid to pipe joints, especially if gas backing is to be used. Under the heat of welding, many surface contaminants are vaporized generally into hydrogen-rich substances which have potentially unsatisfactory effects on molten weld metal and base metals at the elevated temperatures associated with welding.

Check Adequacy of Alignment Maintenance During welding, forces of considerable magnitude act on joint members. It is necessary to establish that means of holding joint members is adequate to ensure that members are held in proper alignment throughout welding. Where members are tacked, verify that the tack length and the number of tacks are sufficient to maintain alignment.

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Check Preheat or Initial Job Temperature It is the responsibilities of the welding inspector to verify that the work piece has been heated to the specified preheat temperature. The work piece may have been heated to the required temperature, but in such a localized area that the work piece temperature has fallen by the time welding commences. Temperature checks should be made 50mm away from the joint on both sides of the weld.

In-process Inspections The activities to be considered in this phase of the welding inspection program are aimed at ensuring that the physical operation of welding takes place in accordance with the applicable WPS. It is important at this point to again stress the importance of ensuring that all welding inspection is a seamless part of the production process. It is desirable that the welding inspector becomes a part of the production process-----and Particularly not an interruption to it. Inspectors should foster an amicable relationship with production personnel at all levels. Seeking cooperation rather than demanding it as a right is the appropriate approach. Check Compliance with WPS Provisions This phase of inspection is ongoing through out welding. The following need to be monitored with sufficient frequency to assure compliance with applicable WPS provisions: 1. Consumable type and diameter 2. Current or wire feed speed 3. Voltage 4. Gas flow rates 5. Travel speed Tack and weld end treatment 6. Amount of spatter The issue and storage of welding consumables should be under constant surveillance. Electrode storage ovens make convenient food warmers, for instance. Periodic in-process checking of current is typically accomplished by the use of a Tong Test Ammeter. Be sure the testers are set to the same current as being tested (AC e.g. DC). It should have current calibrating date. Welding machine meters are not usually calibrated and cannot be depended on to be accurate. Check Quality, Placement of Key Weld Passes Without a doubt, the most critical stage of welding is the root pass. As with any operation, good work is based on a sound foundation. The root pass is the foundation of every welded joint. The function of the root pass is to provide a sound tie between members at the root joint. This applies to both unbacked and backed joints. A second consideration at this time is the shape of the root pass. This is desirably flat to slightly convex. While in multiple pass joints, a concave profile may appear desirable; the shrinkage stresses may give rise to cracking, as in figure 1.5. At the other extreme, excessive bead convexity can lead to incomplete fusion. High beads prevent access of the arc to all areas of the partially filled joint, as shown in figure 1.5. As the root pass is being made, it is prudent to check if the means of joint assembly, such as tacking or clamping, is holding joint members in the correct relationship. Depending on the welding process, there will be a tendency for the root to open or close. If corrective action ids

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necessary, other joints that are similarly assembled should also reflect the changes.

Figure 1.5 Significance of Weld Bead Size, Shape The toes of root beads should be checked periodically to insure that sidewall undercutting is not taking place. To make sound passes, a common practice is to increase the welding current and offset the additional heat availability by increasing the travel speed of the arc along the seam being welded. Undercut results when the amount of weld metal is insufficient to fill the area of metal melted. With slag-shielded welding processes, sidewall undercut may be indicated by difficult slag removal, but this will need to be confirmed by examination. Corrective action for sidewall undercut is to grind the joint edges back to eliminate the grooving effect. If not done, it is unlikely that arc impingement during subsequent weld passes will reach the bottom of undercut grooves. This is the primary source of wagon tracks, a linear slag inclusion. In case of non-slag processes, sidewall undercut is usually identified on radiographs as a slag inclusion. Notwithstanding the absence of slag, the image shape is the same as in the case of slag-shielded processes. Porosity in the root pass will tend, if left untreated, to persist in subsequent passes. A pore may produce a vertical pipe in a multi-pass weld. The heat of welding expands air in existing pores, the pressure of which causes the entrapped gases to rise through the molten metal as it is deposited in subsequent overlaying beads. Complete removal of any pore from the first pass in which it is detected is the only effective corrective action. Check Weld Bead Sequencing and Placement The sequence in which weld beads are deposited exercises a significant effect on the dimensions and shape of a weldment. Where distortion caused by shrinkage is likely to be a problem, it is prudent to require that a weld sequence program be developed and observed during welding. Even when a welding sequence is not specified, it is desirable that the usual rules to minimize distortion are followed. These include, but are not limited to: 1. welding from areas of least restraint 2. Welding long weld joints from the center outward 3. Balancing welding on either side of joints, of welded assemblies and of weldments as a whole Some common techniques for sequencing weld beads include (a) back stepping (b) skip welding, and (c) an offset method for T-joints using double fillet welds, as shown in Figure 1.6. In back step welding, while individual weld passes are made from the outside towards the center, the general direction of welding is from the joint centerline outward. This technique is used for both thick and thin base metal and for groove and fillet welds made on one side of T-joints. Skip welding is a variation of back step welding, but primarily for groove welds in thinner base metals. The technique shown in

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Figure 1.6 for fillet-welded joints is based on limiting longitudinal shrinkage and at the same time, offsetting angular rotation. The placement of individual weld passes within a joint can exercise a significant effect on joint quality and alignment. Consider the last complete weld pass on the left in Figure 1.7. In making the next pass (dotted) the arc may be unable to melt the sidewall, resulting in incomplete fusion.

Figure 1.6 Welding Sequence Techniques

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Figure 1.7 Effect of Bead Placement on Weld Quality The order in which weld beads are placed on one side of a joint or the other is important. As Figure 1.8 shows, the effect of making a second weld bead on the same side as the first was made (2nd down) is dramatic. Instead of being pulled almost straight, the net effect is to make it impossible for all the weld beads placed on the opposite side of the joint to pull the joint into correct alignment. Check Interpass Temperature and Cleaning For joints where preheat and interpass temperature are specified, it is intended that the joint area will be kept within the required temperature range throughout welding. For work extending over a work break, the best practice is to determine whether the job can be allowed to cool or if the minimum specified temperature must be preserved in the joint until welding has been completed. Irrespective of the specifics, the welding inspector should take an active role to ensure proper temperature control.

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Figure 1.8 Effect of Order of Weld Bead Placement Finally with respect to interpass temperature, where there is a maximum specified---- as may be the case where toughness is critical----the weld area should be checked with sufficient frequency to be certain that there is no excessive heat buildup. If this does occur, no attempt to accelerate cooling should be allowed. A basic purpose of preheat and interpass temperature control is to retard the cooling rate ate the joint area. Forced cooling or accelerated cooling will not correct the situation. Interpass cleaning is needed to ensure that subsequent weld passes will be made on clean metal. It also allows the welder to carry out a visual examination of the work just completed. Apart from the obvious, it is useful to look for surface discontinuities such as shown in Figure 1.9

Figure 1.9 Discontinuities in Intermediate Passes Check the Adequacy of Back gouging Back gouging----the removal of base or weld metal from the weld root side of a joint to sound metal----is used to ensure complete fusion and joint penetration and to avoid gaseous and solid inclusions. Typically carried out by grinding or by arc air gouging, back gouging is required by many codes when unbacked complete joint penetration welds are specified. Figure 1.10 shows, in the upper diagram, the principle involved. The depth of the back gouging must be such that there is sound metal exposed over the whole joint length. The angle of the groove must allow full access for the electrode. In Figure 1.10 the lower diagram shows a groove typical of arc air gouging when the electrode diameter is to small for the depth of gouging required. The lower diagram at the right shows the usual groove produces by grinding. In both cases, the groove angle must be increased to that specified in the

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WPS for the first side welded. Welding inspectors must be satisfied that back gouging is complete, including the use of NDE, if considered necessary.

Figure 1.10 Back gouging Method, Accessibility Monitor Any Specified In-process NDE Apart from the NDE noted above in connection with back gouging, there are circumstances where in process NDE is specified. Magnetic particle inspection, even radiography of root passes on heavy-walled pipe is not uncommon. In all such instances the role of the welding inspector will vary, but basic to all situations is that these activities are carried out under proper control. Further, that appropriate records are furnished and maintained. Post welding Activities Phase 4 The final phase of the welding inspection program embodies the post welding activities necessary to ensure that the finished weldment meets the applicable requirements in all relevant respects. This should not be confused, at least in principle, with the final job inspection. The object is to establish weld and weldment quality conformance within the overall job context. This involves the following activities: Check Finished Weld Appearance and soundness Weld faces should display uniform ripples with no significant variations in shape or form. Bumps and depressions indicating starts and stops should be minimal. Groove weld reinforcement should be evident, without under fill or excess. See Figure 1.11 for examples of each of the foregoing.

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Figure 1.11 Groove reinforcement This similarly applies to fillet welds, where minimum ratio of width to depth should be 1.25 to one. Excessive convexity or concavity is equally undesirable. Possibilities include those shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Excessive Fillet Convexity and Concavity Wetting at the toes of both groove and fillet welds without undercut is desirable with all welds. Welds with excessive convexity or reinforcement increase stress concentrations, sometimes to unacceptable values. Following the check of the general appearance of all welds, a detailed examination should be carried out to establish freedom from non-conforming surface discontinuities. In the absence of other indications, this will represent the final visual inspection. Accordingly, it needs to be detailed and thorough. A flashlight is a most important aid in carrying out this examination. Surface discontinuities not considered above include, but are not limited to: 1. Cracks 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 6. Incomplete fusion, on the sidewall, between weld passes or as overlap Incomplete joint penetration of one sided butt welds Slag inclusions Porosity, and other gaseous inclusions Undercut Arc strikes

Common surface cracks are shown in figure 1.13. Sometime overlapping terminology is used for cracks. It may be based on time of occurrence, site, direction or other determinants. The throat

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crack, as shown in figure 1.13, may also be known as a hot crack, a centerline crack or a longitudinal crack.

Figure 1.13 Weld-Associated Surface Cracks Incomplete fusion may appear as cavities between weld passes or between the weld sidewall and the adjacent weld bead. A third form of this discontinuity is overlap, where molten filler metal has rolled over unmelted base metal. A characteristic is a distinct re-entrant angle at the weld toe. Examples of overlap are shown in Figure 1.14.

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Figure 1.14 Overlap and Undercut

Undercut may be considered as opposite of overlap. In the case of undercut, the cause is the melting of a greater amount of base metal than there is available molten weld metal to fill. This results in the characteristic groove at the toe of the weld toes. While the severity of undercut is really the sharpness of the angle made by the sides of the undercut groove, in practice, acceptability is based on depth. With welded joints welded from one side only, with access to the back joint, incomplete joint penetration may be generally detected. An exception is when weld shrinkage has pulled the members together so there is no evident separation. However, the absence of a penetration bead should indicate the need for further examination. Readily apparent incomplete penetration is seen in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15 Incomplete Joint Penetration

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Surface slag discontinuities will typically appear as elongated cavities, in which slag may or may not remain. Surface slag cavities should be investigated for depth. If the weld cross section is not reduced beyond the applicable tolerance, corrective action is usually to grind the area to a slight concavity to remove any tendency to stress concentration. Porosity is the term covering discontinuities caused by trapped gases. During welding, atmospheric and other gases are drawn into the weld pool because they are soluble in molten metal. Normally, this gas escapes as the weld puddle cools. However, there are circumstances when the gas remains in the solidified puddle, mainly as a result of incorrect electrode manipulation. Gases may be wholly entrapped in the weld or have sufficient pressure to break the weld surface to appear as surface porosity. Porosity tends to be round or nearly so; with little ability to concentrate stress. Most codes allow some pores, up to a specified diameter, in a unit length of weld. Individual pore diameters are measured to determine conformance or otherwise, based on the applicable criteria. Arc strike shows a scar on the base metal surface and must be investigated. Corrective action includes grinding the effected area to a shallow dish, insuring that the thickness tolerance is not exceeded. Testing with Magnetic Particle testing (MT or dye penetrant testing (PT) or both, as applicable, is usually mandatory. Check Weld Sizes and Dimensions The size of fillet welds should be verified as meeting the specified requirements with due consideration of any weld size under-run provisions. Some codes allow all or portions of a weld to under-run the weld size specified. Although not a cause for rejection, consistently oversized welds should be drawn to the attention of the welding supervisor. Increasing the size of a 6.4mm fillet weld to 8.0mm involves an increase of more than 50% in weld metal, heat input and distortion potential. This is significant in terms of job cost. Weld lengths where specified, must be verified. Again, this provision largely applies to fillet welds and in situations where the required length is less than the length of the joint. The increments and pitch (center to center distances) of intermittent fillet welds are required to be checked. Check Dimensional Accuracy of the Weldment The term weldment is used to denote a welded product, be it simple assembly of two pieces joined by welding, as a test coupon, or a complex finished product made up of subassemblies and other components. Depending on the nature of the work, the scope and extent of dimensional checking will vary from simple measurements of flatness, straightness and overall dimensions to complex survey involving instruments outside the range normally associated with welding inspection. Carry Out or Monitor and evaluate Specified NDE Suitably qualified welding inspectors may carry out specified post welding NDE. Alternatively, specialists perform such work. In the latter case, the welding inspectors role is evaluating the reports produced thereby. These reports will become part of the job records and are to be retained.

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For NDE and Post weld Heat Treatment, specialist may be involved so the welding inspectors role changes to one of monitoring rather than active inspection. In broad terms, monitoring involves verifying conformance of service to both the overall job requirements and the specifics of the type of service being supplied. Qualification and calibrations are important factors as is reporting accuracy. It is important that suitable evidence of certification of NDE operators who sign conformance reports be produced. The types of consumables used in various examinations may be specified or left to the discretion of the service agency. It is usual to require some level of certification. For PT, chloride-free penetrant may be required. For RT, the film speed may be specified. Slower speed films are finer grained, giving finer definition but increase exposure time. For UT, type of couplant to be used may be specified. In terms of NDE procedures, variables include: 1. 2. 3. 4. For MT---magnetizing medium, particle type For PT----penetrant type and removal system For RT----radiation source, film type For UT----transducer types, scanning patterns

Monitor PWHT (Post Weld Heat Treatment) or Other Post weld Activities When post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is required, the welding inspectors role is to monitor the overall activities to insure a suitable outcome. This activity falls into four sections-----initial review, before PWHT commences, during the PWHT cycle, and post PWHT. An initial review must be made to see that the weldment will remain dimensionally stable during heat treatment. Any enclosed space must be ventedfully welded double plate and double welded flanges must have one or more vent holes drilled to avoid pressure build up. Horizontal surfaces must be supported either by the structure itself or by temporary braces. Irrespective of the type of heat treatment involved, the yield strength of the metal will be reduced. Before heat treatment, the number and positioning of thermocouple (TC) leads must be adjusted to give an accurate reflection of the current temperatures. Thermocouples should be located within 12mm of the weldment. Heat treatment is typically carried out using a programmable controller. The programmed cycle of heating (at a specified rate), holding for a required time at temperature, and controlled cooling (again at a specified rate) to a certain temperature, is monitored by a recorder, which plots time against temperature. Each thermocouple is connected to recorder so temperature at any time can be determined. If the heat treatment is being physically monitored it is customary for welding inspectors to sign the chart at the time of there visit to the work area. Upon completion of the heat treatment the removal of the thermocouple leads and temporary supports. A visual inspection should be made to insure that no problems have arisen during treatment. In particular the maintenance of dimensions should be established.

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With certain types of metals, particularly micro-alloyed and Chrome-moly steels \, there is a risk of liquation cracking, or reheat cracking. The presence of low-melting temperature phases within a metal can lead to this problem. For such cases, an NDE exam is frequently required. For ferromagnetic materials this is typically MT. As a principle, welding should not take place on work that has undergone post weld heat treatment. Welding will induce further residual stress in the product, which was the reason PWHT was specified in the first instance. If welding is used to carry out a repair, specific approval should be obtained from the engineer of record beforehand. Finalize and Collate Inspection Documentation It is the inspectors responsibility to keep originals (or copies, as appropriate) of all inspectionrelated documents. With this aspect in mind prudent welding inspectors make timely preparation. One method is to draw up a list of all the expected activities and open a file with some or all the following list of headings. 1. Unpriced copy of contract with a list of all referenced documents including codes, standards, and specifications (by title) and drawings (by drawing number). 2. Copies of change orders and instructions, including lists of drawing revisions, noting date of receipt. 3. Copies of material certificates for base metals, filler metals, and other consumables. 4. Welding procedure specifications (WPS) to be used on the job, including repair procedures. And supporting procedure qualification records (PQR) with applicable laboratory reports. 5. Welder/welding operators/tackers performance certificates and supporting reports. Welder maintenance records. 6. Inspection reports, which may be signed-off sheets for confirming work and copies of formal reports for nonconformance. 7. NDE reports and copies for externally supplied NDE services. 8. Repair activity reports including concession documentation and release reports. 9. Heat treatment orders, instructions to heat treater, and heat treatment charts. 10. Final release certification. By preparing sub files for each of the above (or other anticipated activities), as soon as documents are in hand they can be filed. Likewise, if a document is not delivered or produced at the appropriate time. Follow-up action can be initiated while the matter is still current. Lost and missing documents are a significant cause of dissatisfaction between constructor and client at the end of a project. Weld Discontinuities Weld discontinuities (a discontinuity is any change or interruption to the uniformity of an object) are an ever-present possibility with welding. While most discontinuities detract in some way from member cross-section, this loss is usually not the main concern. Rather, the stress concentration associated with the presence of a discontinuity is customarily the dominant factor. It is from this perspective that discontinuity influence is considered. A common mis-impression of persons outside the industry (and some within) is that welding is unreliable. Further, that welders are prone to producing defective work. Nothing could be further from the truth. This idea completely overlooks the millions of pounds of weld metal deposited properly each year. Thousands of welds made every day, with a very small percentage of defective product. The factors determining welded joint integrity are:

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 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Weldment and joint design Base metal and filler metal selection Joint preparation, positioning, set up Weld procedure adequacy and observance Welder skill

The determinants of discontinuity significance can be shown to depend on 5the following factors: 1. Linearity (ratio of largest and least dimensions) 2. End condition (or sharpness) A linear discontinuity is a discontinuity of length > 3 time its width. Gas pores tend to be round and thus non-linear. This contrasts with cracks, Typically of greater length than any other dimension and with a sharp end condition. Gas pores are rounded and so present a large angle (to any propagating force). A crack, on the other hand, has a very small angle at its tip. These factors, taken together lead to the following general order of potential discontinuity severity: Most severe Cracks see 1.17 Incomplete fusion see 1.18 Inadequate penetration see 1.19 Solid inclusions see 1.20 Least sever Varying severity Gaseous inclusions see 1.21 see 1.22 see 1.23

Shape discontinuities Miscellaneous discontinuities

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Figure 1.16 Weld and Weld-related Discontinuities Cracks and Cracking Cracks develop when applied load in a given area exceeds the local strength of the metal. The extent and consequences of cracking is largely dependant on two factors, namely: 1. The load, its magnitude (and application mode) 2. The mechanical properties of the material (grain types and sizes) in the area of load application. With welding, the heating and cooling of the weld area alone are sufficient, in many cases, to supply a load. This can be exacerbated by local stress concentration, which, in turn, may develop as a result of joint design or even the shape of the joint. Irrespective of any other factors, with welding there is always some form of load available. The mechanical properties of metal are affected by welding. A prime concern is the cooling rate in the weld area. As the cooling rate increases, carbon steel tends to lose its toughness and ductility. Consequently, its ability to bear load without failure may be reduced. Stated another way, metal that has been welded becomes potentially susceptible to failure under adverse circumstances. For carbon steels, especially those exhibiting high strength, an additional factor, that of hydrogen, must also be considered. Molten metals have great affinity for gases. In the welding process, a considerable amount of all the gases in the arc area may be absorbed into the weld pool. This is shown in Figure 1.17.

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Figure 1.17 Weld Area at Time of Weld Formation In the normal course of events, the gases drawn into the molten weld pool are expelled as solidification proceeds. Expulsion takes place in all directions. Hydrogen, because it has a very small atom, may migrate to the heated, but now solid, edges of the weld area. Being still mobile, the entrapped hydrogen moves in all directions; Including into the metal affected (but not melted) by the welding heat, known as the heataffected zone (HAZ). For carbon steels, the simultaneous presence of three factors listed below can result in a form of cracking referred to as underbead, or delayed, cracking: 1. Presence of hydrogen in the HAZ 2. Residual Stress 3. HAZ hardness greater than Rockwell 30 Cracks---Hot Cracking There are two broad categories of cracks, based on the stage in the welding cycle when cracking occurs. Hot cracks typically occur in weld metal, at or near the time of solidification. In most cases, this type of occurrence is more correctly described as a tear rather than a crack. As the weld metal solidifies from the outer edges toward s the center, the metal is cooling and contracting.

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Circumstances may develop to preclude the solidifying weld metal joining together in the center of the weld. When the weld pool is deep and narrow (depth exceeding width) there is a risk of hot crack development. In Figure 1.18, a throat crack, also known as a centerline crack, longitudinal crack, or solidification crack is seen. The root crack may also develop from the same factors. The crater crack or star crack derives from similar conditions. At the time of welding, insufficient liquid metal was available, so the last metal of solidify was torn apart as cooling proceeded. There are other sources of hot cracks. Impurities in the weld metal may give rise to presence of liquid films. These may impede joining of the solidifying weld metal along the weld centerline. Sulphur or phosphorus in excess of 0.06% can cause cracking of this type, particularly if manganese content of the weld metal is low.

Figure 1.18 Cracks in Weld Metal

With certain steels, such as chrome-moly types, cracking based on liquid film presence may occur during or following heat treatment. This is known as liquation or reheat cracking. It is for this reason specifications frequently call for a further inspection, often with MT, for weldments subjected to post-weld heat treatment. In addition to the sites mentioned above, liquid film cracking may occur at the toes of welds.

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Hot cracks break the surface, and are detected by visual examination. Where cracks are suspected, MT or PT will identify even the tight cracks. Crater cracks are caused by improper weld termination technique, a matter that can be readily corrected by additional welder training. The most common cause of throat cracking is restraint. Smaller weld beads, with added preheat if required, will often overcome the problem. As already noted, weld pool width-to-depth ratio should be greater than one. Cracks----Cold Cracking Cold cracks typically develop at or near ambient temperature, certainly below the lower transformation temperature (ambient). Cold cracks may be considered a metallurgical occurrence. The principal factors generally involved when cold cracking occurs reduce to: 1. Weldability of the base metal 2. Suitability of the weld procedure (WPS) It should be noted that while in the case of certain hot cracks, welder skill might be involved; with cold cracks welder skill is rarely a consideration. The problem stems from design or supervision, or both. Cold cracks may break the surface, such as with the transverse crack, as in Figure 1.19. However, in general, cold cracks are subsurface and thus not readily detectable during visual inspection. Rather, the welding inspectors principal activity with cold cracking is usually associated with repair. When cold cracking is detected, most codes require the crack site to be excavated, forming a boatshaped cavity, which ends over the full depth and of the crack. The length of the excavation is typically required to extend beyond the identified limits of cracking by a certain amount.

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Figure 1.19 Weld and Base Metal Crack

Numerous types of cold cracks are reviewed in welding literature. Heat-affected zone cracks and underbead cracks are just two of many types, which are described by their direction, by their appearance, and at times by the position of their occurrence (see Figure 1.20). However, the common factor is the stage at which cracks develop: at or below transformation temperature. (The temperature at which certain micro structural changes occur.)

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Figure 1.20 Cold Cracks Another type of cold crack is delayed cracking------cracks that only develop some time after the weldment cools to ambient temperature. Certain alloy steels, for instance, the quenched and tempered steels ASTM A514 and A517, are prone to this problem. For this reason, many codes require examination of such weldments after a delay of up to four days. Hydrogen is often involved in cold cracking, and for this reason welding of all alloy steels should always be carried out with low-hydrogen consumables and using appropriate techniques in all relevant areas. In particular, careful control of welding heat input and joint restraint are vital to crack free welding. Incomplete Fusion Incomplete fusion is a significant welding problem; it has linearity and end condition. It develops when molten weld metal flows over unmelted base metal or adjacent weld beads. Incomplete fusion is found in one or more of the following locations: 1. 2. 3. 3. At the joint root, known as incomplete fusion Between weld beads, known as incomplete inter-run fusion Between weld bead and weld groove, known as incomplete sidewall fusion Between weld metal and base metal, known as overroll or overlap

Incomplete joint penetration or incomplete fusion is common with T-joints with both fillet and

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groove welds adjacent to the root. Electrode size or improper manipulation or both are primary causes. With incomplete joint penetration in groove welds, the cause is usually improper electrode manipulation. Incomplete interrun fusion and incomplete sidewall fusion are shown in Figure 1.21. Again, improper electrode manipulation is the primary cause. This may be exacerbated by improper placement of weld beads. This restricts access and does not permit the arc to impinge upon and melt all the base metal on which the weld pass is being made.

Figure 1.21 Incomplete Fusion in various Locations Overlap results from molten weld metal flowing over unmelted base metal. This is potentially a problem with all types of semi-automatic and automatic welding. When more molten filler metal is available than can be contained within the area of molten base metal, overlap results. With this type of discontinuity, electrode manipulation and travel speed are the key factors. Unusual weld profile shape often indicates that overlapping has occurred. Overlap occurs if molten weld metal flows out of the weld on to unmelted base metal. Overroll is common in out-of-position groove and fillet welds. Overlap and overroll are the only types of incomplete fusion that may normally be detected by visual examination. Other types of incomplete fusion are usually found only by a subsurface examination such as RT or UT. However, even these techniques have only limited reliability as the orientation of the incomplete fusion may be unfavorable for detection by radiography and the ultrasonic echo may be lost amid other echoes. This is a particular problem with the examination of fillet welds for depth of penetration. In-process inspection of weld bead placement allows potential problem areas to be identified and corrected, if necessary. The arc must be able to see and be closest to the area of the base metal/weld metal that the next weld bead will occupy when deposited. The arc takes the shortest path from the electrode to the weld area. An assessment should be made before weld run placement. As mentioned, examination after the event is too late, even where a subsurface examination is specified. Welder awareness and welder skill upgrading provide the best route to avoidance of incomplete fusion. In-process welding inspection gives the best assurance of minimizing incomplete fusion.

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Incomplete Joint Penetration Incomplete joint penetration results from utilizing an unsuitable welding procedure. Incomplete (or inadequate) penetration is differentiated from incomplete fusion by this consideration. In other terms incomplete fusion results from improper or inappropriate manipulation of the electrode and is thus largely a welder-based problem. Incomplete penetration, on the other hand, stems either from the use of a welding procedure unsuited to work in hand or from the nonobservance of key provisions of an otherwise suitable welding procedure. Figure 1.22 shows the general form of the discontinuity. In some respects, it is similar to incomplete fusion; but it may not have the same ability to concentrate stress. It is for this reason that incomplete penetration is considered less serious. However, it should be pointed out that most codes prohibit either discontinuity in any amount. End condition and linearity are always determinants.

Figure 1.22 Incomplete Joint penetration In most fabrication work, incomplete penetration is readily detected by visual inspection. For joints welded from both sides, incomplete penetration should be identified during back gouging. A notable exception to this rule is where small-diameter pipe and tube work are concerned. Unless it is possible to view the back of a joint, directly or by borescope, the discontinuity can only be detected by a subsurface examination. However, in contrast to incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration is usually readily decerned on radiographs and by UT echo. The radiographic image is typically clearly defined with both edges sharp as seen in Figure 1.22. In the case of small-diameter pipe and tube work, repair typically involves complete removal of the weld. In the case3 of groove joints welded from both sides, the weld on one side must be

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removed. Repair of incomplete penetration where the back of the weld is accessible presents little problem. Backgouging is the only preparation necessary, but its thoroughness should be checked by MT or PT to insure that the discontinuity has been eliminated. Solid Inclusions The term solid inclusion embraces a variety of solid matter trapped in the molten weld metal and remaining within the solidified weld metal at the time of examination. Inclusions, with the latter most common (see figure 1.23). Inclusions are considered to be less severe than the discontinuities considered above. The end condition is rounded and the linearity is less pronounced.

Figure 1.23 Slag Inclusions With non-ferrous metals, oxide inclusions can present a problem area, while in the case of the ferrous metals; oxide inclusions are not a significant factor. Iron and its alloys of steel melt at temperatures considerably above the melting temperature of the main oxides of iron, namely ferrous oxide and ferric oxide. It is this property that enables carbon and many alloy steels to be cut by burning in the rapid oxidation of flame cutting. Apart from metallic objects deliberately placed within a weld, such as weld rod stubs and sometimes spatter, the only significant metallic inclusions normally encountered in welding are tungsten and, to some extent, copper. Tungsten droplets may leave the electrode in both gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and plasma arc welding (PAW), and become embedded in the weld metal. For reasons not well understood, tungsten inclusions do not appear to exercise any significant effect on weld properties, even in instances of fatigue loading. Thus most codes allow considerable latitude with this type of discontinuity. Similar remarks are generally applicable to copper inclusions in welds. Slag is the term describing all types of non-metallic inclusions that occur in weld metal. Except for surface inclusions, slag inclusions are only detectable by subsurface examination. Slag is readily discernable on radiographs. Slag inclusions generally result from improper electrode manipulation. Part of welder skill is confining slag to the rear of the weld pool as the slag rises therein. Slag in front of the electrode can be trapped, becoming an inclusion. Slag inclusions may also result from wide weaving.

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Another type of slag inclusion is wagon tracks. In making the weld root pass, sidewall undercutting may occur. To achieve penetration, without excess, the rate of travel is increased. The groove sides are melted, but insufficient metal is available to completely fill the groove. Slag acts to cover any sidewall undercut. Even if thoroughly cleaned of slag, a type of incomplete fusion will result during the next weld run, which leads to either slag entrapment or a void along one or both sides of the weld, hence the term wagon tracks. Most codes permit a certain size and number of slag inclusions to remain un-repaired. As the stress concentration ability is not great and the end conditions is usually rounded, many codes consider slag more from the point view of section loss. Under such conditions, repair is only mandated incases of gross excess, which often indicates a poor weld. Gaseous Inclusions (Porosity) As discussed above, the molten weld pool dissolves and takes considerable amounts of gas into solution. Most, if not all, of these gases come out of solution and are expelled into the atmosphere as the weld metal cools. Gases remaining after solidification will form pores, wormholes or piping (three basic types). These discontinuities are collectively known as porosity. Fast freezing weld metal and incorrect or improper electrode manipulation are the primary cause of porosity. At the instant a consumable electrode arc is struck, no shielding is available. Thus the first metal deposited will contain pores, due to fast freezing. This dictates a particular method to commence consumable electrode welding, the weld start technique. The arc should be struck 12mm downstream on the weld axis and quickly move to the intended starting position as the arc stabilizes. At that point, normal welding should commence. As the arc moves over the previously deposited (but porous) weld metal, it is remelted and the entrapped gases are able to escape, along with such gases as are taken into the molten weld pool, as is normal. If a bead is characterized by raised bumps at the stop-start positions, grinding the cap off the bump will often reveal starting porosity. Holding the face of the weld pool open and not allowing the slag to run over molten metal and seal in the gases, greatly facilitates gas escape for the production of porosity free welds. Porosity assumes a number of forms, and the occurrences are named for the appearance, most of which are self-explanatory. Single or isolated pores, uniformly and non-uniformly scattered porosity, starting porosity, linear or longitudinal porosity are examples. In addition there are what may be termed special event porosity, porosity that arises from a specific cause. The most common are pores caused by lack of cleanliness. Some scale remains on the line of welding. Arc heat melts and decomposes it into iron, oxygen and water vapor (such oxides are usually hydrated). These gases plus those already present in the weld pool are unable to escape as the weld pool solidifies, resulting in cluster porosity. Pores may be elongated to some extent in the welding direction. When the rate of gas escape is matched by the rate of solidification of the weld metal, elongated

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pores result, sometimes known as wormholes or vermicular porosity. Such porosity may be as shown in Figure 1.24. Alternatively, individual wormholes with tails may form. Another possibility is a gas bubble moving linearly along the weld to form a longitudinal pipe. A vertical pipe, on the other hand, forms when molten metal in a subsequent weld pass is deposited over weld metal having a pore, which is open to the surface. The air therein expands and forces a path through the molten metal of later passes.

Figure 1.24 Porosity Types

Shape discontinuities Shape refers to the weld profile (in cross section). The most significant feature of weld shape is the angle between the base metal and the weld. As this angle increases, the stress concentration increases.

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Figure 1.25 illustrates the significance of the weld reinforcement angle with respect to load carrying capacity of the joint operating in conditions of cyclic loading.

Figure 1.25 Reinforcement Effect The load capacity of fillet welds is based on the weld throat. In fatigue loading it is also a function of the angle the weld makes with the base metal. For this reason specified limits of shape are laid down in codes applicable to welding. The diagrams in Figure 1.26 show typical requirements for both fillet and groove weld shape. It is possible to have more than one shape discontinuity present in a single weld, for example, undercut and insufficient throat.

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Figure 1.26 Examples of Under fill and Undercut The diagrams in Figure 1.27 are from AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code---Steel. The limits of convexity C for fillet welds are shown bellow: 8mm leg > 8mm - < 25.4mm and 25.4mm 1.6mm 3.2mm 4.8mm

In the same code, the allowable weld reinforcement height R for but joints is 3.2mm, irrespective of the thickness of members joined. Notice that size under-run is considered a shape discontinuity. Shape discontinuities are associated with the manner in which welding is carried out. The opposite of the excessive reinforcement reviewed above is under fill, which gives rise to insufficient throat. In figure 1.26 there are examples of this discontinuity at both the face and the root of a joint. Remedial steps are simple, except in the case where preheating was specified for the original welding. In all cases, restoration of under filled joints requires welding to be carried out using the

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original welding procedure or a specific repair procedure. Weld examination and testing should be as specified for the original welding. Possibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. As already discussed in connection with sidewall difficulties, undercut results from the non-availability of sufficient metal to completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat.

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Figure 1.27 Acceptable (Conforming) and Unacceptable (Non-Conforming) Weld Shapes (AWS D1.1)

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Possibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. As already discussed in connection with sidewall difficulties, undercut results from the non-availability of sufficient metal to completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat. Figure 1.26 shows the two usual forms of undercut. While not a discontinuity that is entirely position sensitive, welds made in the horizontal position is(not or) most vulnerable. An accompanying likelihood is that overlap----a type of incomplete fusion as mentioned earlier. Liquid metal runs out of the weld pool and covers unmelted base metal. Notice in the diagram Figure 1.27 the fillet weld. Overlap is present at the weld toe of the horizontal member, as shown in Figure 1.27(c). This is not as readily evident as in the case of the groove joint. When undercut is present at one toe of the weld, it is prudent to search the area of the other toe to ensure overlapping or over rolling have not taken place. Both Undercut and overlap are readily corrected. If shallow, that is, not of a depth in excess of the base metal thickness tolerance, it can be ground out to a shallow dish. If depth exceeds the thickness tolerance, undercut is repaired by welding. As with other corrective welding, it is to be carried out using the original procedure (WPS). For deep, narrowing undercut, it may be beneficial to grind the undercut channel to a more favorable shape for welding. Miscellaneous Discontinuities

Welding-Caused Discontinuities Although welding involves both weld metal and base metal, there are distinct divisions between the two when it comes to a series of miscellaneous discontinuities identified in connection with weld fabrication. Spatter and arc strike, for instance, are clearly welding caused discontinuities. Equally clear, Laminations and cold laps are material discontinuities. Welding and materials are thus the basic divisions of this topic. Lamellar tearing, a combination of factors, represents yet a further type of discontinuity that does not fall into any of the preceding categories. Without welding, it would not have developed. On the other hand, there is no lamellar tearing can be avoided by welding control methods, taken in isolation. Lamellar tearing will therefore be considered as a separate part of the topic under review. Spatter is a normal Accompaniment of the consumable electrode welding processes. Typically, during transfer across the arc, not all the molten electrode stream is retained within the arc cone. Metal droplets are thus deposited on the base metal outside the weld area. Provided the droplets or spatter are small, such droplets will be removed during normal wire brush cleaning of welds. However, if droplets of spatter exceed a specific size, relative to droplet volume and temperature, sufficient superheat will exist to cause at least partial welding of the spatter to the job. Apart from the difficulty of removal of such spatter, a situation analogous to arc strike (see below) may have developed. Apart from identification of the possible arc strike condition, spatter removal serves a number of purposes. The composition of spatter is different (due to oxidization) from that of the base metal upon which it falls. This can cause preferential corrosion. If the weld in the spatter area is to be examined by UT, spatter will prevent good coupling with the work piece. If spatter remains on work to be painted, it may be later dislodged, again with corrosion potential. Further, the spatter

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may mask discontinuities when the area is examined. The ease, or difficulty of spatter removal is often a guide as to the general weld quality. Arc strike occurs when a live part of the welding circuit contacts the work piece 9in any area not to be melted during welding. This typically, but not exclusively, arises from accidental contact between electrode and work piece. The potential danger associated with arc strike comes from possible consequences of the super-fast cooling rate experienced by the base metal at the point of the arc strike. Arc strikes are readily identified. Characteristics often include a small area of discoloration, with some shallow gouging and usually evidencing a drop of weld metal (that has melted during the occurrence) and often one or more gas pores. Potentially, micro cracking may have also occurred as a result of accelerated cooling rate experienced by the area in question.

The remedial operation consists of two stages: 1. The area containing the arc strike is ground out to produce a shallow dish, centered on the arc strike. 2. 3. The site of the arc strike is examined visually and tested. This means conducting either MT or PT in the area. The aim of this test is to insure that no cracks remain in the area of the arc strike. Base Metal-Caused Discontinuities Metal plates and sections arriving from the supplier are normally inspected more for quantity than for quality. For this reason, certain base discontinuities may only become evident during fabrication, with laps and seams most commonly encountered. During the rolling process, considerable movement of metal takes place and a lap may form. In certain circumstances, such laps may become a seam. Both are evidenced as non-coherent junctions or separations between otherwise sound metal. Laps and seams result from rolling practices. The next base metal discontinuities to be considered concern lamination. There are two types of lamination that are caused by failure to fuse during rolling or that caused by metals composition or its processing. Considering only the latter, as shown in Figure 1.28, a lamination is a closed separation of metal on a plane parallel with the plate, slab, or billet surface. Delamination occurs when a lamination physically separates as shown.

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Figure 1.28 Lamination and Delamination

Manganese, an alloying element in steel, serves several functions. One is to combine with and neutralize the effects of sulfur. Manganese sulfide, formed in this process, exists as high-melting temperature beads within the metal. During rolling, these beads are flattened and dispersed with in the body of the metal. However. If their number is great and they aggregate on a common plane, a lamination may result. The risk increases as metal thickness increases. For joints at risk, UT scans readily identify such material. A lamination scan should always precede a weld UT examination. Figure 1.29 illustrates a discontinuity known as lamellar tearing. Shrinkage associated with cooling weld metal causes lamination- prone steel to tear. Lamellar tearing presents a step-like, wood grained appearance when visually examined. In many instances, there is no external evidence of the presence of lamellar tearing until failure under load takes place. As with other types of lamination, lamellar tearing is readily identified by UT. Joints applying tension in the through-thickness direction are vulnerable. It is thus prudent to take steps to avoid lamellar tearing when working with thick materials that are at most risk. Corrective action often requires considerable rework or replacement of material. Some avenue for design change exists with most corner joints.

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Figure 1.29 Examples of Lamellar Tearing

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