Norolayn K.

Said, MST

Properties of Water
Polar molecule Cohesion and

adhesion High specific heat Density greatest at 4oC Universal solvent of life

Polarity of Water
In a water molecule two hydrogen atoms

form single polar covalent bonds with an oxygen atom. Gives water more structure than other liquids
Because oxygen is more electronegative, the

region around oxygen has a partial negative charge. The region near the two hydrogen atoms has a partial positive charge.

A water molecule is a polar molecule with

opposite ends of the molecule with opposite charges.

 Water has a variety of unusual properties because of

attractions between these polar molecules.

The slightly negative regions of one molecule are

attracted to the slightly positive regions of nearby molecules, forming a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with up to four neighbors.

Fig. 3.1
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

HYDROGEN BONDS
Hold water molecules

Extraordinary Properties

together Each water molecule can form a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds The hydrogen bonds joining water molecules are weak, about 1/20th as strong as covalent bonds. They form, break, and reform with great frequency

that are a result of hydrogen bonds.

Cohesive behavior Resists changes in

temperature High heat of vaporization Expands when it freezes Versatile solvent

Changing States of Water

Boiling water- heat speeds up the energy; at 100oC

Evaporation- water escapes into air as water vapor

Condensation- cooling releases energy; forms droplets

Freezing- loss of energy; becomes ice; 0oC

Melting- molecules gain energy causing temperature

to rise; ice becomes fluid

Organisms Depend on Cohesion

Hydrogen bonds hold the substance together, a phenomenon called cohesion

Cohesion is responsible for the

transport of the water column in plants Cohesion among water molecules plays a key role in the transport of water against gravity in plants Adhesion, clinging of one substance to another, contributes too, as water adheres to the wall of the vessels.

 Surface tension, a measure of the force necessary to

stretch or break the surface of a liquid, is related to cohesion.

Water has a greater surface tension than most other

liquids because hydrogen bonds among surface water molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface. Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film. Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without breaking the surface.

Fig. 3.3
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Moderates Temperatures on Earth

Water stabilizes air temperatures by absorbing heat from warmer air and releasing heat to cooler air. Water can absorb or release relatively large amounts of heat with only a slight change in its own temperature. Celsius Scale at Sea Level

What is kinetic

100oC

Water boils

37oC

Human body temperature Room temperature

23oC

0oC

Water freezes

energy? Heat? Temperature? Calorie? What is the difference in cal and Cal? What is specific heat?

Specific Heat is the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for one gram of a substance to change its temperature by 1oC.

Three-fourths of the earth is covered by water. The water serves as a large heat sink responsible for: 1. Prevention of temperature fluctuations that are outside the range suitable for life.
2. Coastal areas having a mild climate

3. A stable marine environment

Evaporative Cooling
The cooling of a

surface occurs when the liquid evaporates This is responsible for:

Moderating earths

climate Stabilizes temperature in aquatic ecosystems Preventing organisms from overheating

Density of Water
Most dense at 4oC
Contracts until 4oC Expands from 4oC

to 0oC
The density of water: 1. Prevents water from freezing from the bottom up. 2. Ice forms on the surface firstthe freezing of the water releases heat to the water below creating insulation. 3. Makes transition between season less abrupt.

 When water reaches 0oC, water becomes locked into a

crystalline lattice with each molecule bonded to to the maximum of four partners. As ice starts to melt, some of the hydrogen bonds break and some water molecules can slip closer together than they can while in the ice state. Ice is about 10% less dense than water at 4oC.

Fig. 3.5
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Solvent for Life

Solution
Solute
solvent

Aqueous solution Hydrophilic

Ionic compounds

dissolve in water Polar molecules (generally) are water soluble

Hydrophobic
Nonpolar compounds

LIQUIDS
The molecules of liquids are arranged less tightly

than those of solids but more closely than those of gases. Liquids and gases take the shape of their container, unlike solids, which keep their own shape. Liquids and solids maintain a definite volume, or size, while gases will expand to fill a container. For example, a liter of liquid will not expand to fill a two-liter container, but a liter of gas.

 Most substances can exist in the liquid state at the right

temperature and pressure. Water, for example, exists as a liquid at room temperature (20 C/68 F) and normal atmospheric pressure (the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level). Helium, on the other hand, is a gas under these conditions. It must be cooled to a very low temperature or compressed to a very high pressure to become a liquid. Iron is a solid at room temperature and normal pressure and must be heated to 1535 C (2795 F) to become a liquid. Only three chemical elements bromine, gallium, and mercuryexist as liquids at room temperature and normal pressure.

 All other elements exist as either solids or gases

under these conditions. Many compounds (combinations of elements) exist as liquids. Alcohol, gas, oil, and water are examples of compounds that are liquids at room temperature and normal pressure. Many familiar liquids, such as juice, milk, and soda, are water based, meaning they contain substances mixed with or dissolved in water.

 Liquids, particularly water, are essential to life. All plants

and animals depend on water to transport nutrients and wastes. Liquids are also important in everyday activities, such as cleaning and painting. Liquids clean by dissolving and carrying away dirt and other solid particles. Paints contain colored particles in a liquid base. The liquid enables people to evenly spread color with a brush or roller on a wall or other surface. After the paint solidifies, it forms a coating on the wall or surface . Many products, such as metal beams and plastic containers, are made by melting materials into liquid form and then pouring them into molds. When the material cools, it solidifies into the desired shape . Various fuels that people burn for heat and energy, such as oil to heat houses and gasoline to power automobile engines, are also liquids.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
The BOILING POINT of a liquid is the temperature at

which molecules escape from the liquid and enter the gaseous state. Heat causes a liquid to boil by adding energy to the liquids molecules. As the molecules gain energy, they move about more quickly and range farther from each other. When the molecules are far enough apart, intermolecular forces are too weak to pull them back together, so the molecules form a vapor. Boiling starts when bubbles of vapor form within the liquid. These bubbles rise to the top of the liquid and release the gaseous molecules to the atmosphere above the liquids surface. It takes 2,260 Joules (540 calories) of heat energy to evaporate 1 gram of water at 100 C (212 F) at sea level.

 At the boiling point, the vapor pressure of a liquid must

equal the pressure of the atmosphere above the liquid. For a liquid boiling in an open container, the atmosphere above the liquid is simply Earths atmosphere. The pressure in the bubbles of vapor must equal the pressure of Earths atmosphere pressing down on the liquid. If this were not true, the air pressing down would squeeze and collapse the bubbles before they could form and rise to the surface. The boiling point of a liquid is lower at higher elevations because atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 C (212 F) at sea level, where the air pressure measures one atmosphere (atm). On top of Mount Everest, which is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above sea level, water boils at only 70 C (158 F) because the air pressure at this height is only 1/3 atm.

 Different materials have different boiling points because the

forces of attraction between their molecules differ. For example, water molecules strongly attract each other because of their structure. A water molecule consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. The oxygen atom attracts the electrons it shares with the hydrogen atoms more strongly than the two hydrogen atoms do. Electrons have a negative electric charge and thus make the oxygen end of the water molecule more negatively charged, while the hydrogen end of the molecule has a positive charge. This separation of charge makes the water molecule strongly polar. The negative charge on the oxygen atom attracts positive hydrogen atoms from other water molecules, causing the water molecules to bond tightly to each other. Breaking this bond requires considerable heat, which is why the boiling point for water, 100 C (212 F), is relatively high . Without this bonding, water would boil near -80 C (-112 F). Ethyl alcohol is also a polar liquid, and its boiling point is 78.5 C (173.3 F).

 Nonpolar liquids have lower boiling points than polar

liquids because electric charge is evenly distributed around their molecules. This even distribution makes the molecule-to-molecule attractions in nonpolar liquids relatively weak. Examples of nonpolar liquids are the hydrocarbons, substances that consist entirely of hydrogen and carbon molecules. Many common fuels, such as gasoline and methane, are hydrocarbons. In the molecules of these substances, the carbon and hydrogen atoms share their electrons more equally than do the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water. As a result, the bonds between the molecules are relatively weak, and the liquids boil at lower temperatures. The hydrocarbon propane boils at 42.1 C (-43.8 F), and butane boils at 0.5 C (31.1 F). These substances exist as gases at room temperature.

 Sometimes a liquid can be superheatedthat is,

heated above its usual boiling point without changing into vapor. Superheating occurs when vapor bubbles inside a liquid dont have an appropriate surface on which to form. For example, when water in a smooth-walled container is heated in a microwave oven, it can reach a higher temperature than its boiling point and remain a liquid. If a rough surface enters the liquid, such as a teabag, vapor bubbles can form and the liquid will begin to boil rapidly.

Freezing Point
The freezing point of a substance is the

temperature at which the liquid form of the substance becomes a solid. The molecules of a liquid arrange into a more ordered structure as the liquid freezes. The freezing point of a substance is essentially the same as its melting pointthat is, the point at which a solid becomes a liquid.

 When a liquid freezes to become a solid, its volume usually

shrinks by approximately 10 percent as its molecules move closer together. In solid aluminum, for example, each atom has 12 neighboring atoms, each at a distance of 2.86 x 10-8 cm. In liquid aluminum, each atom has 10 or 11 neighboring atoms at a distance of 2.96 x 10-8 cm. Thus, the atoms are less tightly packed in the liquid, and the liquid must contract as it freezes. The exceptions to this rule are water and the liquid forms of gallium and bismuth. These substances expand upon freezing. The structure of their solid state is less dense than that of their liquid state near the freezing point. In ice, each water molecule is solidly packed into a lattice, surrounded by four molecules equally distant from each other. This structure is actually less dense than the molecular patterns that can occur in the liquid form of water, which is why ice floats on water.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of how much the liquid

resists flow. Flow allows a liquid to take the shape of the container that holds it. A liquids viscosity depends on the structure of the liquids molecules and on the attractive forces between the liquids molecules. Highly viscous liquids often contain molecules that have complicated structures. These molecules can become entangled with one another, impairing their ability to flow past one another. The viscosity of water is lower than that of heavy oils, for example, because oils contain large, convoluted molecules that catch on one another. The polarity of the molecules in water, however, causes them to attract one another, making water more viscous than a nonpolar liquid, such as propane. Viscosity decreases as temperature increases because additional heat energy enables molecules to overcome attractions to one another and move more freely.

Surface Tension

 Liquids behave as though they have a delicate

skin on their surface. This property is called surface tension. In rain droplets, surface tension acts like a thin balloon, holding the water molecules together in each droplet. Water-strider bugs take advantage of surface tension by flitting across the surfaces of ponds without falling through the surface.

 Surface tension results from the intermolecular

forces of attraction in a liquid. A water molecule deep inside a droplet experiences attractive forces in all directions from other molecules in the drop. The sum of these forces is zero, leaving no net force on the molecule. A molecule that is close to the surface, however, has more neighboring molecules inside the drop than it has near the surface. The forces pulling the molecule toward the center of the drop are stronger than those at the surface, so the molecule sticks to the drop instead of falling away.

 Intermolecular forces of attraction make liquids pull together

and minimize their surface area. Liquids do this because, like all matter, they seek to minimize the amount of energy they require to maintain their molecular structure. A liquid requires the least amount of energy when it has the smallest possible surface area. For small amounts of liquid in air, such as raindrops, the sphere is the shape with the smallest surface area. Gravity, another force acting on raindrops, stretches the droplets so that they are not exactly round. To overcome the attraction between molecules in a liquid and increase the liquids surface area takes energy. For instance, a moving car can transfer energy to a droplet of rain by hitting it, making it break apart or deform against the car into a shape that has more surface area.

Capillary Action

 Water will climb up a paper towel if the edge of the

towel touches a puddle, and it will climb up a thin glass tube if the tube is dipped in water. Water behaves this way because of an effect called capillary action. Capillary action occurs when the attraction of a liquids molecules for themselves differs from their attraction for a solid that the liquid contacts. The water in the paper towel example climbs the towel because the water molecules are more attracted to the paper than they are to each other.

 Chemistry students demonstrate capillary action using

a glass tube called a capillary tube and a beaker of water. Water climbs the glass tube when it is dipped in the beaker because the water is more attracted to the glass than it is to itself. Several forces are acting on the water: the attraction of the water molecules to the glass tube, the weight of gravity pressing down on the water in the tube, and the attraction of the water molecules for each other. The water rises in the tube until all these forces balance. For some liquids, such as mercury, the attraction between the molecules of the liquid is stronger than their attraction to the glass tube. When a glass tube is dipped in a beaker of mercury, capillary action makes the level of mercury in the tube drop below the level of mercury in the beaker.

Miscibility
Miscibility is a measure of how easily different liquids

will dissolve when mixed together. Miscibility depends on the polarity of a liquids molecules. For example, water will mix with alcohol because they are both polar liquids, so their molecules attract one another. But water will not mix well with oil, which is a nonpolar liquid. Oil floats on top of water because the polar water molecules are much more strongly attracted to each other than to the oil molecules. The rule for determining miscibility is that like dissolves like. Polar liquids are miscible with other polar liquids, while nonpolar liquids are miscible with other nonpolar liquids.

Osmosis

 When a substance dissolves in a liquid, the resulting mixture is

called a solution. Osmosis occurs when molecules of the initial liquid pass through a membrane, but molecules of the dissolved substance do not. The molecules of the initial liquid can pass through the membrane because they are relatively small. Osmosis tends to equalize the concentration of the solutions on both sides of a membrane. The membrane in this case is called semipermeable, because it allows one part of the mixture to pass through but not another. Cells in living organisms consist mostly of water, and they are surrounded by a watery environment. If the concentration of a dissolved substance, such as sugar or salt, differs inside and outside a cell, osmosis causes water to pass through the cells membrane from the area of lower concentration to the area of higher concentration, until the concentration on each side of the membrane is equal. Osmosis makes sugar and salt good food preservatives. When harmful bacteria encounter sugary or salty foods, water flows from the area of lower concentrationthe cells of the bacteriato the area of higher concentrationthe food. The flow of water out from the bacterias cells dehydrates the bacteria, which kills it.