ZX Spectrum - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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ZX Spectrum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Sinclair ZX Spectrum) The ZX Spectrum (pronounced "Zed-Ex") is an 8-bit personal home computer released in the United Kingdom in 1982 by Sinclair Research Ltd. Referred to during development as the ZX81 Colour and ZX82,[2][3] the machine was launched as the ZX Spectrum by Sinclair to highlight the machine's colour display, compared with the black-and-white of its [4] The Spectrum was predecessor, the ZX81. ultimately released as eight dierent models, ranging from the entry level model with 16 kB RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum +3 with 128 kB RAM and built in oppy disk drive in 1987; together they sold in excess of 5 million units worldwide (not counting numerous [5] clones). The Spectrum was among the rst mainstream audience home computers in the UK, similar in signicance to the Commodore 64 in the USA. The introduction of the ZX Spectrum led to a boom in companies producing software and [6] the eects of hardware for the machine, [1] some credit it as the which are still seen; [7] machine which launched the UK IT industry. Licensing deals and clones followed, and earned Clive Sinclair a knighthood for "services to [8] British industry".

ZX Spectrum

An issue 2 1982 ZX Spectrum Type Generation Release date Retail availability Discontinued Media Operating system CPU Memory Predecessor Successor Z80 @ 3.5 MHz and equivalent 16 kB / 48 kB / 128 kB ZX81 QL 1992[1] Cassette tape Sinclair BASIC Home computer 8-bit 23 April 1982 1982

The Commodore 64, BBC Microcomputer and later the Amstrad CPC range were major rivals to the Spectrum in the UK market during the early 1980s. Over 23,000 software titles have been released since the Spectrum's launch and new titles continue to be released, with over 90 new ones in 2010.

Contents
1 Hardware 2 Firmware 3 Sinclair Research models

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3.1 Pre-production designs 3.2 ZX Spectrum 16K/48K 3.3 ZX Spectrum+ 3.4 ZX Spectrum 128 4 Amstrad models 4.1 ZX Spectrum +2 4.2 ZX Spectrum +2A 4.3 ZX Spectrum +2B 4.4 ZX Spectrum +3 5 Clones 6 Peripherals 7 Software 7.1 Distribution 7.2 Copying and backup software 7.3 Community 7.4 Notable developers 8 Legacy 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

Hardware
The Spectrum is based on a Zilog Z80A CPU running at 3.5 MHz (or NEC D780C-1 clone). The original model Spectrum has 16 kB (161024 bytes) of ROM and either 16 kB or 48 kB of RAM. Hardware design was by Richard Altwasser of Sinclair Research, and the machine's outward appearance was designed by Sinclair's industrial [6] designer Rick Dickinson. Video output is through an RF modulator ZX Spectrum 48K motherboard (Issue 3B and was designed for use with 1983, heat sink removed) contemporary portable television sets, for a simple colour graphic display. Text can be displayed using 32 columns 24 rows of characters from the ZX Spectrum character set or from a set provided within an application, from a palette of 15 shades: [9] The image resolution is seven colours at two levels of brightness each, plus black. [10] To conserve memory, colour is stored 256192 with the same colour limitations. separate from the pixel bitmap in a low resolution, 3224 grid overlay, corresponding [11] to the character cells. Altwasser received a patent for this design. An "attribute" consists of a foreground and a background colour, a brightness level (normal or bright) and a ashing "ag" which, when set, causes the two colours to swap

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at regular intervals.[10] This scheme leads to what was dubbed colour clash or attribute clash with some bizarre eects in the animated graphics of arcade style games. This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum and an in-joke among Spectrum users, as [citation needed] Other machines well as a point of derision by advocates of other systems. available around the same time, for example the Amstrad CPC, did not suer from this limitation. The Commodore 64 used colour attributes in a similar way, but a special multicolour mode, hardware sprites and hardware scrolling were used to avoid attribute clash. Sound output is through a beeper on the machine itself. This is capable of producing one channel with 10 octaves. The machine also includes an expansion bus edge connector and 3.5 mm audio in/out ports for the connection of a cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data.

Firmware
The machine's Sinclair BASIC interpreter is stored in ROM (along with fundamental system-routines) and was written by Steve Vickers on contract from Nine Tiles Ltd. The Spectrum's chiclet keyboard (on top of a membrane, similar to calculator keys) is marked with BASIC keywords, so that, for example, pressing "G" when in programming [12] mode would insert the BASIC command GOTO. The BASIC interpreter was developed from that used on the ZX81 and a ZX81 BASIC program can be typed into a Spectrum largely unmodied, but Spectrum BASIC included many extra features making it easier to use. The ZX Spectrum character set was expanded from that of the ZX81, which did not feature lower-case letters. Spectrum BASIC included extra keywords for the more advanced display and sound, and also supported multi-statement lines. The cassette interface was also much more advanced, saving and loading around four times faster than the ZX81, and much more reliably. As well as being able to save programs, the Spectrum could in addition save the contents of arrays, the contents of the screen memory, and the contents of any dened range of memory addresses.

Sinclair Research models

Pre-production designs
Rick Dickinson came up with a number of designs for the "ZX82" project before the nal ZX Spectrum design. A number of the keyboard legends changed during the design phase including ARC becoming CIRCLE, FORE [2] becoming INK and BACK becoming PAPER.

ZX Spectrum 16K/48K
The original ZX Spectrum is remembered for its rubber keyboard, diminutive size and distinctive rainbow motif. It was originally released in 1982 with 16 kB of RAM for
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ZX Spectrum 16K/48K (Dimensions (mm): 23314430 (WHD) @

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125 or with 48 kB for 175;[14] these prices were later [15] Owners of the reduced to 99 and 129 respectively. 16 kB model could purchase an internal 32 kB RAM upgrade, which for early "Issue 1" machines consisted of a daughterboard. Later issue machines required the tting of 8 dynamic RAM chips and a few TTL chips. Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 kB versions. To reduce the price, the 32 kB extension used eight faulty 64 kilobit chips with only one half of their capacity working and/or available. Links on the PCB were congured accordingly so as to place these faulty memory locations in the other [16] External 32 kB RAM packs (unused) half of each IC. that mounted in the rear expansion slot were also available from third parties. Both machines had 16 kB of onboard ROM. About 60,000 "Issue 1" ZX Spectrums were manufactured; they can be distinguished from later models by the colour of the keys (light grey for Issue 1, [17] blue-grey for later models).

~552 grams).[13]

ZX Spectrum+ (Dimensions (mm): 31914938 (WHD))[13]

ZX Spectrum 128 The Sinclair models all had audio line in and out, in the form of an "ear" and "mic" socket. An external tape recorder was needed to load the majority of software released. Either socket could also be connected to headphones or an amplier as an audio output, though this would not disable the internal speaker.

ZX Spectrum+
Planning of the ZX Spectrum+ started in June 1984,[18] and the machine was released [19] This 48 kB Spectrum (development code-name TB[18]) in October the same year. introduced a new QL-style case with an injection-moulded keyboard and a reset button that was basically a switch that shorted across the CPU reset capacitor. Electronically, it was identical to the previous 48 kB model. It was possible to change the system boards [20] A DIY between the original case and the Spectrum+ case. It retailed for 179.95. conversion-kit for older machines was also available. Early on, the machine outsold the [18] however, some retailers reported a failure rate of up to 30%, rubber-key model 2:1; [19] compared with a more usual 5-6% for the older model.

ZX Spectrum 128
Sinclair developed the ZX Spectrum 128 (code-named Derby) in conjunction with their [21] Investrnica had helped adapt the ZX Spectrum+ Spanish distributor Investrnica. to the Spanish market after the Spanish government introduced a special tax on all [22] and a law which obliged all computers sold in computers with 64 kB RAM or less, [23] Spain to support the Spanish alphabet and show messages in Spanish.

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The appearance of the ZX Spectrum 128 was similar to the ZX Spectrum+, with the exception of a large external heatsink for the internal 7805 voltage regulator added to the right hand end of the case, replacing the internal heatsink in previous versions. New features included 128 kB RAM, three-channel audio via the AY-3-8912 chip, MIDI compatibility, an RS-232 serial port, an RGB monitor port, 32 kB of ROM including an improved BASIC editor, and an external keypad. The machine was simultaneously presented for the rst time and launched in September 1985 at the SIMO '85 trade show in Spain, with a price of 44,250 pesetas. Because of the large number of unsold Spectrum+ models, Sinclair decided not to start [24] No external keypad was selling in the UK until January 1986 at a price of 179.95. available for the UK release, although the ROM routines to use it and the port itself remained. The Z80 processor used in the Spectrum has a 16-bit address bus, which means only 64 kB of memory can be directly addressed. To facilitate the extra 80 kB of RAM the designers used bank switching so that the new memory would be available as eight pages of 16 kB at the top of the address space. The same technique was also used to page between the new 16 kB editor ROM and the original 16 kB BASIC ROM at the [citation needed] bottom of the address space. The new sound chip and MIDI out abilities were exposed to the BASIC programming language with the command PLAY and a new command SPECTRUM was added to switch the machine into 48K mode, keeping the current BASIC program intact (although there is no way to switch back to 128K mode). To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional memory, a RAM disk was created where les could be stored in the additional 80 kB of RAM. The new commands took the place of two existing user-dened-character spaces causing compatibility problems with some BASIC [citation needed] programs. The ZX Spectrum 128 had no internal speaker like its predecessors. The sound was [25] produced from the television speaker instead. The Spanish version had the "128K" logo in white while the English one had the same logo in red.

Amstrad models
ZX Spectrum +2
The ZX Spectrum +2 was Amstrad's rst Spectrum, coming shortly after their purchase of the Spectrum range and "Sinclair" brand in 1986. The machine featured an all-new grey case featuring a spring-loaded keyboard, dual joystick ports, and a built-in cassette recorder dubbed the "Datacorder" (like the Amstrad CPC 464), but was in most respects identical to the ZX Spectrum 128. The main menu screen lacked the

ZX Spectrum +2

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Spectrum 128's "Tape Test" option, and the ROM was altered to account for a new 1986 Amstrad copyright message. These changes resulted in minor incompatibility problems with software that accessed ROM routines at certain addresses. Production costs had been reduced and the retail price dropped to [26] 139149.

ZX Spectrum +2A

The new keyboard did not include the BASIC keyword markings that were found on earlier Spectrums, except for the keywords LOAD, CODE and RUN which were useful for loading software. This was not a major issue however, as the +2 boasted a menu system, almost identical to the ZX Spectrum 128, where one could ZX Spectrum +3 switch between 48k BASIC programming with the keywords, and 128k BASIC programming in which all words (keywords and otherwise) must be typed out in full (although the keywords are still stored internally as one character each). Despite these changes, the layout [citation needed] remained identical to that of the 128. The ZX Spectrum +2 power supply was a grey version of the ZX Spectrum+ and 128 [citation needed] power supply.

ZX Spectrum +2A
The ZX Spectrum +2A was a variant of the Spectrum +3 housed a black version of the Spectrum +2 case mouldings. The Spectrum +2A/+3 motherboard (AMSTRAD part number Z70830) was designed such that it could be assembled without the oppy disk [27] Originally, controller or associated logic and a +2 style "datacorder" connected. Amstrad planned to introduce an additional disk interface for the +2A/+2B called the AMSTRAD SI-1,[28] however this never appeared. If an external disk drive was added, the "+2A" on the system OS menu would change to a +3. The power supply of the ZX Spectrum +2A used the same pinout as the +3. However, the power supply purchased with the +2A/B had "Sinclair +2" written on the [citation needed] case.

ZX Spectrum +2B
The ZX Spectrum +2B and ZX Spectrum +3B were functionally similar in design to the [29] The main electronic dierences being simply changes to the Spectrum +2A and +3. generation of the audio output signal to resolve problems with clipping. The Spectrum +2B motherboard (AMSTRAD part number Z70833) does not have provision for oppy disk controller circuitry so cannot be assembled as a +3B. No documented discovery of a Spectrum +3B has been made so it is unknown whether the computer was ever produced.

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ZX Spectrum +3
The ZX Spectrum +3 looked similar to the +2 but featured a built-in 3-inch oppy disk drive (like the Amstrad CPC 6128) instead of the tape drive, and was in a black case. It [30] and then later 199[31] and was the was launched in 1987, initially retailed for 249 only Spectrum capable of running the CP/M operating system without additional hardware. The +3 saw the addition of two more 16 kB ROMs. One was home to the second part of the reorganised 128 ROM and the other hosted the +3's disk operating system. This was a modied version of Amstrad's AMSDOS, called +3DOS. These two new 16 kB ROMs and the original two 16 kB ROMs were now physically implemented together as two 32 kB chips. To be able to run CP/M, which requires RAM at the bottom of the address space, the bank-switching was further improved, allowing the ROM to be paged out for another 16 kB of RAM. Such core changes brought incompatibilities: Removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector (video, power, and IORQGE); caused many external devices problems; some such as the VTX5000 modem could be used via the "FixIt" device. Dividing ROMCS into 2 lines, to disable both ROMs Reading a non-existent I/O port no longer returned the last attribute; caused some games such as Arkanoid to be unplayable Memory timing changes; some of the RAM banks were now contended causing high-speed colour-changing eects to fail The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were removed move 1 byte address in ROM Some older 48K, and a few older 128K, games were incompatible with the machine. The ZX Interface 1 was incompatible due to dierences in ROM and expansion connector; [citation needed] therefore it was not possible to connect and use the Microdrive units. The ZX Spectrum +3 power supply provides the same voltages as the one supplied with +2A/B. This power supply has the same DIN connector so can also be used with the +2A/B. However, the power supply purchased with the +3 had "Sinclair +3" written on [citation needed] the case. Production of the +3 ceased in December 1990. Although still accounting for one third of all home computer sales in the UK at the time, production of the model was ceased [citation needed] by Amstrad at that point.

Clones
See also: list of ZX Spectrum clones Sinclair licensed the Spectrum design to Timex Corporation in the United States. An enhanced version of the Spectrum with better sound, graphics and other modications was marketed in the USA by Timex as the Timex Sinclair 2068. Timex's derivatives

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were largely incompatible with Sinclair systems. However, some of the Timex innovations were later adopted by Sinclair Research. A case in point was the abortive Pandora portable Spectrum, whose ULA had the high resolution video mode pioneered in the TS2068. Pandora had a at-screen monitor and Microdrives and Didaktik M was intended to be Sinclair's business portable. After Amstrad bought the computer business of Sinclair Research, Sir Clive retained the rights to the Pandora project, and it evolved into the [32] Cambridge Computer Z88, launched in 1987. In the UK, Spectrum peripheral vendor Miles Gordon Technology (MGT) released the SAM Coup as a potential successor with some Spectrum compatibility. However, by this point, the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST had taken hold of the market, leaving [citation needed] MGT in eventual receivership. Many unocial Spectrum clones were produced, especially in the former Eastern Bloc countries (e.g. in Romania, several models were produced (Tim-S, HC85, HC91, Cobra, Junior, CIP , CIP 3, Jet), some featuring CP/M and a 5.25"/3.5" oppy disk) and South America (e.g. Microdigital TK 90X and TK 95). In the Soviet Union, ZX Spectrum clones were assembled by thousands of small start-ups and distributed through poster ads and [33] Some of them are still being street stalls. Over 50 such clone models existed. produced, such as the Pentagon and ATM Turbo. In India, Decibells Electronics introduced a licensed version of the Spectrum+ in 1986. Dubbed the "db Spectrum+", it did reasonably well in the Indian market and sold quite a few thousand until 1990 when [citation needed] the market died away.

Peripherals
Several peripherals for the Spectrum were marketed by Sinclair: the ZX Printer was [34] as the ZX Spectrum expansion bus was backwardsalready on the market, compatible with that of the ZX81. The ZX Interface 1 add-on module included 8 kB of ROM, an RS-232 serial port, a proprietary LAN interface (called ZX Net), and an interface for the connection of up to eight ZX Microdrives somewhat unreliable but speedy tape-loop cartridge storage [35][36] These were later used in a revised version on the devices released in July 1983. Sinclair QL, whose storage format was electrically compatible but logically incompatible with the Spectrum's. Sinclair also released the ZX Interface 2 which [37] added two joystick ports and a ROM cartridge port. There were also a plethora of third-party hardware addons. The better known of these included the Kempston joystick interface, the Morex Peripherals Centronics/RS-232 [38] Videoface Digitiser,[39] interface, the Currah Microspeech unit (speech synthesis), RAM pack, the Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum,[40] a drum machine, and the [41] a snapshot and disassembly tool from Romantic Robot. Keyboards were Multiface, [42] especially popular in view of the original's notorious "dead esh" feel.

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ZX Printer

ZX Interface 1

ZX Interface 2

ZX Microdrive

Kempston joystick interface

There were numerous disk drive interfaces, including the Abbeydale Designers/Watford Electronics SPDOS, Abbeydale Designers/Kempston KDOS and Opus Discovery. The SPDOS and KDOS interfaces were the rst to come bundled with oce productivity software (Tasword Word Processor, Masterle database and OmniCalc spreadsheet). This bundle, together with OCP's Stock Control, Finance and Payroll systems, introduced many small businesses to a streamlined, computerised operation. The most popular oppy disk systems (except in East Europe) were the DISCiPLE and +D systems released by Miles Gordon Technology in 1987 and 1988 respectively. Both systems had the ability to store memory images onto disk snapshots could later be used to restore the Spectrum to its exact previous state. They were also both compatible with the Microdrive command syntax, which made porting existing software much [43] simpler. During the mid-1980s, Telemap Group Ltd launched a fee-based service allowing users to connect their ZX Spectrums via a Prism Micro Products VTX5000 modem to a viewdata service known as Micronet 800, hosted by Prestel. This service pre-dated the World Wide Web, but oered many of the services now considered commonplace.
[citation needed]

Software
Main article: ZX Spectrum software As of August 2006, over 23,000 titles had been released for the Spectrum family. [44] While most of these are games, the library includes programming language

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implementations, databases (e.g. VU-File[45]), word [46] ), spreadsheets (e.g. processors (e.g. Tasword II [45] ), drawing and painting tools (e.g. OCP VU-Calc [47] Art Studio ), and even 3D-modelling (e.g. [48][49] ) and archaeology software[50] VU-3D amongst many other types.[51] The early Spectrum models' great success as a games platform came in spite of its lack of built-in joystick ports, primitive sound generation, and The space exploration game Elite colour support that was optimised for text [52] the hardware limitations of the platform display: [53] required a particular level of creativity from video game designers.

Distribution
Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on audio cassette tapes. The [54] and Spectrum was intended to work with a normal domestic cassette recorder, despite dierences in audio reproduction delity, the software loading process was quite reliable, if somewhat slow (by today's standards). Although the ZX Microdrive was initially greeted with good reviews, [55] it never took o as a distribution method due to worries about the quality of the cartridges and [56] Hence the main use became to complement tape releases, usually utilities piracy. and niche products like the Tasword word processing software and Trans Express, (a tape to microdrive copying utility). No games are known to be exclusively released on Microdrive. Despite the popularity of the DISCiPLE and +D systems, most software released for them took the form of utility software. The ZX Spectrum +3 enjoyed much more success when it came to commercial software releases on oppy disk. More than 700 titles were [44] released on 3-inch disk from 1987 to 1997. Software was also distributed through print media; magazines[57] and books.[58] The reader would type the Sinclair BASIC program listing into the computer by hand, run it, and could save it to tape for later use. The software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its assembly language counterparts. Magazines also printed long lists of checksummed hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools. Another software distribution method was to broadcast the audio stream from the cassette on another medium and have users record it onto an audio cassette themselves. In radio or television shows in many European countries, the host would describe a program, instruct the audience to connect a cassette tape recorder to the [59] radio or TV and then broadcast the program over the airwaves in audio format. Some magazines distributed 7" 33 rpm exidisc records, a variant of regular vinyl [60] These disks were known records which could be played on a standard record player.

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as oppy ROMs.

Copying and backup software

Many copiersutilities to copy programs from audio tape to another tape, microdrive [61] As a response to tapes, and later on disketteswere available for the Spectrum. this, publishers introduced copy protection measures to their software, including [62] Other methods for copy prevention were also used dierent loading schemes. including asking for a particular word from the documentation included with the gameoften a novella like in Silicon Dreams trilogyor another physical device distributed with the softwaree.g. Lenslok as used in Elite. Special hardware, such as Romantic Robot's Multiface, was able to dump a copy of the ZX Spectrum RAM to disk/tape at the press of a button, entirely circumventing the copy protection systems. Most Spectrum software has, in recent years, been converted to current media and is available for download. One popular program for converting Spectrum les from tape is Taper; it allows connecting a cassette tape player to the line in port of a sound card, [63] Once in les on orthrough a simple home-built deviceto the parallel port of a PC. a host machine, the software can be executed on one of many emulators, on virtually any platform available today. The largest on-line archive of ZX Spectrum software is World of Spectrum, with more than 21,000 titles. The legality of this practice is still in question and while a number of copyright holders have explicitly objected to the posting of their software, others have given their permission for their games to be archived as part of the preservation [64] project.

Community
The ZX Spectrum enjoyed a very strong community early on. Several dedicated magazines were released including Sinclair User (1982), Your Sinclair (1983) and CRASH (1984). Early on they were very technically oriented with type-in programs and machine code tutorials. Later on they became almost completely game-oriented. Several general contemporary computer magazines covered the ZX Spectrum in more or less detail. They included Computer Gamer, Computer and Video Games, Computing [65] Today, Popular Computing Weekly, Your Computer and The Games Machine. The Spectrum is aectionately known as the Speccy by elements of its fan following. [66] More than 80 electronic magazines existed, many in Russian. Most notable of them were AlchNews (UK), ZX-Format (Russia), and Spectrofon (Russia).

Notable developers
A number of current leading games developers and development companies began their careers on the ZX Spectrum, including David Perry of Shiny Entertainment, and Tim and Chris Stamper (founders of Ultimate Play The Game, now known as Rare, maker of many titles for Nintendo and Microsoft game consoles). Other prominent games developers include Julian Gollop (Chaos, Rebelstar, X-COM series), Matthew Smith
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(Manic Miner, Jet Set Willy), Jon Ritman (Match Day, Head Over Heels), Jonathan "Joa" Smith (Ping Pong, Batman: The Caped Crusader, Mikie, HyperSports), The Oliver Twins (the Dizzy series), Clive Townsend (Saboteur), Sandy White (Ant Attack, I of the mask), Pete Cooke (Tau Ceti), Mike Singleton (The Lords of Midnight,War In Middle Earth), and Alan Cox.[67] Although the 48K Spectrum's audio hardware was not as capable as chips in other popular 8-bit home computers of the era, computer musicians David Whittaker and Tim Follin produced notable multi-channel music for the machine. Je Minter ported some of his Commodore VIC-20 games [68] to the ZX Spectrum.

The rst screen of Treasure Island Dizzy by The Oliver Twins

Legacy
On 23 April 2012, a Google doodle honoured the 30th anniversary of the Spectrum. As it coincided with St George's Day, the logo was of St George ghting a dragon in an [69] 8-bit style.

See also
History of computing hardware (1960s-present) List of ZX Spectrum games ZX Spectrum graphic modes

References
1. ^ a b "How the Spectrum began a revolution" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology /6572711.stm) . BBC. 23 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6572711.stm. Retrieved 5 June 2007. 2. ^ a b Dickinson, Rick. "specLOGO02" (http://www.ickr.com/photos/9574086@N02 /697783938/in/set-72157600607571866/) . Sinclair Spectrum development. http://www.ickr.com/photos/9574086@N02/697783938/in/set-72157600607571866/. Retrieved 24 July 2007. 3. ^ Dickinson, Rick. "specModel01" (http://www.ickr.com/photos/9574086@N02 /696932215/in/set-72157600607571866/) . Sinclair Spectrum development. http://www.ickr.com/photos/9574086@N02/696932215/in/set-72157600607571866/. Retrieved 24 July 2007. 4. ^ Klooster, Erik. "SINCLAIR ZX SPECTRUM : the good, old 'speccy'" (http://computermuseum.50megs.com/brands/zxspectrum.htm) . Computer Museum. http://computermuseum.50megs.com/brands/zxspectrum.htm. Retrieved 19 April 2006. 5. ^ "Videogaming: The Odyssey". EDGE Magazine (Future Publishing): 76. January 2000. 6. ^ a b Owen, Chris. "ZX Spectrum 16K/48K" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/spec1648.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/spec1648.htm. Retrieved 14 September 2008. 7. ^ Williams, Chris (23 April 2007). "Sinclair ZX Spectrum: 25 today"

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8. 9.

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(http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2007/04/23/spectrum_zx_25/) . Register Hardware. Situation Publishing. http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2007/04/23/spectrum_zx_25/. Retrieved 14 September 2008. ^ Owen, Chris. "ZX Spectrum" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum /zxspectrum.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum /zxspectrum.htm. Retrieved 14 September 2008. ^ Vickers, Steven (1982). "Introduction" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual /zxmanchap1.html) . Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/) . Sinclair Research Ltd. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap1.html. Retrieved 23 August 2006. ^ a b Vickers, Steven (1982). "Colours" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual /zxmanchap16.html) . Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/) . Sinclair Research Ltd. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap16.html. Retrieved 23 August 2006. ^ EP patent 0107687 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=EP0107687) , Richard Francis Altwasser, "Display for a computer", issued 1988-07-06, assigned to Sinclair Research Ltd ^ Vickers, Steven (1982). "Basic programming concepts" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap2.html) . Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/) . Sinclair Research Ltd. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap2.html. Retrieved 19 September 2006. ^ a b "The Machines" (http://www.gondolin.org.uk/hchof/machinelist.html) . The Home Computers Hall of Fame. http://www.gondolin.org.uk/hchof/machinelist.html. Retrieved 20 May 2007. ^ "The High Street Spectrum" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8302/Pages/ZXComputing830200043.jpg) . ZX Computing: 43. February 1983. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8302/Pages/ZXComputing830200043.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ "News: Spectrum prices are slashed" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/015/news.htm) . Sinclair User (15): 13. June 1983. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/015/news.htm. Retrieved 15 August 2006. ^ Goodwin, Simon (September 1984). "Suddenly, it's the 64K Spectrum!" (http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr07/yr07_33.htm) . Your Spectrum (7): 3334. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr07/yr07_33.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2006. ^ Owen, Chris. "Spectrum 48K Versions" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/spec48versions.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair /computers/zxspectrum/spec48versions.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2006. ^ a b c Denham, Sue (December 1984). "The Secret That Was Spectrum+" (http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr10/yr10_a4.htm) . Your Spectrum (10): 104. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr10/yr10_a4.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2006. ^ a b Owen, Chris. "ZX Spectrum+" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/specplus.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/specplus.htm. Retrieved 21 August 2006. ^ "News: New Spectrum launch" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/033/news.htm) . Sinclair User (33): 11. December 1984. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/033/news.htm. Retrieved 19 August 2006. ^ Bourne, Chris (November 1985). "News: Launch of the Spectrum 128 in Spain" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/044/news.htm) . Sinclair User (44): 5.

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http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/044/news.htm. Retrieved 15 August 2006. 22. ^ (Spanish) Ministerio de Economa y Hacienda (BOE 211 de 3/9/1985), Real Decreto 1558/1985, de 28 de agosto, por el que se aclara el alcance del mnimo especco introducido en la subpartida 84.53.B.II del Arancel de Aduanas, por el Real Decreto 1215/1985 (http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex& id=1985/18847) . Rango: Real Decreto, Pginas: 27743 - 27744, Referencia: 1985/18847. 23. ^ (Spanish) Ministerio de Industria y Energa (BOE 179 de 27/7/1985), Real Decreto 1250/1985, de 19 de junio, por el que se establece la sujecin a especicaciones tcnicas de los terminales de pantalla con teclado, perifricos para entrada y representacin de informacin en equipo de proceso de datos (http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas /bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1985/15611) . Rango: Real Decreto, Pginas: 23840 - 23841, Referencia: 1985/15611. 24. ^ "Clive discovers games at last" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/049/128lnch.htm) . Sinclair User (49): 53. April 1985. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/049/128lnch.htm. Retrieved 20 August 2006. 25. ^ ZX Spectrum 128 Manual p. 9 (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128Manual /sp128p09.html) at World of Spectrum 26. ^ Phillips, Max (November 1986). "ZX Spectrum +2" (http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles /spectrumplustworeview.htm) . Your Sinclair (11): 47. http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles /spectrumplustworeview.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2006. 27. ^ Spectrum +3 Service Manual. AMSTRAD. p.18. 28. ^ Spital, Ivor. Sinclair ZX Spectrum +2A. AMSTRAD, 1987. p.354. 29. ^ Spectrum +2B/+3B Service Manual. AMSTRAD. 30. ^ South, Phil (July 1987). "It's here... the Spectrum +3" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue19/Pages/YourSinclair1900022.jpg) . Your Sinclair (17): 2223. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue19 /Pages/YourSinclair1900022.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. 31. ^ Amstrad (November 1987). "The new Sinclair has one big disk advantage" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=SinclairUser/Issue068/Pages /SinclairUser06800002.jpg) . Sinclair User (68): 23. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=SinclairUser/Issue068/Pages/SinclairUser06800002.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. 32. ^ Goodwin, Simon (April 1987). "SINCLAIRS Z88 Pandoras Box?" (http://www.crashonline.org.uk/39/z88.htm) . Crash (39). http://www.crashonline.org.uk /39/z88.htm. Retrieved 30 June 2011. 33. ^ Owen, Chris. "Clones and variants" (http://www.nvg.org/sinclair/computers/clones /clones.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.org/sinclair/computers/clones/clones.htm. Retrieved 26 October 2006. 34. ^ Owen, Chris. "ZX Printer" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/peripherals /zxprinter.htm) . Planet Sinclair. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/peripherals /zxprinter.htm. Retrieved 24 August 2006. 35. ^ "News: Some surprises in the Microdrive" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/018/news.htm) . Sinclair User (18): 15. September 1983. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/018/news.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2006. 36. ^ Adams, Stephen (October 1983). "Hardware World: Spectrum receives its biggest improvement" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/019/hardwre.htm) . Sinclair User (19): 2729. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/019/hardwre.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2006. 37. ^ "Hardware World: Sinclair cartridges may be out of step" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /021/hardwre.htm) . Sinclair User (21): 35. December 1983. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /021/hardwre.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2006. 38. ^ "Hardware World: Clear speech from Currah module" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /021/hardwre.htm) . Sinclair User (21): 40. December 1983. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /021/hardwre.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2006. 39. ^ Frey, Franco (February 1987). "Tech Niche: Videoface to Face" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue37/Pages

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/Crash3700086.jpg) . CRASH (37): 8687. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue37/Pages/Crash3700086.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ Bates, Jon (April 1986). "Tech Niche: SpecDrum" (http://www.crashonline.org.uk /27/specdrum.htm) . CRASH (27): 100. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/27/specdrum.htm. Retrieved 9 August 2007. ^ Frey, Franco (March 1986). "Tech Niche: Multifaceted device" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue26/Pages /Crash2600086.jpg) . CRASH (36): 86. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue26/Pages/Crash2600086.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ "Hardware World: Emperor Looks Good" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /031/hardwre.htm) . Sinclair User (31): 31. October 1984. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /031/hardwre.htm. Retrieved 30 October 2007. ^ Frey, Franco (March 1987). "Tech Niche: Pure Gospel" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue38/Pages/Crash3800082.jpg) . CRASH (38): 8283. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue38/Pages /Crash3800082.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ a b van der Heide, Martijn. "Archive!" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/archive.html) . World of Spectrum. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/archive.html. Retrieved 11 August 2006. ^ a b Pearce, Nick (October/November 1982). "Zap! Pow! Boom!" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages /ZXComputing821000075.jpg) . ZX Computing: 75. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000075.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ Wetherill, Steven (June 1984). "Tasword Two: The Word Processor" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue05/Pages /Crash0500126.jpg) . CRASH! (5): 126. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue05/Pages/Crash0500126.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ Gilbert, John (October 1985). "Art Studio" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk /043/sftwreb.htm) . Sinclair User (43): 28. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/043/sftwreb.htm. Retrieved 18 January 2007. ^ Carter, Alasdair (October/November 1983). "VU-3D" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000076.jpg) . ZX Computing: 7677. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing /Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000076.jpg. Retrieved 5 August 2008. ^ "Psion Vu-3D" (http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/Spectrum/vu-3d.htm) . http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/Spectrum/vu-3d.htm. Retrieved 18 January 2007. ^ Brown, Paul N.. "Pitcalc simple interactive coordinate & trigonometric calculation software" (http://www.pitcalc.com/) . http://www.pitcalc.com/. Retrieved 16 September 2008. ^ van der Heide, Martijn. "World of Spectrum" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /infoseekadv.cgi?type=Astro) . http://www.worldofspectrum.org /infoseekadv.cgi?type=Astro. Retrieved 16 September 2008. ^ Adamson, Ian; Richard Kennedy (30 October 1986). Sinclair and the "Sunrise" Technology: The Deconstruction of a Myth (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers /zxspectrum/spec_sst.htm) . Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-008774-5. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/spec_sst.htm. ^ McCandless, David (17 September 1998). "Retrospectrum" (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no /sinclair/sinclair/clive_dt170998.htm) . Daily Telegraph. http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair /sinclair/clive_dt170998.htm. ^ Vickers, Steven; and Bradbeer, Robin (1982). "6. Using the cassette recorder" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrumIntroduction/chapter_six.html) . Sinclair ZX Spectrum: Introduction (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrumIntroduction /contents.html) . Sinclair Research Ltd. p. 21. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /ZXSpectrumIntroduction/chapter_six.html. Retrieved 10 August 2007.
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55. ^ Frey, Franco (May 1984). "Epicventuring and Multiplayer Networking" (http://www.crashonline.org.uk/04/microdv.htm) . CRASH (4): 4647. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/04/microdv.htm. Retrieved 11 August 2007. 56. ^ Foot, Cathy (November 1985). "Microdrive revisited" (http://www.crashonline.org.uk /22/opinion.htm) . CRASH (22): 8. http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/opinion.htm. Retrieved 10 August 2006. 57. ^ Grimwood, Jim. "The Type Fantastic" (http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/typeins/typehome.htm) . http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/type-ins/typehome.htm. Retrieved 16 September 2008. 58. ^ van der Heide, Martijn. "Books" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/books.html) . World of Spectrum. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/books.html. Retrieved 17 September 2008. 59. ^ "News" (http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/016/news.htm) . Sinclair User (16): 17. July 1983. http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/016/news.htm. Retrieved 19 August 2006. 60. ^ Collins, Paul Equinox. "Spectrum references in popular music" (http://equ.in /ox/spectrum/music/) . http://equ.in/ox/spectrum/music/. Retrieved 16 September 2008. 61. ^ van der Heide, Martijn. "Sinclair Inforseek" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org /infoseekadv.cgi?type=Copy) . World of Spectrum. http://www.worldofspectrum.org /infoseekadv.cgi?type=Copy. Retrieved 18 September 2008. 62. ^ Barker, Andy. "ZX Spectrum Loading Schemes" (http://newton.sunderland.ac.uk /~specfreak/Schemes/schemes.html) . http://newton.sunderland.ac.uk/~specfreak /Schemes/schemes.html. Retrieved 18 September 2008. 63. ^ van der Heide, Martijn. "Taper" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/taper.html) . World of Spectrum. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/taper.html. Retrieved 12 September 2008. 64. ^ van der Heide, Martijn. "World of Spectrum Software Copyrights and Distribution Permissions" (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/permits/) . World of Spectrum. http://www.worldofspectrum.org/permits/. Retrieved 12 September 2008. 65. ^ "The Top Shelf magazines, comics and papers of the near past." (http://tv.cream.org /specialassignments/topshelf/arjcomp.htm) . TV Cream's Top Shelf. http://tv.cream.org /specialassignments/topshelf/arjcomp.htm. Retrieved 10 September 2008. 66. ^ "The YS Top 100 Speccy Games Of All Time (Ever!)" (http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles /ystop100.htm) . Your Sinclair (70): 31. October 1991. http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles /ystop100.htm. Retrieved 13 June 2007. 67. ^ Bezroukov, Nikolai. "Alan Cox: and the Art of Making Beta Code Work" (http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Cox/index.shtml) . Portraits of Open Source Pioneers. http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Cox/index.shtml. Retrieved 18 January 2007. 68. ^ Minter, Je. "Llamasoft History Part 8 - The Dawn of Llamasoft" (http://www.llamasoft.co.uk/lshistory8.php) . http://www.llamasoft.co.uk/lshistory8.php. Retrieved 26 September 2007. 69. ^ "St. George's Day / The 30th Anniversary of the ZX Spectrum" (http://www.google.com /doodles/st-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum) . Google. http://www.google.com/doodles/st-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum. Retrieved 8 May 2012.

External links
ZX Spectrum (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Sinclair/ZX_Spectrum/) at the Open Directory Project Online Games (http://www.zxspectrum.com.es/) ZX Spectrum Software and Games (http://www.theoldcomputer.com /roms/index.php?folder=Sinclair/Spectrum) World of Spectrum (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/) Page on site VRCP Soft for ZX Spectrum (http://vrcp.ru/zx.html)

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Planet Sinclair (http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum /zxspectrum.htm) The Incomplete Spectrum ROM Assembly and actual assembly listing (http://www.wearmouth.demon.co.uk/) Sinclair Spectrum development (http://www.ickr.com/photos/9574086@N02 /sets/72157600607571866/) The Anatomy/Dissection of a Spectrum +2B (http://deviate./~uridium/speccy /speccy.html) ZX Spectrum online emulator in Java (Symbol Shift -> Windows; Edit -> Escape) (http://www.zxspectrum.net/) ZX Spectrum Basic Handbook (http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/) iSpeccy. Online ZX Spectrum emulator in Javascript for iOS devices (iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch) (http://ispeccy.com/) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum& oldid=496587593" Categories: ZX Spectrum English inventions Home computers Products introduced in 1982 Sinclair Research This page was last modied on 8 June 2012 at 12:10. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-prot organization.

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