Distribution of the Earths Unfrozen Fresh Water

98.4%

1.4%

Of the liquid fresh water, 98.4% is groundwater, 1.4% is surface water and 0.2% is in the atmosphere.

Hydrologic Cycle Watershed Scale

Evapotranspiration Interception Infiltration Vadose Interflow Streams Precip Overland

GW recharge Groundwater Base flow

Porosity
Amount of void space Expressed as fraction or %

Porosity Depends on: sorting of grains (not grain size) degree of cementing degree of fracturing

Range of Porosity Values Unconsolidated deposits

Gravel Sand Silt Clay 25-40 25-50 35-50 40-70

Range of Porosity Values Rocks

Fractured basalt Karst limestone Sandstone Limestone, dolomite Shale Dense crystalline rock 5-50 5-50 5-30 0-20 0-10 0-5

Fractured crystalline rock 0-10

Permeability
Not the same as porosity Measured in units of length squared Large permeability results from: Large pores Connected pores Hydraulic Conductivity (K) Permeability with respect to water Measured in units of length/time

Aquifers and Aquitards

Aquifer: rock or deposits capable of supplying usable quantities of water Aquitard: rock or deposits not capable of...

Qualities of a Good Aquifer

High Porosity High Permeability Rock Types vs. Aquifer Quality: gravel => great! uncemented sandstone => good cemented sandstone => fair to poor shale => terrible

Unconsolidated Aquifers Glaciated terranes Till: sediment deposited by a glacier Basal till Meltout till Outwash: sediment deposited by glacial meltwater

Unconsolidated Aquifers Meandering alluvial system

Fetter

Unconsolidated Aquifers Tectonic valleys Intermontane basins

Fetter, Figure 9.6

Rock Aquifers
Sandstone 25% of all sedimentary rock 2 to 30% porosity Shale Aquitard Limestone Solution cavities

Mammoth Caves

Volcanic-Rock Aquifers
Fig. 7.6, Manning

Crystalline-Rock Aquifers
Intrusive igneous and metamorphic Fig. 7.6, Manning

Aquifers
Unconfined aquifer: aquifer with a water table as the upper boundary Water table: top of the saturated zone

Fig 10.2

Fig 10.4

Stream

Aquifers
Confined aquifer: aquifer sandwiched between two aquitards

Confined Aquifers

Fetter, Fig. 3.21b

Confined Aquifers

Fetter, Fig. 3.21b

Confined Aquifers

Fetter, Fig. 3.21c

Groundwater Flow

Hydraulic Head
Measure of waters energy Comprises elevation, pressure and velocity For groundwater, velocity is negligible Water flows from high head to low head

Hydraulic Head
In a Static System

p1 p2 z1 z2
z ref = 0

h1

h2

Total head (h) = Pressure head (p) + elevation head (z) 9 In a static system, h1 = h2

Groundwater Flow
Water table often follows topography Groundwater always flows from high head to low head Groundwater often flows from from high elevation to low elevation

Confined Aquifers

Potentiometric surface: represents total head

Fig. 7.25

Fig. 7.27, Manning

Exploratory well at Hueston Woods State Park, 1951 Well is flowing at a rate of 700 gallons per minute from a depth of 89 feet.

Fig 7.26, Manning

Darcys Law

h Q = KA l Q: discharge, volume/time A: cross sectional area h: drop in head l: distance between points h : head l gradient

Groundwater Velocity Velocity = K h ne l

ne is effective porosity Flow velocities => 15 cm/day (~5 km/yr) in some gravel beds Can be as much as 100 m/d in rare cases About 1 to 2 m/d in Oxfords aquifer Typical velocity in clay is < 1 mm/yr

Fig 10.7

Fig 10.7

Fig 10.7

Subsidence
Leaning Tower of Pisa - built on unstable floodplain seds - leaning due to compaction (1170s AD) - severe leaning due to overpumping of groundwater (1960s)

Salt Water Intrusion

Affects islands and coastal areas Fresh water lens formed by density difference

Fig 10.11

Fig 10.13

Storage
Discharge: amount of water flowing out Recharge: amount of water flowing in Water level maintained when recharge = discharge