What are scattering parameters?

"Scattering" is an idea taken from billiards, or pool. One takes a cue ball and fires it up the table at a collection of other balls. After the impact, the energy and momentum in the cue ball is divided between all the balls involved in the impact. The cue ball "scatters" the stationary target balls and in turn is deflected or "scattered" by them. In a microwave circuit, the equivalent to the energy and momentum of the cue ball is the amplitude and phase of the incoming wave on a transmission line. (A rather loose analogy, this). This incoming wave is "scattered" by the circuit and its energy is partitioned between all the possible outgoing waves on all the other transmission lines connected to the circuit. The scattering parameters are fixed properties of the (linear) circuit which describe how the energy couples between each pair of ports or transmission lines connected to the circuit. Formally, s-parameters can be defined for any collection of linear electronic components, whether or not the wave view of the power flow in the circuit is necessary. They are algebraically related to the impedance parameters (z-parameters), also to the admittance parameters (y-parameters) and to a notional characteristic impedance of the transmission lines. A visual demonstration of the meaning of scattering may be given by throwing a piece of chalk at a blackboard....

Definitions.
An n-port microwave network has n arms into which power can be fed and from which power can be taken. In general, power can get from any arm (as input) to any other arm (as output). There are thus n incoming waves and n outgoing waves. We also observe that power can be reflected by a port, so the input power to a single port can partition between all the ports of the network to form outgoing waves. Associated with each port is the notion of a "reference plane" at which the wave amplitude and phase is defined. Usually the reference plane associated with a certain port is at the same place with respect to incoming and outgoing waves. The n incoming wave complex amplitudes are usually designated by the n complex quantities an, and the n outgoing wave complex quantities are designated by the n complex quantities bn. The incoming wave quantities are assembled into an n-vector A and the outgoing wave quantities into an n-vector B. The outgoing waves are expressed in terms of the incoming waves by the matrix equation B = SA where S is an n by n square matrix of complex numbers called the "scattering matrix". It completely determines the behaviour of the network. In general, the elements of this matrix, which are termed "s-parameters", are all frequency-dependent.

For example, the matrix equations for a 2-port are

b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2 b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2

And the matrix equations for a 3-port are b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2 + s13 a3 b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2 + s23 a3 b3 = s31 a1 + s32 a2 + s33 a3

The wave amplitudes an and bn are obtained from the port current and voltages by the relations a = (V + ZoI)/(2 sqrt(2Zo)) and b = (V - ZoI)/(2 sqrt(2Zo)). Here, a refers to an if V is Vn and I In for the nth port. Note the sqrt(2) reduces the peak value to an rms value, and the sqrt(Zo) makes the amplitude normalised with respect to power, so that the incoming power = aa* and the outgoing power is bb*. A one-port scattering parameter s is merely the reflection coefficient gamma, and as we have seen we can relate gamma to the load impedance zL = ZL/Zo by the formula gamma = (zL1)/(zL+1). Similarly, given an n by n "Z-matrix" for an n-port network, we obtain the S matrix from the formula S = (Z-I)(Z+I)^-1, by post-multiplying the matrix (Z-I) by the inverse of the matrix (Z+I). Here, I is the n by n unit matrix. The matrix of z parameters (which has n squared elements) is the inverse of the matrix of y parameters.

2-port scattering matrix.

In the case of a microwave network having two ports only, an input and an output, the s-matrix has four s-parameters, designated
s11 s21 s12 s22

These four complex quantites actually contain eight separate numbers; the real and imaginary parts, or the modulus and the phase angle, of each of the four complex scattering parameters. Let us consider the physical meaning of these s-parameters. If the output port 2 is terminated, that is, the transmission line is connected to a matched load impedance giving rise to no reflections, then there is no input wave on port 2. The input wave on port 1 (a1) gives rise to a reflected wave at port 1 (s11a1) and a transmitted wave at port 2 which is absorbed in the termination on 2. The transmitted wave size is (s21a1). If the network has no loss and no gain, the output power must equal the input power and so in this case |s11|^2 + |s21|^2 must equal unity. We see therefore that the sizes of S11 and S21 determine how the input power splits between the possible output paths. NOTE s21 relates power OUT of 2 to power IN to 1, not vice versa as it is easy to think at first sight. Clearly, if our 2-port microwave network represents a good amplifier, we need s11 rather small and s21 quite big, let us say 10 for a 20dB amplifier. In general, the s-parameters tell us how much power "comes back" or "comes out" when we "throw power at" a network. They also contain phase shift information.

Reciprocity
Reciprocity has to do with the symmetry of the s-matrix. A reciprocal s-matrix has symmetry about the leading diagonal. Many networks are reciprocal. In the case of a 2-port network, that means that s21 = s12 and interchanging the input and output ports does not change the transmission properties. A transmission line section is an example of a reciprocal 2-port. A dual directional coupler is an example of a reciprocal 4-port. In general for a reciprocal n-port sij = sji. Amplifiers are non-reciprocal; they have to be, otherwise they would be unstable. Ferrite devices are deliberately non-reciprocal; they are used to construct isolators, phase shifters, circulators, and power combiners.

Examples of scattering matrices.

One-port S-matrix
This is a matrix consisting of a single element, the scattering parameter or reflection coefficient. You may think of it as a 1 by 1 matrix; one row and one column.

A matched transmission line, s11 = 0 A short circuit, at the short, s11 = 1 angle -180 degrees The input to a 0.2 lambda line feeding a short cicuit, s11 = 1 angle -324 degrees Your turn. A normalised load 2+j1? Your turn again. The input to a transmission line of length 20.35 lambda connected to a normalised load 2+j1?

Two port S-matrices

These are 2 by 2 matrices having the following s parameters; s11 s12 s21 s22.

A 0.1 lambda length of transmission line

s11 = 0 s21 = 1 angle -36 s12 = 1 angle -36 degrees s22 = 0 s12 = small s22 = 0 s12 = 0.0891 some angle s22 = 0

A 10dB amplifier, matched on input and ouput ports

s11 = 0 s21 = 3.16 angle -theta s11 = 0 s21 = 0.891 some angle

An isolator having 1dB forward loss, 21 dB backward loss, matched on ports 1 and 2

Your turn. A 9 cm length of waveguide of cross sectional dimensions 2.5 cms by 1.8 cms at a frequency of 8GHz Your turn again. The waveguide above has a capacitative iris placed mid way along it. Assume that 30% of the power incident on the iris gets through it, and 70% is reflected. Hint. represent the normalised load admittance of the iris as y = 1 + js and calculate s for 70% power reflection. That will give you the phase shift on reflection as well.

Three port S-matrices

These are 3 by 3 matrices having the following s parameters
s11 s21 s31 s12 s22 s32 s13 s23 s33

Your turn. Write down the s matrix for a perfect circulator with -70 degrees of phase shifts between successive ports. Your turn again. A coaxial cable is connected in a Y arrangement with each arm

12.3 wavelengths long. At the junction, the cable arms are all connected in parallel. Write down its S matrix and comment on this method of splitting power from a TV down lead to serve two television sets.

Stability.

If a 1-port network has reflection gain, its s-parameter has size or modulus greater than unity. More power is reflected than is incident. The power usually comes from a dc power supply; Gunn diodes can be used as amplifiers in combination with circulators which separate the incoming and outgoing waves. Suppose the reflection gain from our 1-port is s11, having modulus bigger than unity. If the 1-port is connected to a transmission line with a load impedance having reflection coefficient g1, then oscillations may well occur if g1s11 is bigger than unity. The round trip gain must be unity or greater at an integer number of (2 pi) radians phase shift along the path. This is called the "Barkhausen criterion" for oscillations. Clearly if we have a Gunn source matched to a matched transmission line, no oscillations will occur because g1 will be zero. If an amplifier has either s11 or s22 greater than unity then it is quite likely to oscillate or go unstable for some values of source or load impedance. If an amplifier (large s21) has s12 which is not negligibly small, and if the output and input are mismatched, round trip gain may be greater than unity giving rise to oscillation. If the input line has a generator mismatch with reflection coefficient g1, and the load impedance on port 2 is mismatched with reflection coefficient g2, potential instability happens if g1g2s12s21 is greater than unity.

Properties of waves.

The complex amplitude of a wave may be defined in three ways. It can be a voltage amplitude, a current amplitude, or a normalised amplitude whose squared modulus equals the power conveyed by the wave. In each case we represent the wave amplitude by a complex phasor whose length is proportional to the size of the wave and whose phase angle tells us the relative phase with respect to the origin or zero of the time variable. A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers. These can be the magnitude ("size") and phase ("timing") or real and imaginary parts. Two numbers are needed in

general to specify an alternating voltage or quantity unambiguously, assuming the frequency is already known. Waves travelling from generator to load have complex amplitudes usually written V+ (voltage) I+ (current) or a (normalised power amplitude). Waves travelling from load to generator have complex amplitudes usually written V(voltage) I- (current) or b (normalised power amplitude). On a lossless transmission line the modulus or size of the wave complex amplitude is independent of position along the line; the wave is neither growing not attenuating with distance and time. On the other hand, the phase angle of the wave complex amplitude varies as we move along the transmission line. In the case of positive-travelling waves, the phase decreases with increasing distance from the generator; whereas for negative-travelling waves the phase advances with increasing distance from the generator. The complex reflection coefficient (gamma), or scattering parameter (s), or sparameter, for reflections from a load, is defined as gamma = s = b/a = V-/V+ = -I-/I+. These three ratios have the same value. The phase angle of gamma or s depends on where along the line we measure it; it is usually taken to be the value at the load impedance attachment point. However it can be easily calculated at other points along the line, and from the value at another point the local "normalised impedance" z presented (by the load with the length of line attached to it) at the measurement point, may be calculated from z = (1+s)/(1-s). On lossless lines the magnitude of gamma is independent of the point of measurement as the magnitudes of the waves do not depend on distance. The "wavelength" of a wave is the distance we have to move along the transmission line for the sinusoidal voltage to repeat its pattern. It is the "spatial period" of the wave. The "propagation constant" beta or "wave-vector" k of the wave is the equivalent of the angular frequency, but with respect to the distance variable. Thus the angular frequency is defined as (2 pi)/period, and the propagation constant is defined as (2 pi)/wavelength. Thus the phase angle of a forward wave depends on distance x as (beta x). In some texts the concept of "propagation constant" is extended to the case of complex beta. In this case, the real part of the complex beta is the quantity equivalent to (2 pi)/wavelength, and the imaginary part of the complex beta represents the attenuation. However, you cannot define a "period" for an attenuating wave as the

wave voltage waveform does not repeat as you move along the transmission line, so this extension is not as obvious as it appears at first sight. The "velocity factor" times the speed of light in vacuum equals the speed of waves on the transmission line. Typically for coaxial cable the velocity factor is about 2/3, or 0.67-0.7. It is higher in semi-air-spaced coax. That puts the wave velocity at about 20 cm per nanosecond on this cable.

Definitions to do with properties of transmission lines.

The "direction of propagation" is the direction of power flow; either from generator to load (forward) or from load to generator (backward or reflected). The "characteristic impedance" (Zo) is the ratio of voltage to current in a forward travelling wave, assuming there is no backward wave. It is a "lossless real impedance" because any power delivered to it can be recovered later in time. A lossy real impedance is a resistance; power delivered to it appears as heat and cannot then be recovered. The "normalised impedance", a dimensionless number z=Z/Zo, is the ratio of the actual impedance Z in ohms to the characteristic impedance in ohms. Similarly, the "characteristic admittance" Yo = 1/Zo Siemens, and the "normalised admittance" = 1/z = (Zo)/Z. The "capacitance per unit length" (C) is the total capacitance of a cable, measured at low frequency, divided by the total length of the cable. Similarly for the "Inductance per unit length" (L). The characteristic impedance turns out to be equal to sqrt(L/C). The "wave velocity" divides into two types; "phase velocity" and "group velocity". These are the same on a coaxial or two wire line. The phase velocity is the speed with which a point of constant phase in the wave appears to move. Thus, for example, if we find a point at which V+=0 in a forward travelling wave and track it in time it moves at the wave phase velocity. The energy in the wave is moving at the "group velocity" which can be different in waveguide from the phase velocity. The modulations on a signal travel at the group velocity.

On coaxial cable or two wire line, the velocity has numerical value and units (SI) equal to 1/sqrt(LC). The "return loss" in dB is the amount by which the returned signal power from a load reflection is less than the incident signal power. Numerically it is equal to -20 log modulus(gamma) where the log is to base 10. The "Voltage Standing Wave Ratio" (VSWR) is the ratio of maximum ac voltage amplitude, as we move along the line, to the minimum ac voltage amplitude (which occurs 1/4 wavelength away from the maximum) and is related to the magnitude of the reflection coefficient |gamma| by VSWR = (1+|gamma|)/(1-|gamma|) or (1+|s|)/(1|s|). It is a sensitive indicator of mismatch on a line. For example, if 1% of the incident power is reflected from a certain load, then |s|^2 = 1/100 and |s| = 1/10 so that the VSWR = 1.1/0.9 = 1.2 about. Of course if no power is reflected at all then |s| = 0 and the VSWR = 1.

Power flow on transmission lines

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Transmission line notes.

Wave amplitudes and power flow.

The forward wave complex voltage amplitude is described by the complex algebraic term V+. The modulus, or size, of this amplitude is written |V+|. For sinusoidal signals, the rms voltage in the forward wave is |V+| (1/sqrt[2]). It conveys power in the positive x direction, and the power flow is |V+||V+|/2Zo watts. Similarly, the power flow in the negative x direction, that is from load to generator, is |V-||V-|/2Zo watts. The ratio V-/V+ is the "complex reflection coefficient," gamma. The ratio of return power to forward power is therefore the (modulus of gamma) squared.

The "return loss" is the number of dB by which the reflected power is lower than the forward power. A return loss of 3 dB means that half the power is reflected, and half absorbed in the load. A return loss of 20 dB means that only 1% of power is returned, and 99% is absorbed in the load. Remember, power has to go somewhere. If it isn't absorbed it must be reflected. The difference between forward and reflected power flow is the power delivered to the load.

Wave amplitudes in terms of total line voltage and current.

We have the following: total line voltage V = V+ + V-, is the total voltage on the line and it is the sum of the forward and backward wave complex voltage amplitudes, taking account of any phase shifts between the forward and backward waves. This is why the amplitudes have to be expressed as COMPLEX amplitudes, and we have to add up two complex numbers. In the Argand diagram this is done vectorially; you can think of the forward and backward wave voltage amplitudes as being phasors. Similarly, the total line current I = I+ + I- is the sum of the complex amplitudes of forward and backward wave current. We also have, as discussed in the lectures, for the forward wave, V+ = Zo I+ but for the backward wave, since current is measured against the wave propagation direction, V- = -Zo I-. A little algebra shows V+ = (V+ + V-)/2 + (V+ - V-)/2 This process is known as "matrixing" and it allows us to write V+ in terms of the total voltage and current on the line. You can quickly see by substitution that V+ = (V+ZoI)/2. Similarly you can show that V- = (V-ZoI)/2. We can now determine the power delivered to the load. From the results above, the power into the load is (|V+||V+| - |V-||V-|)/(2Zo), ie the difference between forward and backward wave powers. Since there may be phase shifts between the current and voltage, one has to take these into account in forming the complex amplitudes V+ZoI and V-ZoI.

Exercise for the reader. For a load complex impedance ZL = R + jX, which sets the voltage and current on the line as V = ZL I , find the power delivered to the load impedance and show that it is equal to |I|.|I|.R/2 as expected.

A numerical example.
A 50 ohm transmission line is connected to a load impedance 75 + j 60 ohms. The forward wave voltage rms value on the line is 25 volts. Calculate the power delivered to the resistive part of the load impedance. Calculate the rms current in the impedance, and the reflected wave voltage rms size. Calculate the peak voltages in the forward and backward wave, and by adding and subtracting these determine the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) which is the ratio of peak ac voltage on the line to minimum ac voltage on the line as we move along the line. Calculate the return loss in decibels. Assuming the generator has internal impedance 50 ohms, calculate the power dissipated in the generator's internal impedance, if it is connected at a voltage standing wave maximum. Calculate the efficiency of this method of transmitting power from generator to load. (Note, the efficiency = power delivered to the load divided by total generator output power.) Now repeat the efficiency and power calculations if the generator is connected at a VSWR minimum.

Outline answer to the problem.

The load impedance is 75 + j60 and Zo is 50, so (ZL+Zo) is 125+j60 and (ZL-Zo) is 25+j60. So the reflection coefficient gamma = (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) works out at 0.3498 + j0.3121 to 4 significant figures . The modulus squared of gamma is then 0.2198 and so 21.98% of the forward wave power is reflected. [Note, these calculations are simple with a calculator which allows complex number operations. I get on very well with my HP 32S which is a standard rpn calculator, particularly well-adapted to the complex number multiplications and divisions, and conversions between polar and rectangular forms.]

The forward wave power flow is 25*25/50 = 12.5 watts, so the reflected power is 0.2198 times 12.5 or 2.747 watts. The difference appears in the 75 ohms of the load. Thus there is 9.753 watts into the 75 ohms which represents a total load rms current of 0.3606 amps. The modulus of gamma is sqrt(0.2198) or 0.4688 and so the voltage rms in the reflected wave is 25 times 0.4688 or 11.72 volts. The peak voltage in the forward wave is sqrt(2) times 25 or 35.36 volts; the peak voltage in the backward wave is sqrt(2) times 11.72 or 16.57 volts. The sum of these is 51.93 volts which is the largest voltage between the conductors anywhere along the line. The difference is 18.79 volts and the VSWR is 51.93/18.79 = 2.764. The size of the rms current in the reflected wave is (rms voltage)/(line impedance), or 11.72/50 = 0.2344 amps. If the generator is connected at a VSWR maximum, the voltages add in phase but the currents add "out of phase." Therefore they subtract. The total rms current in the generator source internal impedance (50 ohms) is therefore 0.5 - 0.2344 amps. We note the forward wave current is 0.5 amps rms, 25 volts divided by 50 ohms characteristic impedance. The source impedance current of 0.2656 amps is squared and multiplied by the 50 ohms source impedance to give 3.527 watts of power dissipated in the generator's internal resistance. The power in the load was 9.753 watts, so the overall transmission efficiency is (9.753)/(9.753+3.527) or 73.44% If we had connected the generator at a VSWR minimum the currents would have added and the voltages subtracted. The total current in the 50 ohms internal generator impedance would have been 0.7344 amps, and that would be dissipating 26.97 watts in this impedance. The efficiency would have dropped to (9.753)/(9.753+26.97) or 26.56%. The moral of this tale is that the length of cable connecting the generator to the load makes a critical engineering difference to the efficiency of power transmission, in cases where there is a mismatch at the load end of the cable. We shall see later on how to match a load impedance to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line by adding lossless tuning stubs. However, this will not necessarily result in the highest efficiency of power transmission from generator to load; such efficiency would only be 50% for a matched load of 50 ohms in our example, and we have seen that we can do better than that.

Stub matching

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Transmission line notes and more links.

A single series stub match example, with figures

Why match?

Matching the impedance of a network to the impedance of a transmission line has two principal advantages. First, all the incident power is delivered to the network. Second, the generator is usually designed to work into an impedance close to common transmission line impedances. If it does so it is better behaved, the load impedance has no reactive part which can pull the generator frequency, and the VSWR on the line is unity or close to unity so the line length is immaterial and the line connecting the generator to the load is non-resonant.

Single stub matching.

If you look at the SMITH chart you will find a circle of constant real impedance r=1 which goes through the open circuit point and the centre of the chart. If you plot any arbitrary impedance on the SMITH chart and follow round at constant radius towards the generator, you must cross the r=1 circle somewhere. This transformation at constant radius represents motion along the transmission line towards the generator. One complete circuit of the SMITH chart represents a travel of one half wavelength

towards the generator. At this intersection point your generalised arbitrary load impedance r + jx has transformed to 1 + jx', so at least the real part of the impedance equals the characteristic impedance of the line. Note x' is different from x in general. At this point you cut the line and add a pure reactance -jx'. The total impedance looking into the sum of the line impedance and -jx' is therefore 1 + jx' -jx' = 1 and the line is matched.

Why stubs?

Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line intended to produce a pure reactance at the attachment point, for the line frequency of interest. Any value of reactance can be made, as the stub length is varied from zero to half a wavelength. Again, look at the SMITH chart and find the outer circle where the modulus of the reflection coefficient is one. On this circle are the SHORT and OPEN points, and all values of positive and negative reactance. The resistance is zero everywhere. To generate a specified reactance, start at a short circuit (or maybe an open) and follow around towards the generator until the desired reactance is obtained. Cut the stub this number of wavelengths long. It is important to keep the total stub length as short as possible, if wider bandwidths are required. Every time you add a half wavelength to the stub length the reactance of the stub comes back to the same value. It is good design practice to make stubs in the range 0 to 0.5 wavelengths long. However, this may require an impractically short stub, so then one can make the stub just a little over 0.5 wavelengths.

Short or open stubs?

If one is allowed to use either short or open stubs at will, one can always keep the total stub length in the range 0-0.25 wavelengths. A length of transmission line of 0.25 wavelengths takes us half way round the SMITH chart and transforms an open into a short, or vice versa. On microstrip it is usually easier to leave stubs open circuit,

for constructional reasons. On coax line or parallel wire line, a short circuit stub has less radiation from the ends: it is difficult to make a perfect non-radiating open circuit as there are always some end effects on the line.

Design procedure.

You are told, or find out, the load impedance ZL and the transmission line characteristic impedance Zo. Calculate the normalised impedance z=(ZL/Zo). Plot it on the SMITH chart. You are told the frequency and the velocity factor of the line. Calculate the wavelength in metres. (or cm). Follow the circle of constant radius on the SMITH chart towards the generator until the locus crosses the r=1 circle. Measure the number of wavelengths along the perimeter of the SMITH chart between the z point originally plotted, and the r=1 circle intersection. This tells you how far from the load to place your stub. Read off from the r=1 intersection the reactance x' value. Starting from a short (or open) follow the r=0 circle around the outside of the SMITH chart until you come to a point of reactance -x'. Measure the number of wavelengths this represents from short/open end towards the generator. Cut your stub this long. The stub is placed in series with one of the transmission line conductors. In coax this may be difficult to do technically. One therefore often resorts to shunt stub matching, where the stub and the original transmission line are connected in parallel. It is easier then to work in admittances. We notice that the SMITH chart can be used as an admittance chart merely by rotating it through 180 degrees. Normalised resistance becomes normalised conductance; normalised reactance becomes normalised susceptance. Admittances in parallel add; the short circuit point has infinite admittance and the open circuit point zero admittance. The design procedure is the same as for series stubs.

Double stub tuner matching.

Suppose that the load impedance changes. Adjusting a single stub tuner is very difficult. One has to remove the stub, remake the line where the break was, and calculate the new stub length and point of attachment. We can use two stubs permanently attached to the line at fixed points of attachment, and tune by altering the stub lengths. Two values have to be matched (r and x) and we have two variables; the length of each stub. As before, the generator-end stub has reactance -jx' and is attached at a point where the line impedance, including the effect of the other stub at its fixed point of attachment, is 1+jx'. Transforming the unit r=1 circle towards the load until one reaches the load-end stub attachment, the circle r=1 transforms to another circle, call it "B", touching the outside of the SMITH chart, and also passing through its centre. The load impedance, when transformed towards the generator up to the load-end stub position, will be a generalised impedance ZL' different from ZL. The effect of the load-end stub is to add reactance x" to ZL' so that the impedance value ZL'+jx" lies on the circle "B" above. We chose the length of the stub to make x" the required value for this to happen. If we write ZL'=r'+jx' then the effect of adding the stub is to move the reactance j(x'+x") along the constant r' curve depending on the size of x".

Triple stub tuners and E-H tuners.

It is just possible for the r' curve not to intersect the circle "B", in which case a double stub match is not possible for this value of load impedance, and stub placements. Generalised adjustable tuners are therefore designed with three stubs, which are spaced at unequal intervals. Such a device is called a "Triple Stub Tuner". Sliding shorts are easily arranged in coax or waveguide. In waveguide only, there is a special type of tuner called an E-H tuner. This has shunt and series side arms consisting of sliding shorts, attached at the same point along the guide. There is no equivalent in 2-conductor transmission line for geometrical reasons. An E-H tuner can always match any load impedance.

Some comments based on feedback.

Stub matching is only desirable for relatively low fractional bandwidths. For wider bandwidth matching a multi-section quarter wave transformer can be used, or a tapered line. Impedance matching may be carried out using the SMITH chart for calculations and design, and lumped components taking the place of lengths of transmission line. It is possible to make undesirable reflections by using a "wrong" stub match, so care must be taken in applying stub matching in high power (e.g. transmitting) applications. It is always wise to measure the match before applying significant input power. In antenna matching situations significant mismatch can arise from alterations to the near-field environment of the antenna over time. Thus if a new antenna is added to an existing mast, it is always wise to check the matching of the pre-existing antennas. There are practical difficulties at mm wavelengths, eg on microstrip at above 20GHz. Here, the precision of adjustment of the lengths of the stubs needs to be +/- 0.01 wavelengths for good quality matching. At 5mm wavelength this is a precision of +/50 microns. There are also practical difficulties at high |gamma| (reflection coefficient magnitude). Here the purpose of the stubs is to generate an equal and opposite reflection to cancel out the reflection from the nearly completely mismatched load. Clearly, to get effective cancellation, the stubs must be very precisely chosen and constructed, and the fringing-field effects become important to the point that they can dominate the design. A standard SMITH chart calculation as in this page is then unlikely to be very effective.