V.

Basic Sentence Configurations / Patterns The constituents which make up a sentence enter certain well-defined grammatical relations, mainly materialized as relations between the predicate and the NPs placed on its right and on its left. NP subject + VP predicate + NP object

There are three basic types of sentence configurations ( copulative, non-copulative intransitive, and non-copulative transitive); they are dictated by the properties of the verb. B.1. Copulative (Predicate) Sentence Configurations are predicated by copulative/ link verbs such as be, seem, appear, turn, become, grow, etc. Three basic patterns will be mentioned here. (1) [NP] [BE + Adj.P.] Jack is tired. The Subject Noun Phrase (SNP) may be expressed by: A simple NP: The weather is fine. A coordinated NP: Mary & John are clever. If the predicative is expressed by an evaluative adjective (e.g. important, necessary, advisable, recommendable, etc.), then the SNP is expressed by a finite clause introduced by THAT which includes a verb in the Synthetic / Analytical Subjunctive or in the Indicative (mainly in colloquial English). The clause occurs after the main verb in the surface structure (as a result of extraposition) and is introduced by the formal subject IT. e.g. That I (should) know your answer is important. (Deep structure) It is important that I (should) know your answer. (Extraposition and IT insertion) If the predicative is expressed by an adjectival phrase such as (un)likely, certain, sure and the subject is a clause, the same Extraposition & IT insertion rules may apply. e.g. That John will understand is certain. It is certain that John will understand. An extra rule may also be applied. This rule is the so-called Subject Subject Raising , which moves the subject of the subordinate into the main clause, with the same function. John is certain to understand. When the Subject of such verbs is unspecified in the deep structure, in the surface structure the IT insertion rule is obligatory. This happens whenever sentences refer to weather conditions, time, natural phenomena, etc. e.g. It is cold/ early.

(2) [NP] [BE + NP] She is a student.

If the predicative NP expresses or suggests an evaluation (pleasure, necessity, fun, no good, no use, etc.), the subject NP is expressed by a finite or a non-finite clause; extraposition & IT insertion are applied. e.g. That you should know English nowadays is a necessity. It is a necessity that you should know English nowadays. To know such details is of no use. It is of no use to know such details. The predicative NP may be expressed by a clause, be it finite or non-finite. e.g. The idea is that we would like to talk to her. His hobby is collecting/ to collect stamps. Both the subject and the predicative NPs may be expressed by clauses. e.g. What Id like to know is whether it is break time.

(3) [NP] [BE + Adj.P. + PNP] He is specialised in Chemistry. The VP has one more constituent, i.e. a PNP functioning as: I.O. marked by the prepositions TO / FOR e.g. It was quite surprising to me. The rule was easy for her. Prep.O. marked by other prepositions, such as in, of, with, on, etc. e.g. I am aware of your difficulties. He is specialised in Chemistry. They were happy with my acting. The Prep.O. may be expressed by a clause; the preposition is deleted whenever the clause is introduced by [THAT] or is expressed by an infinitival construction. e.g. I'm aware that you have difficulties. They were happy to see me act. (with) The Gerundial Clause retains the deep structure preposition. I'm aware of his having difficulties. e.g. (OF]

B.2. Non-Copulative Intransitive (Predicate) Sentence Configurations These configurations are predicated by meaningful intransitives, including the existential BE. (1) [NP] [V] e.g. The train has arrived.She is sleeping. This configuration optionally includes Adverbial modifiers of various kinds (time, place, purpose, etc.) expressed by NPs, PNPs, AdvPs or Adverbial clauses. e.g. James arrived last night/ in the evening.. The dog is barking loudly. They are working hard in the factory now.

The verbs seem and happen take a complement clause as subject. The Subject Clause usually undergoes extraposition and may undergo subject-subject raising which lead to surface structures such as:

e.g.

That prices will go down seems. It seems that prices will go down. Prices seem to go down. That Mary was absent happened. It happened that Mary was absent. Mary happened to be absent.

Some sentences are predicated by verbs that obligatorily take a [+ set] subject (X and Y) The car and the bus collided. The members of the committee conferred.

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With weather verbs, the unspecified deep structure subject is realised in the surface by It Insertion. It rained heavily yesterday.

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(2) [NP] [V + PNP] This configuration contains an obligatory PNP which can function as: I.O. (add to, hope for, object to, refer to, etc) e.g. They submitted to the enemy. The disease yielded to treatment. Prep.O. (approve of, insist on, believe in, complain of, hint at, think of, etc ) e.g. The river abounds in fish. We decided against a holiday in Wales. Can I rely on you? The prepositional verbs which take Prep. Objects allow passivisation. He can be relied on / upon. The blue dress was decided on. A subgroup of the same verbs may take a complement clause functioning as Prep.O. The preposition will be deleted. e.g. I insisted on our coming earlier. I insisted that we should come earlier. e.g.

(3) [NP] [V + PNP1 + PNP2] PNP1 can function as:

I.O. e.g. e.g. I shall talk to him about this matter. (I.O. Prep.O.) I have quarrelled with him about it. (Prep.O. Prep.O.) Prep.O. [PNP2] can only function as a Prep.O. B.3. Non-Copulative Transitive (Predicate) Sentence Configurations

These configurations are predicated by transitive verbs. (1) [NP] [V + NP] The NP following the verb functions as a DO. This is the configuration specific to monotransitives (admire, catch, complete, achieve, hit, hear, kill, raise, use, etc ) e.g. Peter broke the cup. I know the answer. I love all my students. I hate indifferent people. The passive transformation is possible in most of the cases, except for some relational verbs (have, owe, resemble, lack, cost). e.g. *A car is owned by me. *The cat is had by Jack. In case the Subject NP is co-referential with the D.O. NP, the latter is replaced by reflexive pronouns. e.g. Mary cut Mary, Mary cut herself.

With some verbs, the object can be deleted. She was reading a book. She was reading.

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The D.O. may also be expressed by a THAT Clause, an Infinitival Clause or, sometimes, a Gerundial Clause. I know that you enjoy it. They like to read thrillers. The knife needs sharpening. Indirect Questions/ interrogatives may also function as D.O. She didn't know who the man was. He reads books very quickly. I ate ten oranges last night. She is peeling potatoes in the living room. AdvPs, NPs or PNPs functioning as adverbials may occur optionally in such constructions.

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(2) [NP] [V + NP + PNP] (Prepositions: TO / FOR) The NP following the V functions as a DO while the PNP functions as an IO. This configuration is specific to ditransitives. The IO expresses either the beneficiary of the verb event ( buy, find, make, order, cook, keep, prepare, etc ), the recipient (give, offer, hand, lend, promise, grant, pass, rent, fetch, forward, show, send, tell, etc) or both (read, write, sing, do, play, leave, etc) e.g. He showed the town to his friends. I offered some flowers to the girl. I bought a fur coat for Kate. Most of these verbs allow the following transformations:

The Dative Transformation, i.e. the movement of the I.O. in front of the D.O. and the deletion of the dative prepositional marker. e.g. He offered some flowers to the girl. He offered the girl some flowers.

With verbs such as answer, ask, teach, allow, deny, refuse, etc the dative transformation is obligatory. e.g. Paul asked me some weird questions. I teach you grammar. I answered John all his questions. Passivisation, which results in 2 configurations: e.g. Some flowers were offered to the girl. (The DO is moved to subject position) The girl was offered some flowers. (The IO is moved to subject position) With some verbs, various types of subordinate clauses may occur as D.O., and the I.O. is often deleted. e.g. She promised (me) that she would not do it again. You should explain (to me) where you have been. (3) [NP] [V + NP + PNP] The NP functions as a DO, while the PNP functions as a Prep.O ( assure smb of, congratulate smb on, prevent smb from, rob smb of, etc). e.g. He blamed all his problems on his lack of education. They accused her of theft. He reminded me of my promise. Passivisation is possible with the D.O. moved to the position of the subject. The Prep.O. is retained (i.e. kept in the structure) e.g. I was reminded of my promise. She was accused of theft. Complement Clauses may occur as Prep.O. The preposition is deleted in the case of Infinitival Clauses & THAT-Clauses and retained for gerundial constructions. e.g. He reminded me that I had promised him something./ to leave earlier./ of having promised him something.

(4) [NP] [V + NP + PNP / Adv.P.] It is a configuration which implies that with verbs such as put, lay, set, pose, etc a DO NP is followed by a COMPULSORY PNP or AdvP functioning as an adverbial of place / direction. e.g. She laid the book on the desk. He put the knife down. The adverbial must be retained if passivisation is applied. The book was laid on the desk. e.g.