Chemical equation: identities and quantities of reactants (substances that ar e consumed during a chemical reaction) and products (substances

that are formed) Mole (mol): particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) that contain Avogadro s number (NA 5 6.022 3 1023) of the particles Molar mass: substance is the mass of 1 mole of the particles that comprise t hat substance; an element, in grams per mole, is numerically the same as that element s average atomic mass, in atomic mass units Molecular mass: mass of one molecule of a molecular compound Formula mass compound is the mass of one formula unit Stoichiometry quantitative relation between the quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction Law of conservation of mass sum of the masses of the reactants in a chemical reaction is equal to the sum of the masses of the products Hydrolysis reaction of water with another material; produces acids Acid anhydrides nonmetal oxides; react with water to produce acids Hydrocarbons molecular compounds composed of only hydrogen and carbon; class of organic compounds Combustion reactions occurs between oxygen and another element or compound; when the other compound is a hydrocarbon, the products are carbon dioxide and water vapor Percent composition percentage by mass of each element in a compound; it can also refer to the percentage by mass of each component in a mixture Empirical formulas represent the proportions of the ions in the formula units Molecular ion (M1 ) formed in a mass spectrometer when a neutral molecule loses an electron after being bombarded with a high-energy beam; the molecular ion has a charge of 11 and has essentially the same molecular mass as the neutral molecule from which it came

Mass spectrum graph of the data from a mass spectrometer, where m/Z ratios of the deflected particles are plotted against the number of particles with a particular mass; because the charge on the ions typically is 11, m/Z 5 m/1 5 m, and the mass of the particle may be read directly from the m/Z axis Combustion analysis substance is burned completely in oxygen to produce known compounds whose masses are used to determine the composition of the original material Limiting reactant consumed completely in a chemical reaction; amount of product formed depends on the amount of the limiting reactant available Theoretical yield sometimes called the stoichiometric yield; amount of product expected for a chemical reaction given a specific quantity of reactant Actual yield amount of product obtained as a result of a chemical reaction conducted in the lab, which is often less than the theoretical yield Percent yield ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the actual yield of a chemical reaction to the theoretical yield -----Chapter 3 Chemical Reactions and Earth s Composition The Development of Earth Matter in the universe condensed into planets. The planets closer to the sun have different chemical compositions than the re st of the universe. Many of the volatile chemicals were lost from these planets. The Composition of Compounds The law of definite proportions states that a specific chemical compound obta ined from any source always contains the same proportion by mass of its elements . H+ + OH- ---> H2O 2 H2 + O2 ---> 2 H2O The Composition of Compounds The law of multiple proportions states that the masses of element Y that combine with a fixed mass of element X to form two or more different compounds are in t he ratios of small whole numbers. Examples: NO, NO2, N2O, N2O5, etc. Chemical Equations Chemical equations describe the proportions of the substances called reactants t hat are consumed during a chemical reaction and the substances called products t hat are formed. Chemical equations describe the changes on the atomic level, but we cannot easil y work with individual atoms in the lab.

Chemical Reactions Macroscopic Quantities The mole 1 mole of a substance contains 6.022 x 1023 particles (atoms, ions, or molecules ) of the substance (known as Avogadro s number). The mole is a unit like dozen or gross. It denotes the quantity of items. A mole is Avogadro s number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. Conversions Converting between a number of particles and an equivalent number of moles (or v ice versa) is a matter of dividing (or multiplying) by Avogadro s number. Molar Mass The average mass of an atom of helium is 4.003 amu, and the mass of a mole of he lium (6.022 x 1023 atoms of He) is 4.003 g. The molar mass (M) of helium is 4.003 g/mol. Molar Mass A substance s molar mass is the mass in grams of one mole of the compound. CO2 = 44.01 grams per mole C + 2O 12.01 + 2(16.00) = 44.01g/mol Law of Conservation of Mass The law of conservation of mass states that the sum of the masses of the reactan ts of a chemical equation is equal to the sum of the masses of the products. Chemical Change Chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass. Balanced Chemical Equations Chemical equations should be balanced to follow the law of conservation of mass. Total mass of each element on the reactant side must equal the total mass of eac h element on the product side. Total charge of reactant side must equal the total charge of product side. Combustion Reactions Reactions that occur between oxygen (O2) and another element in a compound. When the other compound is a hydrocarbon, the products of complete combustion ar e carbon dioxide and water vapor. Hydrocarbons are molecular compounds composed of only hydrogen and carbon and ar e a class of organic compounds. Stoichiometric Calculations Calculating the mass of a product from the mass of a reactant requires: A balanced chemical reaction Molar mass of the reactant Molar mass of the product Example How much carbon dioxide would be formed if 10.0 grams of C5H12 were completel y burned in oxygen? C5H12 + 8 O2 ---> 5 CO2 + 6 H2O Practice Sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride, wa ter, and carbon dioxide. How much hydrochloric acid is required to produce 10.0 g of carbon dioxide? Percent Composition Mass percent of an element in a compound Mass % = mass of element in compound x 100% compound

mass of

Practice: Calculate the percent of iron in

iron(III) oxide, (Fe2O3).

Combustion Analysis Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas Assume there is 100 g of the sample, so the percent composition will equal the n umber of grams of each element. Convert the grams of each element into the moles of each element with their mola r mass. Divide the smallest number of moles of an element into the moles of each element present. Convert the fractional ratios for each element into whole numbers by multiplying all the ratios by the same number. The resulting numbers are the subscripts for each element in the empirical formu la. Example Asbestos was used for years as an insulating material in buildings until pr olonged exposure to asbestos was demonstrated to cause lung cancer. Asbestos is a mineral containing magnesium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen. One form of asb estos, chrysotile (520.27 g/mol), has the composition 28.03% magnesium, 21.60% s ilicon, 1.16% hydrogen. Determine the empirical formula of chrysotile. Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Mass All mass spectrometers separate atoms and molecules by first converting them int o ions and then separating those ions based on the ratio of their masses to thei r electric charges. Mass spectrometers are instruments used to determine the mass of substances. Mass Spectrometer Mass Spectra Determining the Molecular Formula The molecular formula can be determined from the percent composition and mass sp ectral data. Example A combustion analysis of an unknown compound indicated that it is 92.23% C an d 7.82% H. The mass spectrum indicated the molar mass is 78 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of this unknown compound? Limiting Reactants During photosynthesis, a reaction mixture of carbon dioxide and water is conv erted to a molecule of glucose. Limiting Reactants The limiting reactant is completely consumed in the chemical reaction. The amount of product formed depends on the amount of limiting reagent available . Example 10.0 g of methane (CH4) is burned in 20.0 g of oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). What is the limiting reactant? How many grams of water will be produced? Percent Yield Theoretical Yield: the calculated amount of product formed Actual Yield: the measured amount of product formed Percent Yield Example Aluminum burns in bromine liquid, producing aluminum bromide. In a certain expe riment, 6.0 g of aluminum reacted with an excess of bromine to yield 50.3 g alum inum bromide. Calculate the theoretical and percent yields for this experiment.