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beautifully sculptured. On the abacus are four running animals - an elephant, a bull, a horse and a. lion with a small dharmachakra between them. The dharma chakra symbolises the dharma or law; the four lions facing the four directions are the form of Buddha or Sakyasimha, the four galloping animals are the four quarters according to Buddhist books and the four smaller dharma chakras stand for the intermediate regions and the lotus is the symbol of creative activity. The surface of these pillars has a mirror like finish.
3) Stupa at Sanchi.
Ans: Stupas were built of stones or bricks to commemorate important events or mark important places associated with Buddhism or to house important relics of Buddha. Ashok Maurya who laid the foundation of this group of monuments is said to have built 84,000 stupas, most of which have perished. The best examples of stupas are those constructed at Amravati, Sanchi, Barhut and Gaya. "One of the most is striking architectural remains of ancient India" and the earliest and largest of the three stupas found in Sanchi was built by Ashoka (273-236 B.C.) Sanchi in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh is famous for its magnificent Buddhist monuments and edifices. Situated on a hill, these beautiful and well-preserved stupas depict the various stages of development of Buddhist art and architecture over a period of thirteen hundred years from the third century B.C. to the twelfth century A.D. Inscriptions show that these monuments were maintained by the rich merchants of that region. The stupa built by Ashoka was damaged during the break-up of the Maurya Empire. In the 2nd century B.C., during the. Rule of the Sungas it was completely reconstructed. Religious activity led to the improvement and enlargement of the stupa and a stone railing was built around it. It was also embellished with the construction of heavily carved gateways.
4) Painting at Ajanta.
Ans: Paintings which has been an accepted art since early times attained heights of excellence in Gupta period. These exquisite paintings or frescos are to be seen in the caves of Ajanta. The entire surface of the caves is exquisitely painted and shows the high standard reached in mural painting. The theme of the painting on the walls is mostly the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas and the Jataka stories. These topics cover a continuous narration of events on all aspects
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of human- life from birth to death. Every kind of human emotion is depicted. The paintings reflect the contemporary life of the times, dress, ornaments, culture, weapons used, even their beliefs are portrayed with life-like reality. The paintings include gods, yakshas, kinneras, gandharvas, apsaras and human beings. The paintings show their intense feeling for nature and an understanding of the various aspects of all living beings. The ceilings are covered with intricate designs, flowers, plants, birds, animals, fruit and people. The ground for painting was prepared by paving it with a rough layer of earth and sand mixed with vegetable fibres, husk and grass. A second coat of mud mixed with fine sand and fibrous vegetable material was applied. A final finish was given with a thin coat of lime-wash, glue was used as a binder. On this prepared surface, the outlines were drawn and the spaces were filled with the required colours; with much attention given to shades and tones. Red, yellow, black, ochre, blue and gypsum were mostly used. Some of the renowned paintings are that of the Bodhisattva holding a lily (cave 1), the painting of Padmapani, the Apsaras with a turban headgear (cave 17) the painting on the ceiling (cave 2) and the toilet scheme (cave 17) considered to be a masterpiece of the painter.
Construction workers moved here not only themselves but many tons of stones doing it carefully, without damaging the exquisite carvings and levelled surfaces. According to their use Indian Buddhist cave temples can be divided in chaityas sanctuaries and viharas a kind of monasteries. Chaityas halls used for congregational worship, had more exquisite architecture. Viharas often were lavishly adorned as well, they contained austere cells cut into walls of central hall here lived monks. Karla Caves are characterised by large horseshoe shaped windows lighting the interiors and vaulted interiors. Sculptures of Karla mark new tendencies in Indian art more plasticity, figures are approximately 60% free of the wall behind them. Sculptures are refined, with folds of clothing, earrings etc. The architectural and artistic achievements made in Karla Caves have left profound impact on development of Indian art.
the wooden frames. At the farthest end of the hill sits silently the revered Stupa.In Buddhist architecture the Stupas were erected either to mark certain important occasion or used to preserve the relics. The sheer vastness and grandeur of the hall is overpowering .The solemnity ,the quiet,the serene luminosity cast such spell on senses that one feels the atmosphere reverberating with chants of Buddhist monks.
9) Frescoes of Ajanta.
Ans: Ajanta is the great surviving monument of the painting crated by the Buddhist faith and fervour in the land which gave birth to that religion. The most beautiful of these paintings are taken from the Jataka stories, the legends of the earthly life of the Buddha in various successive existences. They also illustrate the court life and popular life of the time, as told in the romances and plays. On the hundred walls and pillars of these rock-carved temples, a vast drama moves before the eyes, a drama played by princes and sages and heroes, by men and women of every condition, against a marvelously varied scene, among forests and gardens, in courts and cities, on wide plans and in deep jungles, while above the messengers of heaven move swiftly across the sky. From all these emanates a great joy in the surpassing radiance of the face of the world, in the physical nobility of men and women, in the strength and grace of animals and the loveliness and purity of birds and flowers; and woven into this fabric of material beauty we see the ordered pattern of the spiritual realities of the universe.
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Ans: Viharas or monasteries constructed with brick or excavated from rocks are found in different parts of India. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant for congregational prayer with a running verandah on three sides or an open courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. These cells served as dwelling places for the monks. These monastic buildings built of bricks were selfcontained units and had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir attached to a stupa - the chief object of worship. Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora. Nasik, Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami. The Hinayana viharas found in these places have many interesting features which differentiate them from the Mahayana type in the same regions. Though plain from the point of view of architecture, they are large ha1ls with cells excavated in the walls on three sides. The hall has one or more entrances. The small cells, each with a door have one or two stone platforms to serve as beds.
VEDIC CULTURE
1. Characteristic features of vedic culture.
Ans: Vedic Texts
Linguistically, the texts belonging to the Hindu Vedic Civilisation can be classified into the following five chronological branches: Rigvedic The oldest text of the Vedic Period, Rig Veda has many elements that are common with the Indo-Iranian texts, both in language and in content. One cannot find such similarity in any other Vedic text. It is believed that the compilation of the Rig Veda had stretched over a number of centuries. However, there is a conflict as to the completion date of the Rig Veda. Some historians believe it to be 1500 BC, while the others believe it to be 3000 BC. This time period coincided with the Indus Valley Civilization. Mantra Language The period of the Mantra Language includes the time of the compilation of the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Though derived from the Rig Veda, all these texts experienced wide scale changes, in terms of language as well as at the time of reinterpretation. This time period coincided with the early Iron Age in northwestern India and the Black and Red Ware culture. Samhita Prose The period of Samhita Prose represents the compilation and codification of a Vedic canon. The linguistic changes of this time include the complete loss of the injunctive, the subjunctive and the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda belongs to the Samhita Prose period. During this time, the Painted Grey Ware culture was evident. Brahmana Prose This period signifies Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas, along with the oldest Upanishads. Sutra Language The last division of the Vedic Sanskrit can be traced upto 500 BC. During this time, a
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major portion of the Srauta Sutras, the Grihya Sutras and some Upanishads were composed. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit (Post Vedic) In the post-Vedic Period, the compilation of Mahabharata and Ramayana epics took place. The Classical Sanskrit described by Panini also emerged after the Vedic Age. The Vedanta and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. During this time, the Northern Black Polished Ware culture started spreading over the northern parts of India.
The end of the Vedic Period Civilization in India was marked by significant changes in the field of linguistics, culture and politics. With the invasion of the Indus valley by Darius I, in the 6th century, outside influences started creeping in. Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period) The Rigvedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was composed. The Rig Veda comprises of religious hymns, and allusions to various myths and stories. Some of the books even contain elements from the pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Some similarities are also found with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms. Thus, it is difficult to define the exact beginning of the Rigvedic period. The prominent features of the Rigvedic period are given below: Political Organization The political units during the Rigvedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan (King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler). The king ruled with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief).
Society and Economy Numerous social changes took place during the early Vedic period. The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took
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place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. The importance of agriculture started growing. The families became patriarchal and people began praying for the birth of a son. Vedic Religious Practices Rishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. Sacrifices and chanting of verses started gaining significance as the principal mode of worship. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma. People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of the religion. Later Vedic Period The later Vedic Period commenced with the emergence of agriculture as the principal economic activity. Along with that, a declining trend was experienced as far as the importance of cattle rearing was concerned. Land and its protection started gaining significance and as a result, several large kingdoms arose. Political Organization The rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, along with the increasing powers of the King, comprise of the other characteristics of this period. Rituals like rajasuya, (royal consecration), vajapeya (chariot race) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) became widespread. At the same time, the say of the people in the administration diminished. Society As far as the society is concerned, the concept of Varna and the rules of marriage became much more rigid than before. The status of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas increased greatly and social mobility was totally restricted. The proper pronunciation of verses became to be considered as essential for prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas started amassing wealth and started utilizing the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were slowly degraded. Around 500 BC, the later Vedic Period started giving rise to the period of the Middle kingdoms of India.
2. Aryan Hut. Ans: The people in the Vedic period lived in straw and wooden huts. Some homes were made of wood, but not until later, during the Epics Period
3. Vedic Culture. Ans: The Vedic period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the history of India when canonical Hindu texts such as the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered in northern and northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. Based on literary evidence, scholars place the Vedic period in the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, continuing up to the 6th century BCE. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE) and the Middle kingdoms of India
INDUS VALLEY
1) Harappa & Mohenjodaro were advanced urban centre of Asian World. Explain this statement with appropriate illustration.
Ans: The Indus Valley Civilization which flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BC, and included urban centers such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (in Pakistan), marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The Indus regions were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban. The emergence of this civilization is as remarkable as its stability for nearly a thousand years. All the cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size; the streets were laid at right angles with an elaborate system of covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities and houses were earmarked for the upper and lower strata of society. There were also public buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the vast granaries. Production of several metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was also undertaken and some remnants of furnaces provide evidence of this fact. The discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks were used extensively in domestic and public buildings.
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4) Explain the architecture & town planning during the Indus valley civilization.
Ans: Houses were one or two stories high made of baked brick, with flat roofs, and were just about identical. Each was built around a courtyard, with windows overlooking the courtyard. The outside walls had no windows. Each home had its own private drinking well and its own private bathroom. Clay pipes led from the bathrooms to sewers located under the streets. These sewers drained into nearly rivers and streams. Harappan cities did not develop slowly, which suggests that whoever built these cities learned to do so in another place. As the Indus flooded, cities were rebuilt on top of each other. Their towns were laid out in grids everywhere (straight streets, well built homes!) These people were incredible builders. Scientists have found what they think are giant reservoirs for fresh water. They have also found that even the smallest house at the edge of each town was linked to that town's central drainage system. (Is it possible that they not only drained waste water out, but also had a system to pump fresh water into their homes, similar to modern plumbing.
5) Write a note on public baths at mohenjodaro and give sketches to explain your answers.
Ans: Close to the granary, there is a building similarly civic in nature - a great public bath house, with steps down to a brick-lined pool in a colonnaded courtyard the elaborate bath area was very well built, with a layer of natural tar to keep it from leaking, and in the center was the swimming pool.
are placed close together and are often without bases. Their shafts are sculpted with concave curves called flutes. The capitals are plain with a rounded section at the bottom, known as the echinus, and a square at the top, called the abacus. The entablature has a distinctive frieze decorated with vertical channels, or triglyphs. In between the triglyphs are spaces, called metopes, which were commonly sculpted with figures and ornamentation. The frieze is separated from the architrave by a narrow band called the regula. Together, these elements formed a rectangular structure surrounded by a double row of columns that conveyed a bold unity. The Doric order reached its pinnacle of perfection in the Parthenon.
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Ans:
In ancient Greek cities, an open space serving as an assembly area and backdrop for commercial, civic, social, and religious activities. Use of the agora varied in different periods. Located in the middle of the city or near the harbor, it was often enclosed by public buildings, colonnades containing shops, and stoas for protection from sun and bad weather. The highest honor for a citizen was to be granted a tomb in the agora
3) Explain with notes & sketches any 1 of the roman order for columns.
Ans: The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaption of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.
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The great age, massive scale and mysterious purpose of Stonehenge draw over 800,000 visitors per year, and several thousand gather on the summer solstice to watch the sunrise at this ancient and mystical site. he stones are aligned almost perfectly with the sunrise on the summer solstice, and it is almost unquestioned that Stonehenge was built as a spectacular place of worship. Although the faith of the Stonehenge builders predates any known religion, the site has become a place of pilgrimage and worship for Neopagans who identify themselves with the Druids or other forms of Celtic paganism. It is also popular with New Age devotees, who report powerful energies at the site
2.
EARLY MAN
Ans: Human beings have been on earth for a long, long time. Scientists have found human-like skeletons and fossils in Africa that are 4 to 5 million years old. In 1974 in Ethiopia, scientists discovered the remains of one of our most famous human ancestors. They called her Lucy. She is 3.18 million years old. New discoveries are being made all the time. The scientists who study prehistoric fossils are called paleontologists. What we know about prehistory comes mainly from them as well as from archeologists. They study the actual things people leave behind like weapons, artifacts, tools and food remains. These are very important because how people get their food -- and eat it -- plays a major role in who they are.
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Despite not having an established society or economy, man in the Paleolithic Age had increasing technology. Their weapons and tools were made of wood and stone, and they had manifested the ability to control fire. The Paleolithic Age also berthed language and thus established the first historical backgrounds of modern man. Paleolithic art gives the background for the culture of the time. Depicting a society classed only by sex: Men hunted, made weaponry and tools, and fought other nomadic bands; Women gathered, made clothing, and bore children. The new stone, or Neolithic Age, marked the beginnings of established society for modern man. Although only a few Paleolithic societies adapted to agriculture from hunting/gathering, this shift led the way for advancement with society, economy, and technology. Man began to raise small herds of sheep and goats and food crops such as wheat and barley were able to be domesticated in mountain foothills. As more of the nomadic bands began to settle as farmers instead of hunter/gatherers, an economic system emerged. Although most of the nomadic societies were still self-sufficient, trading was established from items like stones and shells. The advancements in society, economy, and technology in the Neolithic Age paved the way for all of modern civilization. The change from roaming hoards of prehistoric man to settled agriculturists allowed for the establishment of society out of a vagabond culture.
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2) EXPLAIN WITH SKETCHES & EXAMPLES. THE INFLUENCE OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES IN ARYAN CIVILIZATION OVER ROCK CUT BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE.
Ans: The Vedic carpenters developed skill in timber construction of a very high standard. It is not surprising, therefore, that in later ages timber construction techniques were employed even though the material of construction was radically different - i.e. stone. In general, the cities of the Vedic period were rectangular in plan and divided into four quarters by two main thoroughfares intersecting at right angles, each leading to a city gate. One of these quarters contained the citadel and another housed the residential area. A third quarter was reserved for the merchants, and the last for tradesmen who could display their wares. From these modest beginnings, early Hindu architecture gradually metamorphosed into the magnificent Buddhist stupas and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta. How these masterpieces of world architecture came about from a background of nomads.
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