! Forma!di!stato!!!!!!!!!!!! Form!of!State!! ! Forma!di!governo!!!!!!!!!!!! Form!of!Government!! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! !

Relationship!between!the!State!that!exercises!power!and!the!citizens! (holder!of!power!and!subjects!of!power)! Rules!and!principles!that!regulate!a!legal!system!!

Set!of!rules!!concerning!the!distribution!of!power!and!the!relationships! among!the!branches!!of!constitutional!bodies!!(organs!that!have!the! same!level!of!sovereignity!and!independence.!

1)

2)

! ! REMARKS! Part!of!the!Form!of!!State!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! !The!relationship!between!central!government!and!sub>national!entities! ! Part!of!!the!Form!of! !! Government! !! In!US!and!Britain!Government!!State!which!has!3!branches!of!Government!(executive,!legislative,!judiciary).!!! Forme&di&governo!diventa!Regime&types! Also!!in!French!Regime&politique!is!preferred!to!Forme&de&gouvernement! In!Spanish!Forma&Politica!can!replace!both!Forma&de&Estado!y!!Forma&de&gobierno.! !

A) Historical,(DIACRONIC),Analysis,
No!distinction!between!state!and!government!until!the!Peace!of!Westphalia!(1648)!(end!of!30!years!war:! cuius!regio!eius!religio)! !!! Aristotle:!3!form!of!government:!!!Monarchy!!(one!person)!!Aristocracy!!(few!persons)!Polity!(many!persons)! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CAN!!!DEGENERATE!!!!!INTO! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! Tyranny! ! Oligarchy! ! !!Democracy! !! Machiavelli!!:!Principalities!and!Republics!!! Montesquieu!:!!Republic,&Monarchy!and!Despotism! ! The!main!difference!had!been!the!difference!between!Republic!and!Monarchy.!!In!the!Absolute!Monarchy!(Louis! XIV)!the!Monarch!was!Head!of!State!and!Head!of!Government.!In!Constitutional!Monarchy!the!Monarch!was!Head! of!State!with!various!degrees!of!independence!of!the!Government.!Today!the!independence!is!complete:!!no! difference!between!a!monarchical!or!repubblican!Head!of!State.! ! !

1) Feudal)Society)) Patrimonial!society!:!the!only!aim!of!the!Society!is!the!protection!of!the!property!(land!is!the!basis!of! power)!of!the!feudal!lord!:!the!organisation!of!society!is!based!on!private!agreements!among!individuals! (feudal!lords!of!various!levels!up!to!the!king)!

!

2) Absolute)State) The!basis!of!power!moves!from!land!to!money!(Dominant!theory!mercantilism:!in!France!Jean> Baptiste!Colbert)!.!!!The!king!has!the!right!to!govern!by!!birth!!(Ltat!cest!moi).!The!king!replaces! feudal!lords!with!his!officials,!who!collect!taxes!and!exercise!justice!and!has!a!uniform!taxation!over! the!country.!Political!theory!!Hobbes.! In!England!there!wasnt!a!real!absolute!state!(at!least!after!Cromwell).! Sometimes!there!was!an!Enlightened!Absolutism.!Some!rights!were!conceded!(octroys)!by!the!king! (right!to!property,!religious!tolerance)!:!Friedrich!II!of!Prussia,!Maria!Theresa!and!Joseph!II!of!Austria,! Empress!Catherine!of!Russia.!

!

3) Liberal)State) The!industrial!revolution!and!the!rise!of!the!middle!class!(in!England!the!first!(Cromwell)!and!the!second! (Glorious)!revolution!of!1688!(end!of!the!Stuart!dynasty),!In!the!United!States!the!Indipendence!War.!In! both!cases!gradual!passage.!In!France!the!Revolution!and!the!sudden!overturn!of!the!Ancien!!Rgime.!! !In!Germany!and!Italy,!weak!middle!class,!the!liberal!state!was!only!partially!realised!and!a!top>down! process.!!To!strengthen!the!national!state,!the!two!dynasties!that!had!carried!out!the!unification,!(Savoia! and!Hohenzollern)!granted!some!rights!to!the!middle!class.!!! Consequences:! (i) Rule!of!law!:!power!can!be!exercised!only!in!accordance!to!law!through!an!established!procedure)! (ii) Prevalence!of!individual!rights!and!freedom! (iii) Reduction!of!the!interference!of!the!State!(minimum!State,!opposed!to!absolutism)! (iv) Legitimisation!of!power!not!by!birthright,!but!by!popular!or!national!sovereignity!(but!limited!to! representatives!of!middle!class)!
!

Flche!du!temps!

4) Democratic!Pluralistic!State!!!!!!!!!!5)!Totalitarian!&!Authoritarian!State! ! 6)!Socialist!State! ! Due!to!the!crisis!of!the!liberal! Transformation!from!a!mono>! After!the!October!Revolution! ! state!the!struggle!between! to!a!multi>class!society! in!Russia,!which!became!the! ! middle!class!and!working!class!!did! Soviet!Union!and!after!the!war! introduction!of!universal! not!evolve!to!democratic!state.! ! to!Eastern!European!countries! suffrage! ! (i) Absence!of!checks!and!balances! and!later!third!world!countries! ! Consequences:! in!the!command!structure! ! The!conflict!between!middle! (ii) Unification!of!executive!and! (i) !Rise!of!mass!parties! class!and!working!class!was!.! legislative! (ii)!Elected!bodies!become! solved!eliminating!private! (iii) Domination!of!Administration! !place!of!discussion! property!(the!middle!class).! and!Military!(partially!in!Italy)! (iii) ! Introduction!of!!social!and! Market!economy!became! (iv) Limitation!of!individual!rights! economic!rights!!State! ! planned!economy.! intervention!increases! (v) Intervention!in!the!economic! ! life!(some!limited!welfare)! The!form!of!State!was!initially! Gradual!transformation!in! ! the!Proletarian!Dictatorship,!a! Differences!between!Totalitarian! many!countries.! ! and!Autoritarian!(debated)! transitional!form!to!avert! ! After!the!war!!becomes! external!threats!changed!to! ! Totalitarian:!Strong!one!party! Welfare,State!Clement! State!of!all!People!in!the!XXII! ! system!with!an!official!ideology!:! Attlee!in!UK!(NHS!of!Bevan)! Congress!of!the!Communist! ! Fascism!and!Nazism!!!!!! Party!and!introduced!in!the! ! Autoritarian:!weak!party!!Franco! Soviet!Constitution!(1977)! ! and!Salazar!!

B) SINCRONIC,Analysis,(Classification,according,to,territorial,organisation,,separation,of, powers,between,central,government,and,subHstate,entities),
! Regioni!!>!Lnder!!Comunidades!autonomas!!Canton!(Switzerland)!!Provinces!(Canada)!!States!(USA)! Many!types!of!classifications>! ! For!example:! > !Unitary!States!!(France)! > Fully!Federal!States!(Germany)! > Regionalised!Unitary!States!(Spain)! > Devolving!Unitary!States!(UK)! Another!classification! Unitary!decentralised!States!(Denmark)! Federal!States!(USA,!Germany)! etc.! UNITARY!!!STATES! Classification,used:! ! DECENTRALISED!!!STATES! > >

FEDERAL!!!STATES!

REGIONAL!!!STATES! In!Unitary&States!!sub>state!entities!cannot!legislate! In!France!the!dpartements!are!subordinate!administrative!bodies!which!cannot!legislate.! In!Decentralised!States!there!is!some!legislative!power.! ! Elements!of!classification!of!Decentralised!States:! 1) Allocation&of&Legislative&Power& Federal!!List!of!subjects!on!which!the!central!government!can!legislate>!the!residual!subjects!are!left! to!the!sub>state!entities! ! Regional!!List!of!subjects!on!which!the!local!entity!can!legislate>!the!residual!subjects!are!left!to!the! central!State! However!:! Canada!is!FEDERAL!(based!on!the!other!prevailing!features)!but!allocates!residual!subjects!to!the!federal! government!not!to!the!provinces! Italy!!is!(highly!devolved)!REGIONAL,!but!allocates!residual2!subjects!to!Regioni!(Art.,117.4)! ! Furthermore! !Italy!has!a!list!of!concurring!subject!matters!(Art.,117.3)!over!which!bot!central!government!and!sub>state! entities!can!legislate:!the!central!government!approves!a!framework!law!containing!guiding! principles,!the!Regioni!approve!detailed!laws.! ! 2) Allocation&of&Judicial&Power! !Federal,systems!have!a!separate!court!and!legal!!system!with!its!own!substantive!and!procedural!law!(civil! and!criminal)!! (i) Separated,models!!(USA)!Each!state!has!its!own!criminal!and!civil!code! (ii) Integrated,models,(Canada)!Only!Criminal!Code!of!Canada!only!central!government!can!pass! criminal!law!(provinces!can!decide!how!to!enforce!the!law!and!appoint!judges,!crown!attorneys)! Italy!has!first!instance!Administrative!Tribunals!in!each!region.!Tribunali!Amministrativi!Regionali!(TAR)! administrative!courts.!The!Administrative!procedural!code!is!the!same!throughout!Italy.!! ! ! !

3) Representation&in&the&Upper&House! &A!country!has!!a!regional)system!if!the!second!chamber!does!not!represent!the!sub>state!entities.!! ! This!is!one!of!the!reasons!why,!despite!the!considerable!autonomy!that!the!ltalian!Regions!enjoy,!ltaly!is! considered!a!regional!and!not!federal!state.! Although!Art.,57!states!that!"the!Senate!of!the!Republic!shall!be!elected!on!a!regional!basis.!..",!Art.,67! clarifies!that!"each!Member!of!Parliament!represents!the!Nation.!..",!therefore!the!provision!contained!in! Art.!57!merely!indicates!the!procedure!to!be!followed!in!order!to!elect!the!Senate.! ! TheUnited!States!adopts!"strict!states"!or!"equal"!representation.!In!other!words,!all!the!states!have! identical!representation!regardless!of!their!size!and!population.!In!fact,!there!are!fifty!!states!and!each!one! has!two!senators!elected!directly!by!the!people.!! Other!federal!states!!have!different!electoral!systems!and!a!"weighted"!representation!according!to!the! size!and!population.!!The!members!of!the!German!Bundesrat!are!not!elected!directly,!but!are!members! of!the!Under!executives,!which!appoint!them!and!may!remove!them!at!any!time.!Moreover,!each!Land!has! a!weighted!representation.!!
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4) Constitutional&Amendment&Powers! In!regional!states!the!sub>state!entities!do!not!take!part!in!constitutional!reform!procedures,!while!the! member!states!in!federal!countries!do!have!constituent!power!and!take.!part!in!amending!the! Constitution.!!! In!Italy,!in!!spite!of,Art,138!(for!the!request!of!a!referendum)!is!a!minor!issue!REGIONAL!

! !

In!the!USA!amendments!to!the!Constitutionratified!by!3/4!of!the!Legislatures!or!Conventions!of!the!States.!! Art.!79.2!of!the!"Grundgesetz"!states!that!a!law!amending!the!latter!".!..requires!the!affirmative!vote!of! two!thirds!of!the!members!of!the!Bundestag&and!two>!thirds!of!the!votes!of!the!Bundesrat&(ie&Laender)'.&!

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Art.!79.3!states!that!"an!amendment!of!this!Basic!Law!affecting!the!division!of!the!Federation!into!Laender,& the!participation!in!principle!of!the!&Laender&in!legislation,!or!the!basic!principles!laid!down!in!Articles!1!and! 20,!is!inadmissible".!Italy!Art.,139!It.!Const.,!"the!Republican!form!of!the!State!may!not!be!changed!by! way!of!constitutional!amendment".!!

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5) Statutes of Autonomy or Constitutions?! Existence!of!sub>national!constitutions.If!sub>state!entities!have!their!own!Constitution!federal!state! !otherwise!regional!state.!! ! BUT! (i)!it!could!be!not!the!result!of!a!structure!design!but!of!a!"federalizing!process"!(definition!of!the! American!German>born!jurist!Carl!Friedrich).!!the!United!States!from!the!!Confederation!of!1776!to!the! Federation!of!1787.!They!had!a!Constitution!before!1787,!which!they!kept.!! (In&the&United&States&the&state&constitutions&are&subordinate&to&the&US&Constitution&and&the&laws&of&the& United&States&(i.e.&federal&laws)&take&precedence&over&state&law.)& ! (ii)!It!can!be!a!problem!of!nomen!juris.!No!substantia1!difference!between!the!State!Constitutions!in!the! United!States!and!the!Statutes!of!Autonomy!of!the!Italian!Regions!If!the!regional!statutes!were!renamed! "constitutions"!this!would!not!in!itself!transform!Italy!into!a!federal!state!.!

6) No&Decentralisation&without&T&axation?! If!sub>state!entities!are!deprived!of!financial!sources!!no!autonomy!.!If!they!have!resources!!questions:! (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Which!level!has!to!pay!for!the!exercise!of!specific!functions!by!the!sub>state!entities?! !Which!level!disposes!of!which!sources!of!income?! !Are!there!any!transfers!or!grants!from!the!central!government!level!to!the!sub>state!entities?!! Is!there!a!control!of!sub>!state!government!borrowing?!! ! In!deciding!tax>raising!powers!and!financial!resources!the!following!aims!must!be!pursued:! efficient!allocation!of!resources,!equity,!stabilisation,!economic!growth,!regional!balance,!national! integrity!and!political!stability.!

C) FORMS,OF,GOVERNMENT,(SYNCHRONIC,ANALYSIS),
It!makes!sense!to!classify!forms!of!govemmento!nly!for!democratic!pluralistic!states,!!in!an!authoritarian!or! totalitarian!state!there!is!no!real!separation!of!powers!nor!a!system!of!checks!and!balances.! The legal perspective studies forms of govemment by referring solely to legal elements, ie formal legal rules concerning legitimisation, relationship between institutional bodies, existence of a separation of powers and so on The politological perspective does not examine the realm of what should be (solIen), but the realm of what is (sein), regardless of the constitutional and statutory provisions in force. Following Robert Elgie we use the legal perspective Elgie recommands 3 criteria a) Head of State and Head of Government (Italy, Germany) or just one institution (USA) b) The incumbents of these institutions (in both cases) are popularly elected c) Incumbents serve for a fixed term.

CLASSIFICATION
1) Parliamentary Executive In England the constitutional monarchy (legislative power elected, but executive power appointed by the king) changed into parliamentary monarchy (both legislative and executive power depend on the Parliament) after the American Independence war (Prime Minister Walpole) and definitely in 1835 when George III dissolved the Parliament to fforce the nomination of Robert Peel, but the new Parliament was even more opposed to him and the King had to appoint Lord Melbourne. In the other states it came later (s. before the Statuto Albertino). Fundamental,element,of,the,parliamentary,form,of,government,is,the,relationship,of,confidence,between,, the,Executive,(i.e.,the,Prime,Minister,and,the,Cabinet),and,Parliament., As to Elgies dispositionary elements: 1a) There are Head of State and Head of Government (King or Head of State elected by the Parliament) 2a) The Head of Government theoretically is not elected directly, but he may be elected popularly in majoritarian systems or in proportional systems with large premium of seats Head of State has no choice but to appoint the leader of the winning Party coalition no matter what the Constitution establishes (see Art. 92.2) If the system is strictly proportional (Netherlands, Belgium) with a large number of parties, the appointment depends on negotiations among parties. 3a) The Head of State has either a lifelong term (Monarch) or a fixed term (President of the Republic) The Head of Government can be replaced by the Parliament without the Parliament being dissolved (eg Tony Blair and Gordon Brown). In UK The Head of Government can dissolve the Parliament (maximum duration is 5 years) However in Germany a vote of no confidence is possible only if a new Chancellor is appointed simultaneously by Parliament (konstruktive Vertreauensfrage). Artikel 67 (1) Der Bundestag kann dem Bundeskanzler das Misstrauen nur dadurch aussprechen, dass er mit der Mehrheit seiner Mitglieder einen Nachfolger whlt und den Bundesprsidenten ersucht, den Bundeskanzler zu entlassen. Der Bundesprsident muss dem Ersuchen entsprechen und den Gewhlten ernennen. (2) Zwischen dem Antrag und der Wahl mssen 48 Stunden liegen. The dissolution of the Parliament can be requested only by the Chancellor if his request of a vote of confidence is rejected by Parliament and no other Chancellor is appointed. Artikel 68 (1) Findet ein Antrag des Bundeskanzlers, ihm das Vertrauen auszusprechen, nicht die Zustimmung der Mehrheit der Mitglieder des Bundestages, so kann der Bundesprsident auf Vorschlag des Bundeskanzlers binnen einundzwanzig Tagen den Bundestag auflsen. Das Recht zur Auflsung erlischt, sobald der Bundestag mit der Mehrheit seiner Mitglieder einen anderen Bundeskanzler whlt. (2) Zwischen dem Antrag und der Abstimmung mssen achtundvierzig Stunden liegen.

2) Presidential Executive Typically USA other countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia, often modified and turned totalitarian Dispositional properties opposite to parliamentary 2a) Head of State is also Head of Government (no vote of confidence from the Parliament) However, the President can veto bills of law and Parliament can impeach the President (Congress is the Prosecutor and Senate is the jury 2/3 majority) 2b) The Head of State is popularly (not directly!) elected on the second Tuesday in November every 4 years. It is popular because the electors (elected by people) always vote for the candidate. In case of parity (eg if there are 3 candidates, with 2 candidates it is impossible because the number of votes is uneven) the House of Representatives decide. 2c) It is a 4 year fixed term (renewable only once). The last president to end his term early was Richard Nixon (after the Watergate scandal) and John Kennedy assassinated after 3 year presidency. 3) Directorial Executive Only in Switzerland. (partially in Uruguay). Introduced 1793bduring the French Revolution. Suitable for Switzerland (different cultures and languages). Confirmed in all Constitutions including the 1999 Constitution. 3a) Head of State and Government coincide as in presidential executives, but it is not monocratic (7 members of the Federal Council). The president and vicepresident of the Council are elected by the Parliament (one of the 7) but has no extra power and his election cannot be renewed (not even as Vicepresident) 3b) They are not elected directly, but by Parliament, but there is no vote of confidence 3c) Fixed term of 4 years Until 2004 Magic formula 2 SPD, 2 Christian Democrats , 2 Liberals (FDB) and 1 right wing SVP (Bloecher). In 2003 the Christian Democrats had to give one seat to SVP. Then SVP split and there are now two seats for two right wing parties. 4) Semi-presidential Executive Typical of France (definition by Maurice Duverger) before (modified) in the Weimar Republic (considered one of the reasons of the rise of Nazism) + Portugal , Austria, Ireland and Finland. Introduced in France in 1958 and confirmed by a referendum in 1968 indicted by Charles de Gaulle. 4a) Both a Head of State and a Head of Govemment, (although according to Art. 9 French Const. "The President of the Republic sha1l preside over the Council of Ministers" therefore, from a certain standpoint, he also exercises executive powers) 4b)The Head of State is elected directly in a two-round election. The Head of Government is appointed by the Head of State but must have the confidence of the Parliament. THhe Head of State can change the Head of Government. If the elections for the Head of State and of the Parliament do not coincide there can be a Head of State of one Party and Head of Government of another party Cohabitation Mitterand/Chirac & Chirac/Jospin 4c) Fixed term of the Head of State Term reduced to 5 years (to coincide with the parliamentary term).Renewable only once The President can dissolve the Parliament, but not in the last year of his Presidency. (In Italy in the last 6 months semestre bianco) Considering the other semipresidential executives, there are 3 sub-types (i) Prime Minister prevails (Austria and Ireland President of the Republic elected directly, but the Executive is de facto parliamentary) (ii) Diarchy or clear separation of competences between the Prime Minster and the President of the Republic Finland and Portugal (although recent constitutional amendments to the Portuguese Constitution have made it similar to those of Austria and Ireland); (iii) President plays a central role and this is the case of France (when of course there is no cohabitation). In Bulgariathe President of the Republic is elected directly, but the government is parliamentary direct election does not seem important parliamentary regime

5)

Quintum Genus? The Prime Ministerial Executive Some consider the regime-type that existed in Israel between 1992 and 2001 (used in the elections of 1996, 1999 and 2001) an autonomous form of government the Prime Minister was elected directly. In Italy this debate is of particular interest because since the 1990s at all sub- state levels of government the Head of the Executive is also elected directly with a one-round or two-round voting system and is generally considered to work functionally.

a failure the Israelis returned to a conventional parliamentary system, which included the constructive vote of no confidence adopted in Germany. Three reasons for this failure (i) the election of the Prime Minister took place at the same time as the election of the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament, but voters could split voting i.e. they chose the Labour or Likud candidate and then voted for another party for the Knesset. (ii) winning candidate was not assured a majority in Parliatnent, unlike the sub-state elections in Italy where the party lists connected to the winning candidate are given a premium of seats thus ensuring that the Head of the Executive has a comfortable majority in the assembly. (iii) probably most importantly, in the Israeli case there were no less than eight cases of so-called "special elections" i.e. direct popular elections of the Prime Minister without the dissolution of the Knesset and fresh parliamentary elections. Again this is unlike the system adopted at sub-state level in Italy where the resignation of the Head ofthe sub-state Executive or a vote of no confidence provokes fresh elections of the latter, but also dissolution and new elections of the assembly on the basis of a rule commonly know as aut simul stabunt aut simul cadent . Elgie' dispositional properties : 5a) here are both a Head of State and a Head of Government (in common with other parliamentary executives 5b)The Head of State was (and still is) elected by the Knesset as in a parliamentary fom of government. The Head of Government was elected directly, but as was mentioned for parliamentary executives in many cases Heads of Governments are de facto elected popularly (if not directly). Not even the President of USA is elected directly! In other words if we take the first two dispositional properties there would appear to be no substantial difference between this supposed quintum genus and the parliamentary form of government. 5c) Head of State elected by the Knesset serves for seven years for one term only, as in all other parliamentary regimes. As for the Head of Government there is no fixed term again like the parliamentary regime The Italian sub-state elections are different because the principle aut simul stabunt aut simul cadent rule can play a truly decisive role Presidents of Regional Executives, Presidents of the Provinces and Muncipal Mayors have the same term of office as their respective councils. If the Chief Executive resigns or loses a vote of confidence then there will be fresh elections of both the latter and of the respective assembly. If one is to maintain the argument that there is a fifth form of govemment then the aut simul stabunt aut simul cadent rule is clearly the distinguishing feature with respect to other systems, in particular the parliamentary executive, rather than direct election given that in many parliamentary systems the Head of Government is the result of a popular election senso latu. The scholars that accept the existence of a fifth form of govemment, do not agree on the name: Maurice Duverger defines it as "neo parliamentary", the Spanish constitutionalist Eduardo Virgala Foruria "semi-parliamentary" and the Swiss jurist Bemard (Baruch) Susser's "parliadential". Herein we have opted for the term "Prime Ministerial". !