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Scientific Movement in Social Science Social scientists began to adopt the scientific method to make sense of the rapid

changes accompanying modernization and industrialization.


Beginning in the 17th century, observation-based natural philosophy was replaced by natural science, which attempted to define and test scientific laws. Social science continued this trend, attempting to find laws to explain social behavior, which had become problematic with the decline of tradition and the rise of modernity and industrialization. The first thinkers to attempt to combine scientific inquiry with the exploration of human relationships were Emile Durkheim in France and William James in the United States. Social science adopted quantitative measurement and statistical methods from natural science to find laws of social behavior, as demonstrated in Emile Durkheim's book Suicide. But sociology may also use qualitative methods. Positivist sociology (also known as empiricist) attempts to predict outcomes based on observed variables. Interpretive sociology (which Max Weber called verstehen, German for "understanding") attempts to understand a culture or phenomenon on its own terms. In the early 20th century, statistics and probability theory offered a new way to divine mathematical laws underlying all sorts of phenomena. As statistics and probability theory developed, they were applied to empirical sciences, such as biology, and to the social sciences. The first thinkers to attempt to combine scientific inquiry with the exploration of human relationships were Emile Durkheim in France and William James in the United States (Figure 1). Durkheim's sociological theories and James's work on experimental psychology had an enormous impact on those who followed. Emile Durkheim published his first major work, The Division of Labor in Society, in which he introduced the concept of "anomie", or the breakdown of the influence of social norms on individuals within a society. In 1895, he published The Rules of Sociological Method, his second major work, which was a manifesto stating what sociology is and how it ought to be done. In 1897, he published his third major work, Suicide: A Study in Sociology, a case study exploring the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics and arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. Early sociologists hoped to use the scientific method to explain and predict human behavior, just as natural scientists used it to explain and predict natural phenomena. Still today, sociologists often are interested in predicting outcomes given knowledge of the variables and relationships involved. This approach to doing science is often termed positivism or empiricism. The positivist approach to

social science seeks to explain and predict social phenomena, often employing a quantitative approach. But human society soon showed itself to be less predictable than the natural world. Scientists like Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert began to catalog ways in which the social world differs from the natural world. For example, human society has culture, unlike the societies of most other animals, which are based on instincts and genetic instructions that are passed between generations biologically, not through social processes. As a result, some sociologists proposed a new goal for sociology: not predicting human behavior, but understanding it. Max Weber and Wilhelm Dilthey introduced the concept of verstehen, or understanding. The goal of verstehen is less to predict behavior than it is to understand behavior. It aims to understand a culture or phenomenon on its own terms rather than trying to develop a theory that allows for prediction.

According to Spencer's synthetic philosophy, the laws of nature applied without exception to the organic realm as much as the inorganic, and to the human mind as much as the rest of creation. Spencer conceptualized society as a "social organism" that evolved from a simpler state to a more complex one, according to the universal law of evolution. Spencer is perhaps best known for coining the term "survival of the fittest," elaborating what came to be known as the philosophy of social Darwinism. Spencer went beyond Comte, claiming that not only the scientific method, but scientific knowledge itself was universal. He believed that all natural laws could be reduced to one fundamental law, the law of evolution. Spencer posited that all structures in the universe developed from a simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to a complex, differentiated heterogeneity, while being accompanied by a process of greater integration of the differentiated parts. This evolutionary process could be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. It was a universal law, applying to the stars and the galaxies as much as to biological organisms, and to human social organization as much as to the human mind. Thus, Spencer's synthetic philosophy aimed to show that natural laws led inexorably to progress. He claimed all thingsthe physical world, the biological realm, and human society underwent progressive development. Social Darwinism Spencer is perhaps best known for coining the term "survival of the fittest," elaborating what came to be known as the philosophy of social Darwinism. But, popular belief to the contrary, Spencer did not merely appropriate and generalize Darwin's work on natural selection; Spencer only grudgingly incorporated Darwin's theory of natural selection into his preexisting synthetic philosophical system. Spencer's evolutionary ideas were based more directly on the evolutionary theory of Lamarck, who posited that organs are developed or diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, Spencer held that evolution had a direction and an endpointthe

attainment of a final state of equilibrium. Evolution meant progress, improvement, and eventually perfection of the social organism. Class Conflict and Marx Marx focuses on explaining class conflict due to the means of production, which he posited was the driving force behind social evolution. Karl Marx, a German philosopher, introduced the idea of class conflict into sociology.

Marx sees society evolving through stages. He focuses on dialectical class conflict to control the means of production as the driving force behind social evolution. According to Marx, society evolves through different modes of production in which the upper class controls the means of production and the lower class is forced to provide labor. In Marx's dialectic, the class conflict in each stage necessarily leads to the development of the next stage (for example, feudalism leads to capitalism). Marx was especially critical of capitalism and foresaw a communist revolution. The bourgeoisie try to preserve capitalism by promoting ideologies and false consciousness that keep workers from revolting. Marx predicted that class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead to capitalism's downfall. Marx, one of the principle architects of modern social science, believed that history was made of up stages driven by class conflict. Famously, Marx wrote in The Communist Manifesto, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Class struggle pushed society from one stage to the next, in a dialectical process. In each stage, an ownership class controls the means of production while a lower class provides labor for production. The two classes come into conflict and that conflict leads to social change. For example, in the feudal stage, feudal lords owned the land used to produce agricultural goods, while serfs provided the labor to plant, raise, and harvest crops. When the serfs rose up and overthrew the feudal lords, the feudal stage ended and ushered in a new stage: capitalism.

Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. According to Durkheim, people's norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world. The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration. Durkheim saw increasing population density as a key factor in the advent of modernity. As the number of people in a given area increase, so does the number of interactions, and the society becomes more complex. As people engage in more economic activity with neighbors or distant traders, they begin to loosen the traditional bonds of family, religion, and moral solidarity that had previously ensured social integration. Durkheim worried that modernity might herald the disintegration of society.

Simpler societies are based on mechanical solidarity, in which self-sufficient people are connected to others by close personal ties and traditions. Modern societies are based on organic solidarity, in which people are connected by their reliance on others in the division of labor. Although modern society may undermine the traditional bonds of mechanical solidarity, it replaces them with the bonds of organic solidarity. Along with Marx and Weber, French sociologist Emile Durkheim is considered one of the founders of sociology. One of Durkheim's primary goals was to analyze how how modern societies could maintain social integration after the traditional bonds of family and church were replaced by modern economic relations. Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful force on individuals. People's norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world. The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration. For Durkheim, the collective consciousness was crucial in explaining the existence of society: it produces society and holds it together. At the same time, the collective consciousness is produced by individuals through their actions and interactions. Society is a social product created by the actions of individuals that then exerts a coercive social force back on those individuals. Through their collective consciousness, Durkheim argued, human beings become aware of one another as social beings, not just animals. Max Weber emphasized Verstehen, understanding, as the goal of sociology. Lester Ward is considered the founder of sociology in the United States.

Ward was a positivist who saw sociology as a scientific tool to improve life. He criticized laissez-faire theories and Spencer's survival of the fittest theory and developed his own theory of social liberalism. Ward believed that in large, complex, and rapidly growing societies, human freedom could only be achieved with the assistance of a strong, democratic government acting in the interest of the individual. Social liberalism Social liberalism is the belief that liberalism should include social justice. It differs from classical liberalism in that it believes the legitimate role of the state includes addressing economic and social issues, such as unemployment, health care, and education while simultaneously expanding civil rights. Social liberalism supports capitalism but stresses the need of social capital as a precondition to both capitalism and liberal democracy and rejects unchecked laissez-faire economics for failing to recognize the necessity of social capital. But for Ward, science was not objective and removed, but human centered and results oriented. As he put it in the Preface to Dynamic Sociology: "The real object of science is to benefit man. A science which fails to do this, however agreeable its study, is lifeless. Sociology, which of all sciences should benefit man most, is in

danger of falling into the class of polite amusements, or dead sciences. It is the object of this work to point out a method by which the breath of life may be breathed into its nostrils." Thus, Ward embodied what would become a distinctive characteristic of American sociology. Though devoted to developing sociology as a rigorous science, he also believed sociology had unique potential as a tool to better society. He believed that the scientific methodology of sociology should be deployed to solve real-world social ills, such as poverty, which he theorized could be minimized or eliminated by systematic intervention in society. Ward is most often remembered for his criticism of the laissez-faire theories advanced by Herbert Spencer and popular among his contemporaries. Spencer had argued that society would naturally evolve and progress while allowing the survival of the fittest and weeding out the socially unfit. Thus, social ills, such as poverty, would be naturally alleviated as the unfit poor were selected against; no intervention was necessary. Though originated by Spencer, these ideas were advanced in the United States by William Graham Sumner, an economist and sociologist at Yale. Ward disagreed with Spencer and Sumner and, in contrast to their laissez-faire approach, promoted active intervention.

Tongatong- A tongatong is a percussion instrument made of various lengths of bamboo, which is found in the Kalinga province of the Philippines.[1]It is played by hitting it against the earth.[1] Traditionally, tongatongs are used by the people of Kalinga to communicate with spirits,[1]particularly as part of healing rituals.[2] In modern times, they are also played recreationally as part of an ensemble.

Gangsa- A gangsa is a type of metallophone which is used mainly in Balinese andJavanese Gamelan music. In Balinese gong kebyar styles, there are two types of gangsa typically used: the smaller, higher pitched kantilan and the larger pemade. Each instrument consists of several tuned metal bars (either iron or bronze) each placed over an individual resonator. The bars are hit with a wooden panggul, each producing a different pitch. Duration of sound intensity and sound quality factors are generally accomplished by damping the vibration of the bar with the fingers of the free hand.

Bailing- is an instrument played in Cordillera in a soft tone (nose flute)

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