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Synthetic and analytical types of languages Analytical verb-forms: function word + full /content word
continuous forms perfect forms forms of the future interrogative forms negative forms forms of the passive voice
GRAMMAR
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS names of individuals = personal names, geographical names, names of a group of individuals CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, concepts COLLECTIVE NOUNS groups of people or things MATERIAL NOUNS - do not require limiting modifiers - usually have no plural forms
suffixes: -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or, -ion, -iour, -ledge, -ment, -y, -ee; -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ty, -ity, -ness, -ation, -dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist, -ship
-ing forms used as nouns - diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette -ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite Nouns with 2 suffixes: -ishness
N stem + N stem Adj stem + N stem Adv stem + N stem Verb stem + N stem
CN with ing forms CN with a linking element: - a vowel/consonant - a preposition - a conjunction DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS
VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT: roof; dwarf; MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT: German; -en PLURAL: child; BUT: brother; UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT: oyster FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium; BUT: focus; larva; antenna; index;
Ns in pl. - V in pl.: clothes, goods; pyjamas, scissors; Ns with -s V in sg: billiards; mumps; news; BUT: statistics; the same sg + pl = V in sg. or pl.: series; species;
PLURAL OF NAMES OF NATIONS Switzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swiss The Netherlands = Dutchman, Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch
COUNTABILITY
COUNTABLE Ns: living beings or things with a definite form; some abstract Ns; sg. and pl.; articles; numerals; How many? few; UNCOUNTABLE Ns: sth can be measured but not counted, without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no numerals; How much? little; material, liquids, substances: snow, iron, water, gold abstract qualities and ideas: courage, success, peace UC in EN, BUT: gossip, information, hair, homework, news, soap UC in pl.= kinds, extension, intensity: wines, waters, sands, heats C/U = glass, iron, paper Partitives
gender expressed lexically: - by different words: mother father - by pronouns: wolf she-wolf - by words indicating the gender: male reader female reader
COMMON GENDER
singer, journalist, neighbour, student = pronouns - male or female;
A pet: F = cat, parrot; car, ship; M = dog, horse, canary PERSONIFICATION (in poetry): Masculine = Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity - names of winds, rivers, mountains summer, autumn, winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death Feminine = Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness - names of countries (ref. to the nation), towns, universities the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope, modesty, justice
DEPENDENT GENITIVE
proper names: Pauls car; personal nouns: my sisters school personal indefinite pronouns: someones passport names of animals: dogs life collective nouns: governments decision geographical names: Slovakias export; BUT: institutional names: the schools history expressions of time, space, weight, distance: two weeks work names of seasons/months/days: Sundays newspaper with words: sun, moon, earth, world: the earths surface with words: ship, boat, vessel: ships cargo with personification (in poetry): winds whistle fixed expressions: by a hairs breadth
PRONOUNS
SPECIFIC PRONOUNS
3) DEMONSTRATIVE: express the number contrast = point at what is nearer or farther in time and space Such = of this/that kind; such as = for example Same = always with the 4) REFLEXIVE: indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S Gram. categories: P, N, G 3rd sg. - as direct or indirect O - after a preposition; after by meaning alone; - as part of the predicative of the V to be - in fixed phrases - to emphasize sth. = used with reflexive Vs
ADVERBS express some circumstances that attend an action, state, or point out some characteristic features of an action or a quality
- answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN? TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER? - can modify: Vs, adj. , indefinite pron., other adv., Ns, whole sentences; The modifying adverb is usually an INTENSIFIER According to their structure: simple derivative compound composite Adverbial phrases
GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS
GRADABLE: synthetic or analytical Irregular forms of comparison NON-GRADABLE According to their meaning: adverbs of MANNER adverbs of PLACE and DIRECTION adverbs of TIME adverbs of FREQUENCY adverbs of DEGREE, MEASURE and QUANTITY 2 forms of adverbs The same forms of adverbs and adjectives CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISON
VERBS
- according to the function within a VP = 3 classes of Vs: primary auxiliary Vs modal auxiliary Vs lexical (main, full) Vs - according to the finiteness: finite V forms non-finite V forms - according to morphological forms: regular Vs irregular Vs
VERBS
Regular Vs = 4 morphological forms: the base form (no inflections) = 4 functions the -ed form (past form + -ed participle form) = 3 functions the -s form -ing form Irregular Vs = either 5 forms or 3 forms - classified into: 3 forms alike 3 forms different past tense equals -ed participle V base equals -ed participle V base equals the past tense
MODALS = the speakers attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive
I CAN / COULD (periphrastic form: to be able to) CAN = ability, capability; CANNOT/CANT = inability, incapability CAN expresses: physical and mental abilities asking and giving permission with Vs with perception possibility CANT/COULD/COULD NOT + perfect inf.= ref. to the past CAN/CANT + passive infinitive
MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable obligation comes from the speaker stronger obligation for other persons MUST in notices, documents, commands MUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice MUST + present inf. = deduction refers to the present MUST + perfect inf. = deduction about the past
is associated with time orientation + various time indicators (already, since, for, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever,...)
past events with results in the present time indefinite events in a period leading up to the present time habit in a period leading up to the present time state leading up to the present time
describing one event following another in the past event in -when clause = completed before event in PS started in reported speech after past Vs to narrate events looking back from a point in the past to express an unrealized hope, wish
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of prediction
THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE = facts; relatively confident THE IMPERATIVE MOOD = commands, instructions 2 sg/pl (no distinction)= base of V; 1+3 sg/pl = periphrastically THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (replaced by other constructions) 1) The Mandative S. = lack of regular concord btw S + FV a) in a subordinate that-clause after Vs (in the main clause): advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend, order b) after adjectives (anxious, determined) with a personal S or (essential, important, urgent, vital)+ impersonal it-constr. c) after Ns (demand, intention, order, request, suggestion) 2) The Formulaic S. in certain set expressions 3) The Were-S. = hypothetical; conditional/wish clauses
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS = after Vs in VP, after Ns, Adj, in non-finite subordinate clauses
1) THE INFINITIVE present infinitive active: present infinitive passive: present progressive infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive passive: perfect / past progressive infinitive active: The bare infinitive is used after: modals; let; make; had better; would rather; Vs of perception; The to-infinitive is used after: some lexical Vs; V to be + adj.; some Vs followed by an O; indicating purpose