MATH/STAT.

T.

SUNDARA ROW S

Geometric Exercises
Paper Folding
Edited and Revised by

in

WOOSTER WOODRUFF BEMAN

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS
IN

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAK

and

DAVID EUGENE SMITH

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN TEACHERS COLLEGE OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
1

WITH

87

ILLUSTRATIONS

THIRD EDITION

CHICAGO LONDON THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY

:::

1917

&

XC? 4255

COPYRIGHT BY

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING Co,

1901

PRINTED

IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

hn
HATH
EDITORS PREFACE.
OUR
lesungen
attention

was

first

attracted to

Sundara

Row s Geomet
s

rical Exercises in

Paper Folding by

a reference in Klein

Vor-

iiber ausgezucihlte

Fragen der Elementargeometrie.

An

examination of the book, obtained after

its

many

vexatious delays,

convinced us of

undoubted merits and

of its probable value to

American teachers and students

of geometry.

Accordingly we

sought permission of the author to bring out an edition in this

country, wnich permission was most generously granted.

The purpose
introduction that
interest to every

of the

book

is

so fully set forth in the author s

school to

it is sure to prove of wide-awake teacher of geometry from the graded the college. The methods are so novel and the results

we need

only to say that

so easily reached that they cannot

fail to

awaken enthusiasm.

Our work

as editors in this revision has been confined to

some
of

slight modifications of the proofs,

some additions

in the

way

references,

and the insertion of a considerable number of half-tone

reproductions of actual photographs instead of the line-drawings

of the original.

W. W. BEMAN.
D. E. SMITH.

OK02

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Introduction
I.

vn
m

II.

The Square The Equilateral Triangle

Squares and Rectangles

9
14
3
,

III.

IV.

The Pentagon
The Hexagon The Octagon

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

35

39 45
the

The Nonagon The Decagon and

Dodecagon

47
5

The Pentedecagon

X. Series

52

XI. Polygons
XII. General Principles
XIII.

67
82

The Conic
Section

Sections.
i.

Section n. Section in. Section

iv.

The Circle The Parabola The Ellipse The Hyperbola

102

115
121

126
131

XIV. Miscellaneous Curves

INTRODUCTION.
book was suggested to me by The Kindergarten Gift No. VIII. Paper-folding. hundred colored consists of two gift variously squares

THE

idea of this

of paper, a folder, and diagrams

folding.

and instructions

for

The paper

is

colored and glazed on one side.

of self-color, alike

The paper may, however, be

both
will sides.

on

In fact, any paper of moderate thickness

answer the purpose, but colored paper shows the

is

creases better, and

more

attractive.

The kinder
;

garten

gift is sold

by any dealers

in school supplies

but colored paper of both sorts can be had from sta

tionery dealers.

Any

sheet of paper can be cut into

a square as explained in the opening articles of this

book, but

it is

neat and convenient to have the squares

ready
2.

cut.

These txercises do not require mathematical

instruments, the only things necessary being a pen

knife and scraps of paper, the latter being used for
setting off equal lengths.

The squares

are themselves

simple substitutes for a straight edge and a

3.

square.

In paper-folding several important geometric

processes can be effected

much more

easily than with

viii

INTR OD UC TION.

a pair of compasses and ruler, the only instruments

the use of which

etry
into
;

is

sanctioned in Euclidean

geom

for

example, to divide straight lines and angles

parts, to

two or more equal

draw perpendiculars
It
is,

and parallels

to straight lines.

however, not
but a

possible in paper-folding to describe a circle,

number

of points

on a

circle, as well

as other curves,

may

be obtained by other methods.

of

These exercises

do not consist merely

involving straight lines in the ordinary way,

ing

drawing geometric figures and fold

intelligent appli

upon them, but they require an

cation of the simple processes peculiarly adapted to

paper-folding.

This will be apparent

at the

very

com

mencement
4.

of this book.

The use of

the kindergarten gifts not only affords

interesting occupations to boys and girls, but also

prepares their minds for the appreciation of science and art. Conversely the teaching of science and art

on can be made interesting and based upon proper foundations by reference to kindergarten occu
later

pations.

This

is

particularly the case with geometry,

of every science

which forms the basis

and

teaching of plane geometry in schools

The can be made

art.

very interesting by the free use of the kindergarten

gifts.
It

would be perfectly legitimate

diagrams with paper.
figures,

to require

pu

pils to fold the

This would

give

them neat and accurate

and impress the

It

truth of the propositions forcibly on their minds.

would not be necessary

to take

any statement on

trust.

INTR OD UC TION.
But what
isation of
is

ix

now realised by

the imagination and ideal

fallacy like the following

5.

clumsy figures can be seen in the concrete. would be impossible.

triangle
is

To prove that every

Fig.
1,

isosceles.

Let

ABC,

be any triangle.
*

Bisect

AB

in Z,

and

through

Z draw ZO
CO.

perpendicular to

AB.

Bisect the

angle ACB by

A
(1) If

2
Fig.
i.

CO and ZO do not meet, they are parallel. Therefore CO is at right angles to AB. Therefore

AC^BC.
(2)
If

CO
Join

and

ZO
y

do meet,
to

let

them meet

in O.

Draw
to

OX perpendicular
OA
OB.

BC and OY perpendicular
I,

AC.

By Euclid

26 (B. and S.,

88, cor. 7)* the triangles

*
etry,

YOC

and
s

XOC

are con-

These references are to Beman and Smith Boston, Ginn & Co., 1899.

New Plane and Solid Geom

INTRODUCTION.
I,

gruent; also by Euclid

47 and

I,

8 (B.

and

S.,

156 and
gruent.

79) the triangles

AOY and BOX

are con

Therefore

AY+ YC=BX+XC,
i.e.,

AC^BC.

shows by paper- folding that, whatever tri angle be taken, CO and ZO cannot meet within the
Fig. 2
triangle.

Fig.

2.

O
6.

is

the mid-point of the arc

A OB

of the circle

which circumscribes the triangle ABC.

Paper-folding
is

not quite foreign to us.

Fold

ing paper squares into natural objects

a boat, double

IN TR OD UC T1ON.
boat, ink bottle, cup-plate, etc.,
also the cutting of paper in
is

xi

well known, as

poses of decoration. to rati, the paper is folded vertically or horizontally

symmetric forms for pur In writing Sanskrit and MahIn copying let

keep the

lines

and columns

straight.
is

ters in public offices

an even margin

secured by fold

ing the paper vertically.

Rectangular pieces of paper

folded double have generally been used for writing,

of machine-cut letter pa of various and sizes, sheets of convenient envelopes per size were cut by folding and tearing larger sheets, and

and before the introduction

the second half of the paper was folded into an envel

ope inclosing the first half. This latter process saved paper and had the obvious advantage of securing the
post marks on the paper written upon. Paper-folding has been resorted to in teaching the Xlth Book of
Euclid, which deals with figures of three dimensions.*

But
ures.

it

has seldom been used in respect of plane

fig

have attempted not to write a complete trea tise or text-book on geometry, but to show how reg ular polygons, circles and other curves can be folded
7.
I

or pricked on paper.

have taken the opportunity to

introduce to the reader

known problems of ancient and modern geometry, and to show how alge bra and trigonometry may be advantageously applied
some
well
to

geometry, so as to elucidate each of the subjects

in separate pigeon-holes.
s

which are usually kept

* See especially

Beman and Smith

New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 287.

xii

INTR OD UC TION.
8.

The

first

nine chapters deal with the folding of

first

the regular polygons treated in the

four books of

The paper square of the has taken been as the foundation, and kindergarten
Euclid, and of the nonagon.
the other regular polygons have been

worked out

thereon. Chapter
is

shows how the fundamental square

it

to

be cut and

how

can be folded into equal right-

angled isosceles triangles

Chapter II deals with the equilateral triangle described on one of the sides of the square. Chapter III is devoted to
the Pythagorean theorem (B. and S.,

and squares.

156) and the

propositions of the

second book of Euclid and certain

It is

puzzles connected therewith.

also

shown how

right-angled triangle with a given altitude can be de This is tantamount to find scribed on a given base.
ing points on a circle with a given diameter.
9. Chapter X deals with the arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic progressions and the summation of cer

tain arithmetic series.

lines

In treating of the progressions,

a progressive series are ob

whose lengths form

tained.

rectangular piece of paper chequered into

squares exemplifies an arithmetic series.

the altitude from the right angle
tional

For the geo

metric the properties of the right-angled triangle, that

is

mean propor

between the segments of the hypotenuse (B. S., 270), and that either side is a mean propor tional between its projection on the hypotenuse and

and

the hypotenuse, are

made

use

of.

In this connexion

the Delian problem of duplicating a cube has been

INTRODUCTION.
explained.*

xiii

In treating of harmonic progression, the

fact that the bisectors of

an interior and correspond

ing exterior angle of a triangle divide the opposite

side in the ratio of the other sides of the triangle (B.

and

S.,

249) has been used.

This affords an inter

esting

method

of graphically explaining

systems

in
of

involution.
their

The sums

of the natural

numbers and

cubes have been obtained graphically, and the sums of certain other series have been deduced there

from.

Chapter XI deals with the general theory of regular polygons, and the calculation of the numerical
10.

value of

7t.

The

propositions in this chapter are very

interesting.
11.

ples,

Chapter XII explains certain general princi which have been made use of in the preceding
congruence, symmetry, and similarity of
lines,

chapters,

figures, concurrence of straight of points are touched upon.

12.

and collinearity

Chapters XIII and XIV deal with the conic sections and other interesting curves. As regards
the circle,
treated.

harmonic properties among others are The theories of inversion and co-axial circles
its

As regards other curves it is shown how they can be marked on paper by paperThe history of some of the curves is given, folding.
are also explained.

and

it is

shown how they were

utilised in the solution

*See Beman and Smith s translation of Klein s Famous Problems of Ele mentary Geometry, Boston, 1897; also their translation of Fink s History of
Mathematics, Chicago, The Open Court Pub. Co.,
1900.

xi v

INTR OD UC TION.
two geometric means
given recti

of the classical problems, to find

between two given

lineal angle.

lines,

and

to trisect a

Although the investigation of the prop

erties of the curves involves a

knowledge

of

advanced
is

mathematics, their genesis is easily

interesting.

understood and

have sought not only to aid the teaching of geometry in schools and colleges, but also to afford
13.
I

mathematical recreation
tractive

to

young and
"Old

old, in

an at
mysell

and cheap form.

boys"

like

may
and

find the
to

book useful

to revive their old lessons,

have a peep into modern developments which, although very interesting and instructive, have been
ignored by university teachers.

T.

SUNDARA Row.

MADRAS,

INDIA, 1893.

I.

THE SQUARE.

1.

The upper
a table
is
is

side of a piece of paper lying flat

is

upon side which

2.

a plane surface, and so

the lower

in contact

with the table.

of the

The two surfaces are separated by the material paper. The material being very thin, the other
and the edges
of the

sides of the paper do not present appreciably broad

surfaces,
lines.

paper are practically

The two

surfaces though distinct are insepa

rable from each other.

3.

Look

at the irregularly

shown
lar.

in Fig. 3,

and

at this

shaped piece of paper page which is rectangu

Let us try and shape the former paper like the

Place the irregularly shaped piece of paper
table,

latter.

upon the

and

fold

it flat

upon

itself.

Let

XX
pass

be the crease thus formed.

It is straight.

Now

a knife along the fold und separate the smaller piece.

We

thus obtain one straight edge.

5.

that the edge

Fold the paper again as before along BY, so X X is doubled upon itself. Unfolding

the paper,
to the

we

see that the crease

It is

^Kis

at right

angles

edge

X X.

evident by superposition that

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
the angle

YBX

equals the angle

XBY, and

that each

of these angles equals an angle of the page.

Now pass

Fig.

3-

a knife as before along the second fold

and remove

the smaller piece.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Repeat the above process and obtain the edges CD and DA. It is evident by superposition that the are right angles, equal to one angles at A, B, C,
6.
>,

another, and that the sides

BC,

CD

are respectively

Fig. 4

equal to

DA, AB.

This piece

of

paper (Fig. 3)

is

similar in shape to the page.

7.
It

can be made equal

in size to the

page by
off

taking a larger piece of paper and measuring

AB

and

BC equal

to the sides of the latter.

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
8.

figure like this

it is

is

called a rectangle.

By

superposition
right angles
all

proved that

(1) the four angles are

and

all

equal, (2) the four sides are not

equal. (3) but the two long sides are equal, and so

also are the

9.

two short

sides.

Now take a
it

rectangular piece of paper,

A B CD,
CD,

and

fold

obliquely so that one of the short sides,

Fig.

5-

upon one of the longer sides, DA as in Fig. 4. Then fold and remove the portion A B BA which Unfolding the sheet, we find that ABCD overlaps.
falls
,

is

now
10.

square,

i.

e.

its

four angles are right angles,

and

all its

sides are equal.

The

crease which passes through a pair of th&

IN PAPER FOLDING

opposite corners B, D, is a diagonal of the square. One other diagonal is obtained by folding the square

through the other pair of corners as in Fig. 5. n. We see that the diagonals are at right angles to each other, and that they bisect each other.
12.

The

point of intersection of the diagonals

is

called the center of the square.

Fig.

6.

13.

Each diagonal

divides the square into two con

gruent right-angled isosceles triangles,

are at opposite corners.
14.

whose

vertices

The two diagonals together

divide the square

into four congruent right-angled

isosceles triangles,

whose

vertices are at the center of the square.

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
15.

Now

fold again, as in Fig. 6, laying

its

one side

upon opposite which passes through the center

at right angles to the other sides
(2)
it

of the square

side.

We

get a crease
It is

of the square.

and

(1) bisects
;

them;
it is

is

also parallel to the first

;

two sides

(3)

itself

bisected at the center

(4)

it

divides the square

Fig.

7.

into two congruent rectangles, which are, therefore, each half of it; (5) each of these rectangles is equal
to

one

of

the

triangles into

which either diagonal

divides the square.

Let us fold the square again, laying the re maining two sides one upon the other. The crease
16.

IN PAPER FOLDING

now

obtained and the one referred to in

15 divide

the square into four congruent squares.

again through the corners of the smaller squares which are at the centers of the sides
17.

Folding

of the larger square,

we

obtain a square which

is in

scribed in the latter.

(Fig. 7.)

Fig.

8.

18.

This square
center.

is

half the larger square,

and has

the

same
19.

By

joining the mid-points of the sides of the

inner square,

we

obtain a square which

is

one-fourth

of the original square (Fig. 8).

cess,
to

By

repeating the pro

we can

obtain any

number

of squares

which are

one another as

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
1
"2*

l
"4"

1
~8~

JL etc
16
is

or
of

i L
"2"

L
24

2^

jp

Each square
i.

half

the next larger square,

e.,

the four triangles cut from each square are to

gether equal to half of

angles increased to

The sums of all these any number cannot exceed

it.

tri

the

original square, and they must eventually absorb the whole of it.

Therefore

-f

^+^+

etc

to infinity

1.

20.

The

center of the square

is

the center of

its

circumscribed and inscribed

circles.

The

latter circle

touches the sides

at

their

mid-points, as these are

nearer to the center than any other points on the

sides.
21.

Any
it

crease through the center of the square

divides

into

two trapezoids which are congruent.

second crease through the center at right angles to

the
first

divides the square into four congruent quadri

laterals, of

which two opposite angles are right angles.

i.

The
each

quadrilaterals are concyclic,

lie in

e.,

the vertices of

a circumference.

II.

THE EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE.

take this square piece of paper (Fig. 9),
double, laying two opposite edges one upon

22.

Now
it

and

fold

the other.

We

obtain a crease which passes through

Fig. 9.

the mid-points of the remaining sides and

is at

right

angles to those sides.

fold through
it

Take any point on

of the

this line,

and the two corners

square which

io

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
it.

are on each side of

We

thus get isosceles triangles

standing on a side of the square. 23. The middle line divides the isosceles triangle into two congruent right-angled triangles.
24.

25. If

The vertical angle is bisected. we so take the point on the middle

line, that

Fig.

io.

its

distances from two corners of the square are equal

it,

to a side of

we

shall obtain
is

an equilateral triangle

easily determined by turning the base AB through one end of it, over A A until the other end, B, rests upon the middle line, as at C.

(Fig. 10).

This point

26.

Fold the equilateral triangle by laying each

IN PAPER FOLDING
of

n
thus obtain the

the sides upon the base.

We

three altitudes of the triangle, viz.:

(Fig. 11).
27.

A A BB CC,
, ,

Each
They

of the altitudes divides the triangle into

triangles.

two congruent right-angled

28.

bisect the sides at right angles.

Fig. ix.

29.

They pass through

common

point.

30. Let the altitudes AA and Draw BO and produce it to meet will now be proved to be the third

CC

meet
in

in
.

O.

AC

B
.

BB
From From

altitude.

C OA and CO A OC =OA and A OB, ^OBC ^^A BO. Again triangles from triangles ABB and CB B, /_AB B = /_BB C,
the triangles
,

OC B

12

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
e.,

i.

each of them

is

a right angle.

That

is,

BOB
It

is

an altitude
bisects
31.

of the equilateral triangle

.

ABC.

also

AC in B
It

OC

are equal,

can be proved as above that OA, OB, and and that OA OB and OC are also
,

equal.
32. Circles can therefore be described with

as a

center and passing respectively through A, B, and

and through

A B
,

and C

The

latter circle

touches

the sides of the triangle.

33.
six
set

The

equilateral triangle

ABC

is

divided into

congruent right-angled triangles which have one of their equal angles at O, and into three congru
symmetric, concyclic quadrilaterals. The triangle A OC is double the triangle

ent,

34.

therefore,

AO = 2OA
.

Similarly,

A OC; BO=r-2OL and

CO = 2OC

Hence

the radius of the circumscribed

is

circle of triangle

ABC

twice the radius of the in

scribed circle.
35.

The

right angle A, of the square,

is

trisected
a
i

by the straight
right angle.

lines AO, AC. Angle BAC=^\ of The angles C A O and OAB are each

of a right angle.

Similarly with the angles at

B and C.

36.
37.

The

six angles at

O
,

are each
,

of a right angle.

Fold through

AB BC

and

CA

(Fig. 12).
a fourth

Then A
38.

BC
,

is

an equilateral triangle.

It is

of the triangle

AB BC

ABC. CA
,

are each parallel to

AB, BC,

CA, and halves

of

them.

JN PAPER FOLDING
39.

13

ACA B
.

is

rhombus.

So are C

BA B

and

CB C A CA 40. A B B C
, ,

bisect the corresponding alti

tudes.
41.

CC

= 0.866....

Fig.

12.

42.

The A ABC= The

1/4

X \V*
43.
ratio of
:

rectangle of AC and CC = AB IVZ-AB? = 0.433 .... X^

i.

e.

2
-

angles of the triangle

its

AC C

are in the

1:2:3, and
.

sides are in the ratio of 1/1

1/3

III.

SQUARES AND RECTANGLES.

Fold the given square as in Fig. 13. This affords the well-known proof of the Pythagorean the44.

Fig. 13.

orem.

on

FGH being a right-angled triangle, the square FH equals the sum of the squares on FG and GH.
It is easily

uFA + u DB = n FC. proved that FC is a square,

and that

PAPER FOLDING
the triangles
gruent.
If

15

FGH, HBC, KDC, and

FEK

are con

the triangles

FGH
and

and

HBC

are cut off from

the squares

FA

and DB, and placed upon the other

two

triangles, the square

FHCK is made
FH=c,

up.
6*

IiAB = a, GA=b,

then a 2 -f

c*.

Fig. 14.

Fold the given square as in Fig. 14. Here the rectangles AF, BG, Cff, and DE are congruent, as also the triangles of which they are composed.
45.
is

EFGH

a square as also

KLMN.
and

Let

AK=a, KB = b,
then a*

NK =
j.

c,

# =^2,

uKLMN.

i6

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

Now

square

ABCD

overlaps the square

KLMN
DNM.
to

by the four triangles

of the rectangles,

AKN, BLK, CML,

to lab.
2

and

But these four triangles are together equal

i.

two

e.,
2

Therefore (a -f
46.

= a + P -f 2ab.
fi)*.

EF=a

The square
by the four

b, auidnFGJ?=(a EFGHis less than the square KLMN triangles FNK GKL, HLM, and EMN.
t

But these four

angles,
i.

triangles

make up two

of the rect

e.,

Zab.

Fig.

15.

47.

The square

ABCD overlaps

the square

EFGH

by the four rectangles AF, BG, Clf, and

DE.
2

48. In Fig. 15, the square

ABCD = (a-\-

and

IN PAPER FOLDING
the square

17

= square
Squares

EFGH(a ELCM = a
T ft

2
.
<)

Also square

AKGN
square

2
.

Square

KBLF =

ABCD

and

EFGH are
2 2 4- 2^

together equal to

the latter four squares put together, or to twice the

square
(a

AKGN
2

and twice the square

2

KBLF,
C

that

is,

-f (a

= 2a
O

Fig. 16.

49. In Fig. 16 the rectangle

(

PL

is

equal to (a-\-ft

-*).
Because the rectangle

EK = FM,
square

therefore rect
i.

angle

PL =

square

PK

AE,

e.,

(a-\-

50. If squares be described about the diagonal of a given square, the right angle at one corner being common to them, the lines which join this corner with

the mid-points of

the opposite sides of the given

i8

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
all

square bisect the corresponding sides of

squares.
(Fig. 17.)

the inner
lines

For the angles which these

all

make with
tude
is

the diagonal are equal, and their

squares, as

magni

constant for

may

be seen by

Fig. 17.

superposition.

Therefore the mid-points of the sides

of the inner squares

51.

must

lie

on these

lines.

ABCD
it is

being the given square piece of paper

required to obtain by folding, the point

(Fig. 18),

^Tin

AB, such that the rectangle

AX,

AB-XB
its

is

equal to

the square on

Double

upon itself and take Fold through E and A.

BC

mid-point E.

Lay

EB
that

upon

EA

and

fold so as to get

EF, and

G such

Take

EG = EB. AX=AG.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Then
rectangle

19

AB-XB^AX*.

Complete the rectangle

BCHX
Take

and the square

AXKL.
Let Xffcut

EA

in

M.

FY=FB.

Then F = FG = FY=XM m& XM=\AX.

Fig. 18.

Now, because
to

BY

is

bisected in

and produced

A,

Y+FY = AF
*

i,

by

49>

^(9 2
.-.

+^C
J

2
,

by

44.

AB-AY=AG
But

^^ =
2

20

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

AY=XB.

AB is
Also

said to be divided in

in

median section.*

i.

e.,

AB is
A

also divided in

Y in

median

section.

52.
its

circle

can be described with

as a center,

will

It circumference passing through B, G, and K touch .ZL4 at G, because FG is the shortest dis

tance from

F to

the line

EGA.

53. Since

subtracting

BK we have

rectangle
i.

XKNY= square
^.AT-KA^^F2
in
,

CHKP,
section.

e.,

i.

e.,

AX is

divided in

Kin median

Similarly j#Fis divided

54.

X in

median

section.

CD-CP
55. Rectangles

Bff and

rectangle
56.

^F+ square

= AB-XB = CK=AX^ AB- XB.

YD
being each

Hence

rectangle

JfY=

rectangle

j^A",

i.

e.,

57.
*

Hence
"

rectangle

^AT= AX-XBBX*.
also used.

Plane

The term golden section" and Solid Geometry, p. 196.

is

See Beman and Smith

New

IN PAPER FOLDING
58.

21

Let

AB = a, XB = x.
Then
(a
0a

x^ = ax, by

51.

**=:3<i#,

by

54;

and #

= .(3

1/5).

.-.

*
2

= 4(1/5 a
= ^(3 z

1)

= * X 0.6180. =^
2

...

(^_jc)
rect.

1/5)

0.3819.

The

BPKX

=a

(1/5

2)

=a

X 0.2360

~
4

59. In the

language
:

of

proportion

The

AB ^^T=^^: Xff.. straight line AB is said to be divided

ratio."

"in

ex

treme and mean

60.

Let

AB

be divided

in

in

median
19).

section.

Complete the rectangle

rectangle by the line
laying

CBXH (Fig.

Bisect the

XA

over

MNO. X so that A
7V^.

Find the point by falls on MO, and fold

through

XN, NB, and

Then

BAN

is

an

isos-

22

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
its

celes triangle having

angles

ABN and BNA double

the angle

NAB.

AX=XN=NB

Fig. 19.

IN PAPER FOLD IN C
.-.

and
61.

AN=AB = \ of a right angle.

A
can be divided into
five

The

right angle at

equal parts as in Fig. 20.

60.

Here
bisect

is

found as

in

Then fold^^

<2;

QAB

by

folding,

p
Fig. 20.

<~

fold over the diagonal

AC

and thus get the point

/"

62.

To

describe a right-angled triangle, given the

hypotenuse AB, and the altitude. Fold (Fig. 21) parallel to

EF
G

AB

at the distance

of the

given altitude.
the middle point of

Take
ing

AB.
fall

Find

Hby fold

GB

through

so that

B may

on EF.

24

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fold through

H and A,

G, and B.

AHB is

the triangle required.

Fig. 21.

63.

ABCD

(Fig. 22)

is
it

a rectangle.
in area.

It is

required

to find a square equal to

O
Fig. 22.

Mark
Find

Q
<9,

the middle point of

AM,

by folding.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Fold OM, keeping
line

25

fixed

and

letting

fall

on

BC, thus finding P, the vertex

of the right-angled

triangle

AMP.

Describe on

PB
is

the square

BPQR.

The square
For
.

equal to the given rectangle.

BP = QP,

and the angles are equal, triangle

BMP
.-.
.
.

is

evidently congruent to triangle

QSP.

QS=BM=AD.
triangles

DA T and QSP are

congruent.

.-.

PC=SR and triangles RSA

rnABCD
fitted

and

CPT are

con

gruent.
.-.

can be

can be cut into three parts which together to form the square RBPQ.

Fig. 23.

64.

Take

four equal squares and cut each of

them

into

sides

two pieces through the middle point of one of the and an opposite corner. Take also another

26

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
The
eight pieces can be arranged round

equal square.

the square so as to form a^complete square, as in Fig.

23, the

arrangement being a very interesting puzzle.

fifth

The

square

may

evidently be cut like the

others, thus complicating the puzzle.

made by cutting the one corner and the trisection points squares through
65. Similar puzzles can be
of the opposite side, as in Fig. 24.

Fig. 24.

66. If the nearer point is taken 10 squares are re

quired, as in Fig. 24;

if

the remoter point

is

taken 13

squares are required, as in Fig. 25.

67.

The

puzzles mentioned in

65, 66, are

based

upon

the formulas
32

12

-I-

2 2 -f 32

= 10 = 13.

IN PAPER FOLDING
The process may be continued, but the number squares will become inconveniently large.
68. Consider again Fig. 13 in
44.
If

27

of

the four

triangles at the corners of the given square are re

moved, one square is left. If the two rectangles FK and KG are removed, two squares in juxtaposition
are
left.

Pi*. 25.

69. The given square may be cut into pieces which can be arranged into two squares. There are various

ways

of

doing

this.

Fig. 23, in
:

65,

suggests the

following elegant method

(1) the

The

required pieces are

square in the center, and (2) the four con

gruent symmetric quadrilaterals at the corners, to gether with the four triangles. In this figure the lines

from the mid-points

of the sides pass

through the cor-

28

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
is

ners of the given square, and the central square

The magnitude of the inner square fifth of it. can be varied by taking other points on the sides in
one
stead of the corners.
70.

The given square can be divided

:

as follows

(Fig. 26) into three equal squares

Take

G = hali

the diagonal of the square.

Fig. 26.

Fold through C and G. Fold perpendicular

BM

to

CG.

Take MP, CN, and

Fold
Fig. 26.

NL

each

= BM.
CG, as
in

PH, NK, LF

at right angles to

IN PAPER FOLDING
Take

29

NK=BM,
the pieces

and

fold

KE
6,

at right angles to

NK.
Then
1, 4,

and

3 and

5,

and 2 and 7

form three equal squares.

Now CG =
i

i
?>BG ,

and from the triangles

GBC and CMB

}

BM _BG
Letting

~BC~~~CG BC=a, we have

1/3

IV.

THE PENTAGON.

71.

To

cat off a regular pentagon from the square

ABCD.
Divide

BA

in

in

median section and take

the mid-point of

AX.
c

X
Fig. 27.
1
,

Then Take

AB-AX=XB

and

AM=MX.
MN,
so that /* and

BN=AM or MX.
NP and J/^ equal
on
to

Lay

off

R may lie

BC and

^4Z>

respectively.

PAPER FOLDING
Lay
off

3:

RQ
is

and

PQ = MR and
AN, which
is

NP.
equal to
If
is

MNPQR
on

the pentagon required.

In Fig. 19, p. 22,

the point JV on the perpendicular

^4.Z?

MO.
it

AB, has be moved

over the distance

MB

then
J^f

evident that

.A7 will

be moved on to BC, and

to Jf.

Therefore, in Fig. 27,

NR = AB.
AB and
of a
rt.

Similarly

MP =

Ab

RP is
.

also equal to

parallel to

it.

NMR = f of a / / PNM= f of a / Similarly From triangles MNR and QRP, / NMR= RQP
.

/ RMA = |

rt

rt.

of art.

/.
TV,

The

three angles at J/,

and

of the

being each equal to

of a right angle, the

pentagon remain

2 ing two angles are together equal to -^ - of a right Therefore each of them angle, and they are equal.

is

| of a right angle. Therefore all the angles of the pentagon are equal.

The pentagon
72.
\

is

also equilateral by construction.

is

The base

MN of the pentagon

equal to XB,
58.

e.,

to^?-

(l/5

1)=^X0.6180....
is

The
73.

greatest breadth of the pentagon

AB.

If/ be the

altitude,

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

215
0.9510.
.
.

=AB cos

Fig. 28.

74. if J? be the radius of the circumscribed circ)e,

x=

2cosl8

AB =

ZAS
T/io

+ 21/5
o

IN PAPER FOLDING
75.
If

33

r be the radius of the inscribed circle, then

it is

from Fig. 28

evident that

20

0.4253....
76.

The

area of the pentagon

i.

is

5r

Xi

the base of

the pentagon,

e.,

10
77. In Fig. 27 let
in
.

PR

be divided by

MQ and

and F.
-.-

Then

MN=
36=
-

l.(i/5

1)

...

72

and cos

--^-l)
cos 36
5
_|_

34

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

RF=MN. RF: RE = RE
1/5

-2)...
:

(2)

1:3

1/5 = 3

F(by

51) .................... (3)

1/5 2 (1/5
:

2) ........... (4)

By

76 the area of the pentagon

i
snce
. .

1/25

+ 101/5,

= = EF* = ^^
2
-

the area of the inner pentagon

l

1/25+
2

101/5
1

-(1/5

2)

~.-

I/ 25

+ 101

The

larger pentagon divided

by the smaller

=2 =
1

(7

3l/5)
..

0.145898..

78. If in Fig. 27, angles

(^^ and LFQ are made

QK

equal to

L being points on the sides then EFL will be a reg QR QP respectively, ular pentagon congruent to the inner pentagon. Pen

ERQ or FQP,

K,

and

tagons can be similarly described on the remaining The resulting figure sides of the inner pentagon.
consisting of six pentagons
is

very interesting.

V.

THE HEXAGON.
hexagon from a given

79.

To

cut off a regular

square.

Fig. 29.

Fold through the mid-points of the opposite and obtain the lines A OB and COD.

sides,

On

both sides of
(

AO

and

OB

describe equilateral

triangles

25),

AOE, AHO; BFO

and

BOG.

36

GE OME TRIG EXER CISES

Draw EF and HG. AHGBFE is a regular hexagon.

It is

The
80.

unnecessary to give the proof. greatest breadth of the hexagon

is

AB.

The

altitude of the

hexagon

is

= 0.866....

Fig. 30.

81.

If

be the radius of the circumscribed

circle,

R=\AB.
82. If r be the radius of the inscribed circle,

AB =

433

X A B.

IN PAPER FOLDING
83.

37

The area

of the

hexagon

is 6

times the area of

the triangle
,

HGO,

= 6.^-1^. = =
3T/ 3

-.4^2^0.6495

X^^

2
-

Also the hexagon J -42? CD. 14 times the equilateral triangle on

AB.

Fig. 31-

an example of ornamental folding into equilateral triangles and hexagons.

84. Fig. -30
is

85.

hexagon

is

formed from an equilateral

tri

angle by folding the three corners to the center. The side of the hexagon is i of the side of the
equilateral triangle.

38

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
The area
of the

hexagon

=f

of

the equilateral

triangle.

86.

The hexagon can be divided

into equal regular

in Fig. 31

hexagons and equilateral triangles as

by

the sides. folding through the points of trisection of

VI.

THE OCTAGON.

87.

To

cut off a regular octagon from a given square.

Obtain the inscribed square by joining the mid

points A, B, C,

D of the sides of the given square.

Fig. 32.

Bisect the angles which the sides of the inscribed

square make with the sides of the other.

secting lines meet in E, F, G, and

Let the

bi

H.

40

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

AEBFCGDH is
The
triangles

a regular octagon.

AEB, BFC, CGD, and

DHA
is

are

congruent isosceles triangles.

fore equilateral.

The octagon

there

The

angles at the vertices, E, F, G,

of the

same

four triangles are each one right angle and a half,

since the angles at the base are each one-fourth of a
right angle.

Therefore the angles of the octagon at A, B, are each one right angle and a half. and

C,

Thus

the octagon

is

equiangular.
is

The

greatest breadth of the octagon

a.

the side of

the given square,

88. If

be the radius of the circumscribed

of the original square,

circle,

and a be the side

*-f
89.

The
is

angle subtended at the center by each of

half a right angle.

the sides
90.

Draw

the radius

OE

and

let it

cut

AB

in

(Fig. 33).

Then

AK= OK=

V2

= -=r.
2

V2

KE=OA-OK=
Now
from triangle

2] 2

AEK,

IN PAPER FOLDING

41

= 4--

(4-21/2)

= --.(2-1/2).

=- 1/2-1/2.
91.

The
2

altitude of the octagon

2

is

CE

(Fig. 33).

But C

= AC = *-

(2

_ 1/2 =
)

(2

+ 1/2)

A
Fig. 33-

a
2
92.

7^"

The

area of the octagon

is

eight times the

o

tri

angle AOE

and
CL

42

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
93.

dividing the angles of the given square into four equal

parts.

regular octagon

_
may
Fig. 34-

also be obtained

by

It is easily

seen that

EZ= WZ = a,

the side of the

square.

XE

= WK;
.(21/1).

Now
.-.

21/2.

Also

XZ
a. tf (2

1XE
(

1/2).

IN PAPER FOLDING

Again

OZ=

= ~(6-4v/2 + 2) = (2
2
<z

1/2").

HK=KZHZ
=a
-

(1/2

1/2

-(1/2

1)

7i/2

and

HA = ~ 1/20 A
HOA,

141/2.
is

94.

The

area of the octagon

eight times the

area of the triangle

1/2

(6
2 4)

4i/2)

1/2 -(1/2

-I)

44

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
95. This octagon
:

the octagon in

92

= (2
and
their bases are to

1/2 )2

1 or 2

(j/2

+ I)

2
;

one another as
i/2"+

1/2":

1.

VII.

THE NONAGON.

96.

Any

angle can be trisected fairly accurately by

in this

paper folding, and

way we may

construct ap

proximately the regular nonagon.

Fig. 35-

Obtain the three equal angles

equilateral triangle.
(

at the center of

an

25.)

46

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
For convenience
of

folding,

cut out the

three

angles,

A OF, FOC,

and

COA.
make

Trisect each of the angles as in Fig. 35, and

each of the arms =

97.

OA.
nonagon
4 is -^

Each

of the angles of a

of a

right angle = 140.

The angle subtended by each

J of a right angle or

side at the center is

40.
nonagon.
;

Half
98.
is

this angle is \ of the angle of the

OA

= %a,

where a

is

the side of the square

it

also the radius of the circumscribed circle, R.

The

radius of the inscribed circle

=Jt

cos 20

= %a cos 20 = * X 0. 9396926 = aX 0.4698463.

The area
the triangle
of the

nonagon

is

times the area of

AOL

= f sin 40 = --X 0.6427876 o = a* X 0.723136.

7?2
,

VIII.

THE DECAGON AND THE DODECAGON

show how a regular decagon, and

99. Figs. 36, 37

a regular dodecagon,

may be

obtained from a penta

gon and hexagon respectively.

Fig. 36.

The main

part of

the process

is

to obtain the

angles at the center.

In Fig. 36, the radius of the inscribed circle of
the pentagon
is

taken for the radius of the circum

it

scribed circle of the decagon, in order to keep

within the square.

48

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
ioo.

A
:

regular decagon

may

also be obtained as

follows

Obtain X,

Y, (Fig. 38), as in

51, dividing

AB in

median

section.

Take

the mid-point of

AB.

Fold XC, MO, YD at right angles to AB. Take O in such that YO AY, or YO

MO

= XB.

Fig. 37-

Let YO, and

XO

produced meet XC, and

YD

in

and

D respectively.
XOC
and and

Divide the angles

parts by

DOY into

four equal

HOE, KOF,
Off",

LOG.

Take
<9For

OK, OL, OE, OF, and

OG

equal to

OK

Join X, H, K, L, C, D, E, F, G, and Y, in order.

IN PAPER FOLDING
As
in
60,

49

YOX=l

of a

rt.

/ =36.

Fig. 38.

By

bisecting the sides

and joining the points thus

is

determined with the center, the perigon

into sixteen equal parts.

divided

16-gon

is

therefore easily
a.

constructed, and so for a 32-gon, and in general

regular 2*-gon.

IX.

THE PENTEDECAGON.
how
the pentedecagon
is

101. Fig.

39 shows

OD-

tained from the pentagon.

Let

ABODE

be the pentagon and

its

cente r

Draw OA, OB, OC, OD, and OE.

to

Produce

DO

meet

AB in K. OF=$ of OD. Fold GFH right angles

Take
2,\.

to

OF.

Make

OG =

OH= OD.

PAPER FOLDING
Then GDH.
is

51

an equilateral triangle, and the

angles DOG and HOD are each 120. But angle DOA 144; therefore
is

angle

GOA

is

24.

That
by OG.

is,

the angle

EOA, which

is

72,

is

trisected

Bisect the angle

EOG
in

by OL, meeting
then

EA

in Z,

and

let

OG

cut

EA
<9^

M;

OL = OM.
In

OA

and

take

OP and
Z<2

<9<2

equal to

OL

or

Then PM, ML, and

pentedecagon.

are three sides of the

Treating similarly the angles

A OB, BOC, COD,

and

DOE, we

obtain the remaining sides of the pente

decagon.

X.

SERIES.

ARITHMETIC SERIES.
IO2. Fig. 40 illustrates

an arithmetic

series.

The
series.

horizontal lines to the

left of

the diagonal, including

the upper and lower edges, form an arithmetic

Fig. 40.

The

initial line

being

a,

and d the
-\-

common
3//, etc.

difference,

the series
103.

is a, a-\- d,

a-\-2d, a

portions of the horizontal lines to the right of the diagonal also form an arithmetic series,

The

PAPER FOLDING

53

but they are in reverse order and decrease with a

common
104.

difference.

In general,
the
series,

if

be the last term, and

the

sum

of

the

above diagram graphically

proves the formula

105. If a

and

are two alternate terms, the middle

term

is

106.

To

insert n

means between a and

n-\- 1

/,

the ver

tical line

has to be folded into

difference will be

equal parts.

The

common

I- a
Considering the reverse series and interchan ging a and /, the series becomes
107.
a,

a
"be

d,

2d

/.

The terms

will

positive so long as a

>(

!)</,

and thereafter they

will

be zero or negative.

GEOMETRIC SERIES.
108.

In a right-angled triangle, the perpendicular

from the vertex on the hypotenuse is a geometric mean between the segments of the hypotenuse. Hence, if

two alternate or consecutive terms

series are given in length,

of

geometric be deter-

the series can

54

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
in

mined as

Fig. 41.

Here OPi,

OP

2,

OP

3,

and OP$ form a geometric

being OPi
:

series, the

common

rate

OP

2.

P3

Fig. 41.

If

OP\ be

the unit of length, the series consists of

the natural powers of the

109.

common

rate.

Representing the series by

#, ar,

ar 2 ....
,

These

lines also
r.

form a geometric series with the

common

rate

no. The terms can also be reversed, in which case

the

common

rate will be a proper fraction.

be the unit,

OP

is

the
is

common

rate.

If OP& The sum of

the series to infinity

IN PAPER FOLDING
in. In the

55

manner described in 108, one geo mean can be found between two given lines, and by continuing the process, 3, 7, 15, etc., means 1 means can be found, can be found. In general,
metric
2"

n being any positive integer.

112.
It is

not possible to find two geometric

lines,

means

between two given

merely by folding through

known

points.

It

can, however, be accomplished in

:

the following

manner

In Fig. 41,

given,

it is

required to find

OP\ and OP being P% and Ps Take two rect

.

paper and so arrange them, that their outer edges pass through P\ and P^ and two corners lie on the straight lines OP* and OP* in such a way
angular pieces of
that the other edges ending in those corners coincide.

The

positions of the corners determine

OP<i

and OP*.

113.

This process gives the cube root of a given

for
if

number,
114.

OP\
is

is

the unit, the series

is 1, r,

r2 r 3
,

There

a very interesting legend in

"The

connec

tion with this problem.*

Athenians when suf

fering from the great plague of eruptive typhoid fever

430 B. C., consulted the oracle at Delos as to how they could stop it. Apollo replied that they must double the size of his altar which was in the form of a
in
cube.

Nothing seemed more easy, and a new altar was constructed having each of its edges double that
of the old one.

The

god, not unnaturally indignant,

s

*But see Beman and Smith

matics, p.
82, 207.

translation of Fink

History of Mathe

56

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
the pestilence worse than before.

made

utation

formed that

was accordingly sent to Delos, it was useless to trifle with him,

his altar exactly doubled.

A fresh dep whom he in

as

he

must have

Suspecting a
Plato,

mystery, they applied to the geometricians.

the most illustrious of them, declined the task, but

referred

them

to

Euclid,

study of the

problem."

who had made a special (Euclid s name is an inter

polation for that of

Hippocrates re duced the question to that of finding two geometric means between two straight lines, one of which is
Hippocrates.)
twice as long as the other.
If a, x,

y and 2a be the
a pupil

terms of the

series,

xs

= 2a^.
means.
*
:

He

did not, however,

succeed
of PJato,

in rinding the

Menaechmus,
and 325 B.
2a.

who

lived between 375

C.,

gave

the following three equations

a
:

=x
we

From
equations

this relation
:

obtain the following three

= ay y = 2ax xy = 2a*
x2
2

(1)

(2) (3) (3) is

(1)

and (2) are equations of parabolas and

(2) as well as (1)

the equation of a rectangular hyperbola.

(1)

Equations

and

and

(3) give x*

= 2a*.

The

problem was solved by taking the intersection () of the two parabolas (1) and (2), and the intersection (/?)
of the parabola (1) with the rectangular
*Ibid., p. 207.

hyperbola

(3).

IN PAPER FOLDING

57

HARMONIC
115.

SERIES.

Fold any lines AR, PB, as in Fig. 42, P be Fold ing on AR, and B on the edge of the paper. with PB. coincide both and PR AP so that may again
Let PX,

PY

be the creases thus obtained,

and

being on AB.

Then
range.

the points A, X, B,

form an harmonic

That

is,

AB
that

is

divided internally in

and

externally in

Fso

AX: XB = AY: BY.

It is

evident, that every line cutting

PA, PX, PB,

R

and PYvti\\ be divided harmonically.

A
116.

B
Fig. 42.

Y
to find Y: fold
to B.

Having given A, B, and X,

any

line

XPand mark ^corresponding

Fold

AKPR,

Bisect the angle BPR by PY P so that /l# and PR coincide. through Because XP bisects the angle APB, .-.AX: XB = AP: BP,

and BP.

by folding

= AY:

BY.

58

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
117.

AX: XB = AY: BY XYBY=AY: BY. orAYXY:

series,

Thus, AY, XY, and BY, are an harmonic

and XY is the harmonic mean between AY and BY. Similarly AB is the harmonic mean between AX
and

A Y.
118.
If

BY and XYbe given, to find

to describe

the third term

tri

AY, we have only

angle on

any right-angled

XYas

the hypotenuse and

make angle

APX

= angle XPB.
119.

Let

AX

a,

AB = b,

and
a
c

AY=c.

-j-

or, or, ^

ab
~o

-\-

bc=.%ac
7

ab

=
fr,

b
T-

When When
Therefore when
at

= = = b 2a, c=&.
a
c
b.

X is
it,

the middle point of

AB,

is

an
as

infinite distance to the right of

X approaches X

B. Y approaches and ultimately the three points

coincide.

As

moves from the middle

infinite distance

of

AB

to the left,

moves from an

on the

left

Y towards A
y

and ultimately X, A, and

120. If

Y coincide.
AB,

E be

the middle point of

for all positions of

Jfand

Y with

reference to

or B.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Each
of the

59

two systems

of pairs of points

and

Y is

called a system in involution, the point

being
as one

called the center

and

or

B the

focus of the system.

The two systems together may be regarded

system.
121.

AX
:

and

AY

being given,

B can

be found as

follows

Produce

XA

and take

AC=XA.
A Y.

Take Take

D the middle
CE = DA
or

point of

AE = DC.
F

X
Fig. 43-

Fold through
to

so that

AF may

be at right angles

CA Y.
Find

F such

that

DF=DC.
and obtain FB, such that

Fold through
at right angles to

EF
EF.

FB

is

CD

is is

the arithmetic

AF

the geometric
also the

AFis
and AB.

mean between AX and A Y. mean between AX and A Y. geometric mean between CD or AE

the harmonic

Therefore

AB is

mean between

AX

and

A Y.
122.

finding

The following is a very simple method of the harmonic mean between two given lines.

6o

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Take AB,

CD

the given lines.

sides

AC,

BD of
be

on the edges of the square equal to Fold the diagonals AD, ^Cand the the trapezoid ACDB. Fold through

E, the point of intersection of the diagonals, so that

PEG may

at right angles to the other sides of the

square or parallel to

AB

and CD.
B

Let

EEG

cut

AC

Fig. 44.

and

BD in F and
AB

G.

Then

EG is
CE CB
~C~B

the harmonic

mean

between

and CD.

For

EG
CD EE

__ ~~

EE AB FE
CD

__ ~~

__ EB_ ~~

AB
1

EF
CD
1

CE CB
~=
1

"

EB_

CB

~AB

+ CD

~~~

~FE

_2_ ~EG

IN PAPER FOLDING
123.

6t

The

line

HK connecting the mid-points of AC

mean between
mean,

and

BD is
124.

the arithmetic

To

find the geometric

AB and CD. take HL in HK

the

= FG.
as

Fold ZJ/at

mid-point of

HK and find M in LM so that OM^OH.

The geometric mean between is thus seen to be the geometric mean arithmetic mean and harmonic mean.
ZfA".

right angles to

HK. Take O

HM\s the geometric mean between ^^ and CD as well

between

FG and

two quantities between their

Fig. 45-

SUMMATION OF CERTAIN
125.

SERIES.

To sum
1

the series

+ 3 + 5.... + (2

1).

Divide the given square into a number of equal Here we have 49 squares, but squares as in Fig. 45. the number may be increased as we please.

62

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
The number
of squares will evidently

be a square

number, the square of the

sides of the given square.

number

of divisions of the

Let each

of the small squares

\yy

be considered as the

unit; the figure formed

-\-

O -\- a

being called a

gnomon. The numbers

of unit squares in each of the

etc.,

gno
7, 9,

mons AOa, BOb,

11, 13.

are respectively

3,

5,

Therefore the
13
is

sum

of the series

1, 3,

5, 7, 9, 11,

2
.

Generally,

+ 3 + 5 -f

-f (2

1)

;/

2
.

Fig. 46.

126.

To

find the

sum

of the

cubes of the

first

natural numbers.

Fold the square

into 49 equal squares as in the

IN PAPER FOLDING

63

preceding article, and letter the gnomons. Fill up the squares with numbers as in the multiplication table.

The number The sums of

etc., are 2

in the initial

square
in the
3
,

is 1

I3.

the
2

numbers
3
,

gnomons Aa, Bb,

3
,

+ 4-f

=2

3
,

3
,

and

73

The sum of row is the sum

Let us
call
it s.

the

numbers

in the first horizontal

of the first seven natural

numbers.

Then
etc., are

the

sums

of the

numbers
and

in

rows

a, b, c, d,

2s, 3s, 4s, 5j, 6s,

Is.
is
s*.

Therefore the

sum

of all the

numbers

s(l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7) =

Therefore, the
natural numbers
is

sum

of the

cubes

of the first

seven
of

equal to the square of the

3
3 -f 3 ____ -f

sum

those numbers. Generally,

I3

+2

;z

For

[( + I)]

[(
=-(>

!)]*
2

-f

(>

)2

Putting

1, 2,

3 .... in order,

we have

4-l 3

= (l-2)2_ (0-1)2

64

GE OME TRIG EXER CISES

Adding we have
4.5 /* 3
1

= [( + I)]
2

127- If

be the sum of the

first

n natural numbers,

128.

To sum
1-2

the series
(

+ 2-3 + 3-4. ... +

!)-.

In Fig. 46, the numbers in the diagonal

cing from
in order.
1,

commen
numbers

are the squares of the natural

The numbers
gnomon.

in

one gnomon can be subtracted

in

from the corresponding numbers

the succeeding

By

this process

we obtain

=* +
1

+ 2[(
(

!)
1)2

2)

3)....

+1]

+ .2[; + 2.. ..+(*!)]

4. 3(n
3

l)n.
3

Now

(;?

1)

1 -f-

3(

1),

93

p^!

3 9-1
.

Hence, by addition,

IN PAPER FOLDING
Therefore

65

129.

To
1-2

find the

sum

of the squares of the first n

natural numbers.

+ 2-3.. + (_!) = 2 2 + 3 3.. + ^ a = 12 22 + 3 ____ + (1 4- 2 -f 3 ____ -f n)

..
2 2

..

_|_

rc

Therefore

130.

To sum

the series

12_|_32_|_ 52

8_
. .

_i

==:W

= (2
3

^ (2 I) + (_!) + (.!),
2
.

by

128,

1)

-(^

!)-,
....

by putting n

=
z

1, 2, 3,

13_o3= i2__o.l 2 Pr=3 2 1-2

33
23

=5

2-3

66

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Adding, we have
n*

I 2 4.

32

+5

2
. . . .

-{-

(2
..

I)

[1-2 -f 2-34-3-4..

+ (_ !)],

XI.

POLYGONS.
its

I3lt

Find

O the

center of a square by folding

the
right

diameters.

Bisect

angles at the center,

then the half right angles, and so on. Then we obtain equal angles around the center, and the
2"

magnitude

of

each of the angles

is

^ of

a right angle,

being a positive integer. Mark off equal lengths on each of the lines which radiate from the center. If
the extremities of the radii are joined successively,

we

get regular polygons of

132.

2"

sides.

Let us find the perimeters and areas of these In Fig. 47 let OA and OA\ be two radii polygons.
at right angles to

each other.

Let the radii

OA^

OA

S,

OA
OA-2

etc., divide the right angle

A\OA

into 2,

4, 8 .... parts.

Draw AA\, AAThen

B\,

2,

radii

OA^ OA

at B\, B-2

AA B
3
.

.... cutting the

respectively,
. . .

at

right

angles.

B^

are the

mid
AA<t,

points of

the respective chords.

. .

Then AA\,
and

AA

AA^,
23
,

.are the sides of the inscribed polygons

of 2 2

24

sides respectively,

OB^ OB*

are the respective apothems.

Let
a

OA = R,
represent the side of the inscribed polygon

(2")

68

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
2"

of

sides,

(2")

the corresponding apothem,

its area.

/(2")

its

perimeter,

and

.4(2")

For the

square,

/ (22)= ^-22- 1/2;

A,
Fig. 47-

For the
in the

octagon,

two triangles

and

OA

or

AAv =

(1)

PAPER FOLDING
2

6g

1/2

(2)

= 1*1/2+1/2
23 )

...(3)

= J perimeter X apothem
1/2
-

Similarly for the polygon of 16 sides,

2*)

= *-2

-1/2

1/2

+ 1/2;

^(2
and
tor the

= ^2- 22-1/2
of 32 sides,

1/2;

polygon

25)

= ^-2

1/2

The
Also

general law

is

thus clear.

^2==number
of sides is increased indefinitely

As

the

7o

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
apothem evidently approaches Thus the limit of
2
its

the

limit, the ra

dius.

+ I/ 2 + 1/2..
2,

..is 2;
-J-

for

if jc

represent the limit, #

= 1/2

#,

a quadratic
is,

which gives x

or

1;

the latter value

of

course, inadmissible.
133.
If

perpendiculars are drawn to the radii at

their extremities,

we

get regular

polygons circum

scribing the circle and also the polygons described as

in the

preceding
C_

article,

and
E__

of the

same number
D

of

sides.

_G

In Fig. 48, let

AE

be a side of the inscribed poly

gon and

FG a

side of the circumscribed polygon.

Then from

the triangles

FIE

and EIO,

OE
.-.

FE

FG = R AE

IN PAPER FOLDING
The values
previous article,
of

71

AE FG is
as

and

Of

being

known by

the

The
as
1
:

areas of
1
,

found by substitution. the two polygons are to one another

FG AE

i.

e.,

&

Of*.

preceding articles it has been shown .2* how regular polygons can be obtained of 2 2 2 3 it is sides. And if a polygon of m sides be given, easy
134. In the
,
.

to obtain

polygons of
Fig. 48,

2"-m

sides.

135. In

AB and CD

are respectively the

sides of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons of

n sides.

Take

BE.

AE and

E the mid point of CD and draw AE, BE are the sides of the inscribed poly
right angles to

gon Fold AF,

ing

of 2n sides.

BG at
G.
is

A C and BD,

meet

CD

in

Fand

Then
of

FG

a side of the circumscribed polygon

2n sides.

Draw OF,
Let
/>,

OG and OE. P be the perimeters

and /,

of the inscribed

and

circumscribed polygons respectively of n sides, and

A,

their areas,

the perimeters of the in

scribed and circumscribed polygons respectively of 2n

sides,

and

A B
,

their areas.

Then

p
to

= n-AB,
Because

P=n-CD, p

= 2n-AE, P = 2n-FG.
AB
is

OF

bisects

/ COE, and
_
"

parallel

CD,

FE

CO CJ^__CO__ ~~ ~~
~OE

CD
~

~AO

72

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

CE
~EE
or

_CD+AB
AB
n-CD+n-AB
n-AJ3

4n-C

EE

2P _P+p
. .

=
EIE and
AffE,
_

Again, from the similar triangles

ET^
or

EE

~Aff~ AJE

A
or

=.2.

= V P p.

Now,

The
tude,

triangles

A Off and AOE

__ = ~

are of the

same

alti

AH,

OH
~OE

&AOE
Similarly,

_OA ~
~OC

Again because

AB
A

||

CD,

A Off

AOE

Now

to find

Because the triangles

COE

and

IN PAPER FOLDING

73

FOE
angle

have the same

altitude,

and

OF

bisects the

EOC,

&COE CE &FOE~ FE
and

OC+OE
OE
_

,__ ~ &AOH
OA
~~

OE =

OA,

Off

&COE
From
this

&AOE +
we

&AOH
.

equation

easily y obtain

IT

136.

Given the radius

ular polygon, to find

and apothem r of a reg and apothem r of the radius

a regular polygon of the same perimeter but of double

the

number
Let

of sides.

AB be

a side of the first polygon,

its

center,

OA
OB.

the radius of the circumscribed circle, and

OD
or

the apothem.

On OD produced
Fold

take

OC=OA
OB

Draw AC, BC.

OA

and

perpen-

74

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

dicular to
,

AC
.

and

BC

respectively, thus fixing the

.

Draw A B cutting OC in D Then points A B the chord A B is h^f of AB, and the angle B OA is half of BOA. OA and OH are respectively the ra
dius

and apothem

r of the

Now
and

OH
.

is

the arithmetic

second polygon. mean between OC and

OD, and OA

is

the

mean proportional between

OC

OD

137.

Now, take on

<9C,

OE=OA
^
C,

and draw

^ ^.

Then

H being
A
E,

less

than

and /

DA

C being

bisected by

ED

is less

than

\CH

i.

e., less

than
*")

\CD

.. R\

r\ is less

than

\{R

polygon approaches the circle of the same perimeter, and R and r approach the radius of the circle.

As the number

of sides is increased, the

That

is,

= the diameter of the circle =

7t

Also,
_/?]== Rr\ or

_-

=-f?\

and

~ = -^,

and so on.

Multiplying both sides,

*
-

tne radius of the circle

-.

IN PAPER FOLDING
138.

75

The

radius of the circle lies between

4-2"

Rn and

r nJ the sides of the polygon being

in

number;

and
of

TT

lies

between

and
rn

Rn

-.

The numerical value

n can

therefore be calculated to any required de

gree of accuracy by taking a sufficiently large

of sides.

number

The
othems
sides.

following are the values of the radii and apof the regular

polygons of

4,

8,

16.... 2048

4-gon, r
8-gon,

= 0-500000 = -603553 n = 0-636620

R = r\/^=
RI = 0-653281

-707107

2048-gon,

r<>

= 0-636620.

139. If

R"

be the radius of a regular isoperimetric

polygon

of

4^ sides

_ _
2

or in general

T~\ ^^
140.

The

radii R\,

R^. .... successively diminish,

and the

ratio -77-12 less

than unity and equal to the

cosine of a certain angle a.

^=\
RZ

\l

+ cos a

2--= cos 2-

76

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

i,\

of.

multiplying together the different ratios,

J^
jt+l

we

get

=J?i Cosa- cos

^?
.

cos cos
s

The
O
is

limit of cos or-cos

,

when

oo,

a result

known

as Euler

Formula.

141.

It

was demonstrated by Karl Friedrich Gauss*

2",

(1777-1855) that besides the regular polygons of

3-2",
5-2",

15

-2"

sides,

the

only regular polygons

which can be constructed by elementary geometry are those the number of whose sides is represented by the product of bers of the form
polygons
of 5
2"

and one or more

different

num

2"*-f-l.

We

shall

show here how

and 17 sides can be described.

:f

The
ference

following theorems are required

(1) If (7

and

Z>

are
if

two points on a semi-circum

ACDB,

and

be symmetric to

C with

re

spect to the diameter

circle,

AB, and

the radius of the

AC-BC=R-CC
(2)

.............

iii.

Let the circumference

of a circle

be divided

into an

odd number

of equal parts,

and

let

AO be
p.,

the

*Beman and Smith

245;

s translation of Fink s History of Mathematics, p. see also their translation of Klein s Famous Problems of Elementary
,

Geometry pp.
t

16, 24,

and their

New Plane and Solid

Geometry,

212.

These theorems may be found demonstrated

in Catalan s Theortmes et

Problemes de Geomttrie Elementaire.

IN PAPER FOLDING

77

diameter through one of the points of section A and the mid-point O of the opposite arc. Let the points
of section

At,

on each side of the diameter be named A\, .A n beginning next .A n and A i, A 2 A 3

, , . .
.

to A.

Then OAi OA* OA 3 ____ OA n

and OAi OA^
-

OA
is

....
if

OA

= R ...... = R*.
n

iv.

142. It is evident that

the chord
it

OA n

is

deter

mined, the angle

divided into
2"

A n OA

found and

has only to be

equal parts, to obtain the other chords.

i<<.

Let us

first

take the pentagon.

By theorem

iv,

By theorem

i,

R(OA

OA )=
2

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

1),

and t?^ 2

(i/5

1).

Hence the following construction. and draw the tangent Take the diameter AF. Take D the mid-point of the radius OC and
^C6>,

On OC as
Join

diameter describe the circle

in
2
.

AE

CE.
.

FD cutting the inner circle Then FE =OA, and FE= OA

144.

and

Let us now consider the polygon

of

seven

teen sides.

Here*
Az

OA OA OA -OA r OA
-

= R*.

and

O
ii.

By

theorems

i.

and

OA OA
-

Suppose

rtmes

principal steps are given. For a full exposition see Catalan s ThtoProbltmes de Gtomttrie Elententaire. The treatment is given in full in Beman and Smith s translation of Klein s Famous Problems of Elementary

*The
et

Geometry, chap.

iv.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Then

79

MN=R*
formulas

and

PQ = R*.
of

Again by substituting the values

M,

IV,

and

in the

MN=R\ PQ=R^
and applying theorems
i.

and

ii.

we
Q^)

get

(M

N)~ (P

= R.
P

and Q in ALSO by substituting the values of M, N, the above formula and applying theorems i. and ii.

we

get

Hence
mined.

M MN,
(

N} (P Q} = 4^ 2 P Q, J/, N, P and Q
.

are deter

Again

Hence
145.

OA

is

determined.

By

solving the equations

(1 -f 1/17).
1

we

get

M N= ^R
P
Q = R(

+ 1/17).

OA 8 = IR\_
2

1+1/17 + 1/34
26

2i/17
4

iXl7+3i/17+ 1/170

V 11

|/34+2v

17 ]

= J7?[

+ /I7 + 1/34 21/17 + 31/17 1/170 + 38J/17],

8o

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
146.

The geometric

construction

is

as follows
;

Let
center.

BA

be the diameter

of the given circle

its

Bisect

OA

in C.

OA
in

and take AD = AB.

and on each side

CD

Draw AD at right angles to Draw CD. Take E and E CE = CA. of C so that

C=

Fig. 51.

Bisect

^Z>

in

and

>

in

Draw

Z>^

per

pendicular to

CD

and take
.

DF= OA.
in

Draw
Take

FG

and /r

in

7^7 and
.# ==

produced so that

GH=EG and
Then
it is

G D.

evident that

IN PAPER FOLDING.
also

81

FH = P, (FH DE FH= DF* = &. Again in DF take A such that FK=FH. Draw KL perpendicular to DF and take L in KL
.)

such that

FL

is

perpendicular to

DL.
to

Then FL* =DF- FK=RN.

Again draw

H N= FL. Draw NM perpendicular to NH M in NM such that ZT J/ perpendicular to

.

J7W perpendicular
is

FH

and take

Find

FM.

Draw MF Then

perpendicular to

FH
2

F H FF = ^ J/
But

FF

XII.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
preceding pages we have adopted sev
e.

147. In the

eral processes,

g.,

bisecting and trisecting finite

lines, bisecting rectilineal

angles and dividing them

into other equal parts, drawing perpendiculars to a

given

line, etc.

Let us now examine the theory

of

these processes.
148.

The general

principle

is

that of congruence.
if

Figures and straight

lines are said to be congruent,

all

they are identically equal, or equal in

respects.

In doubling a piece of paper upon

tain the straight edges of

itself,

we ob

two planes coinciding with

also be regarded as the

each other.

This line

may

intersection of two planes

if

we consider
line, or

their posi

tion during the process of folding.

In dividing a finite straight

an angle into a
of

number

of

equal parts,

we

obtain a

number

con

gruent parts.
gruent.
149.

Equal

lines or equal angles are

con

Let

XX

be a given

finite line,

divided into

any two parts by ling the line on itself.

.

Take O

the mid-point by
is

doub

Then OA

half the difference

PAPER FOLDING
between

83

and

XA

Fold
to
.

XX

over O, and take

in

OX corresponding
A

ence between

and

Jf

A Then A A is the differ ^ and it is bisected in O.

1

X
As
-4
is

O
Fig. 52-

taken nearer O,

A O

diminishes, and at the

same time
property
line
is

AA

diminishes at twice the rate.

of in finding the

This

made use
of the

mid-point of a

by means

compasses.

150.

angle.

The above observations apply also to an The line of bisection is found easily by the
of intersection cf

compasses by taking the point

circles.

two

segments to the right of may be considered positive and segments, to the eft of O may be considered negative. That is, a
151.

In the line

X X,

point point

moving from O
moving
in

to

A moves

positively,

and a

the opposite direction

OA moves

negatively.

AX=OXOA. AX OA = OX

both members
152. If

of the equation being negative.*

OP

OA, one arm of an angle A OP, be fixed and be considered to revolve round O, the angles
it

which

makes with
s

OA

are of different magnitudes.

Geometry,
p. 56.

*See Beman and Smith

New Plane and Solid

84

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
formed by

All such angles

OP revolving
hands
of a

in the direc

tion opposite to that of the

watch are

re

in

garded positive. an opposite direction are regarded negative.*

153. After

The

angles formed by

OP revolving
with OA.

one revolution,
is

OP coincides

Then

the angle described

called a perigon,

which
has
with

evidently equals four right angles.

When OP
is

completed

half the revolution,

it

in

a line

OAB.
angle,

Then
which

the angle described

is

called a straight
right

evidently equals

two

angles. f
it is

When OP
magnitude.
gons.
154.

has completed quarter of a revolution,

to

perpendicular

OA.
all

All right angles are equal in

So are

straight angles

and

all

peri-

Two

lines at right angles to

each other form

four congruent quadrants.

Two

lines otherwise in

clined form four angles, of which those vertically op

posite are congruent.
155.

The
its

position of a point in a plane

is

deter

mined by
above.

distance from each of two lines taken as distance from one line
is

The

measured par

allel to the other.

In analytic geometry the proper

ties of

plane figures are investigated by this method.

lines are called axes
;

The two

the distances of the

point from the axes are called co-ordinates, and the

intersection of the axes
* See

is

called the origin.

and
Solid Geometry, p. 56.

This

Beman and Smith

5-

New

Plane

t/*.,p.

IN PAPER FOLDING.
method was invented by Descartes in 1637 A. D.* has greatly helped modern research.
156. If

85

It

X X, YY

be two axes intersecting at O,

distances measured in the direction of

the right of
to the left of to

OX,

i.

e., to

O are positive, O are negative.

while distances measured

Similarly with reference
6>Fare

YY

distances measured in the direction of

positive, while distances

measured

in the direction of

OY

are negative.

157. Axial

ures in the

symmetry is defined thus If two fig same plane can be made to coincide by
:

turning the one about a fixed line in the plane through

a straight angle, the

two figures are said

to

be sym

metric with regard to that line as axis of symmetry. f

158. Central

ures in

symmetry is thus defined If two fig the same plane can be made to coincide by
:

turning the one about a fixed point in that plane

through a straight angle, the two figures are said to be symmetric with regard to that point as center of

symmetry. J
In the
first

case the revolution

it is

is

outside the given

plane, while in the second

If in

in the

same plane.

the above two cases, the two figures are halves

of

one

figure, the

whole figure

is

said to be symmetric

with regard to the axis or center

or center of

these are called axis

axis or center.

symmetry or simply
s s

*Beman and Smith t Beman and Smith

t/.,p.
183.

translation of Fink s History of Mathematics, p. 230. New Plane and Solid Geometry, p. 26.

86

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
159.

Now,

in the

quadrant

XOVmake

a triangle

its image in the quadrant VOX by on the YY axis and the folding pricking through paper at the vertices. Again obtain images of the two

PQR.

Obtain

triangles in the fourth

and third quadrants.

It is

seen

that the triangles in adjacent quadrants posses axial

Fig- 53-

symmetry, while the triangles

possess central symmetry.

in alternate

quadrants

Regular polygons of an odd number of sides possess axial symmetry, and regular polygons of an even number of sides possess central symmetry as
160.

well.

AV PAPER FOLDING.
161.
If

87

a figure has two axes of

symmetry

at right

angles to each other, the point of intersection of the

axes

is

a center of

ular polygons of

symmetry. This obtains in reg an even number of sides and certain

curves, such as the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, and the

lemniscate

regular polygons of an

odd number

of

Fig. 54-

sides

may have more

will

axes than one, but no two of

If a sheet be at right angles to each other. of paper is folded double and cut, we obtain a piece

them

symmetry, and if it is cut fourfold, we obtain a piece which has central symmetry as well, as

which has

axial

in Fig. 54.

88

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
162.

Parallelograms have a center of symmetry.

quadrilateral of the form of a kite, or a trapezium with two opposite sides equal and equally inclined to
either of the remaining sides,

has an axis of

sym

metry.
163.

The

position of a point in a plane

its

is

also de

termined by

distance from a fixed point and the

inclination of the line joining the two points to a fixed

line

drawn through the

If

fixed point.

OA

be the fixed

line

and

P the

given point, the

length

OP and

/_AOP, determine

the position of P.

FiR. 55-

is

called the pole,

OA

the prime-vector,

OP

the

radius vector, and

/_AOP

the vectorial angle.

OP

and

^_AOP

are called polar co-ordinates of P.

of a figure

164.

The image

symmetric

to the axis

OA may
The

be obtained by folding through the axis OA.

radii vectores of

corresponding points are equally

inclined to the axis.

165.

Let

CA, AB,

ABC BC to
at

be a triangle.
Z>,

Produce the sides

E,

respectively.

person to stand

with face towards

Suppose a and then to

IN PAPER FOLDING.
proceed from

8g

to B,

B to

C,

and

successively describes the angles

C to A. Then he DAB, EBC, FCD.

he has corn-

Having come

to his original position A,

Fig. 56.

pleted a perigon,

i.

e.

four right angles.

We

may

therefore infer that the three exterior angles are to

gether equal to four right angles.

The same
161.

inference applies to any convex polygon.

to stand at

Suppose the man

C,

with his face

towards

then to turn in the direction of

AB

and

proceed along AB, BC, and CA.

In this case, the
i.

man completes

a straight angle,

e.,

two right angles.

He

successively turns through

the angles

CAB, EBC, and FCA.

is

Therefore

/_EBF

+ Z FCA -f / CAB (neg. angle) =

This property

a straight angle.

made use

of in turning engines

on the railway. its head towards

towards F.

An engine

standing upon

DA
its

with

is

driven on to CF, with

head

backwards
on
to

to

AD.

The motion is then reversed and it goes EB. Then it moves forward along BA The engine has successively described

90

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
angles

the

ACB, CBA, and BAG.

Therefore the

three interior angles of a triangle are together equal

to

two right angles.

167.

The property

that the three interior angles of

a triangle are together equal to

illustrated as follows

two right angles

Bisect

is

by paper folding.

Fold

CC
in

perpendicular to
,

AB.

C B in N C BC
,

and

AC

M. Fold
and

NA MB
and

perpendicular to

AB,
.

meeting

BC

AC m A

Draw A

By

folding the corners on

NA MB
t

and

A B we
,

find that the angles A, B,

to the angles

B C A,

C of the BC A and A
,

triangle are equal

CB

respectively,

which together make up two right angles.

168.

Take any

line

ABC,

Draw

perpendiculars

to
Z>,

ABC at the points A, B, and C. Take points E, F m the respective perpendiculars equidistant

IN PAPER FOLDING.
from their
tion
to
feet.

91

by superposi and proved by equal triangles that DE is equal AB and perpendicular to AD and BE, and that
it is

Then

easily seen

EF is equal to BC and Now AB (=DE} is the lines AD and BE, and

perpendicular to

BE and

CF.

shortest distance between the

it is

constant.

Therefore

AD

Fig. 58.

and

BE can never meet,

i.

e.,

they are parallel.

to the

Hence
line are

lines

which are perpendicular

same

parallel.

The two
to

angles

BAD and EBA

are together equal

BE

two right angles. If we suppose the lines AD and to move inwards about A and B, they will meet
interior angles will be less than

and the
angles.

two right

They

will not
in the

meet

This

is

embodied

much

produced backwards. abused twelfth postulate

if

of Euclid s Elements.*
169.
If

AGffbe

any

line cutting

BE in G and CF
s

in

H, then
*For
historical

sketch see
p. 270.

Beman and Smith

translation of Fink s

History of Mathematics,

92

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
/
.

GAD= the alternate

each
is

/_HGE
. .

/_AGB, complement of /_BAG; and the interior and opposite / GAD.

the

they are each Also the two angles

= / A GB.
GAD
and

EGA
off

are together

equal to two right angles.

170.

Take

a line

AX

and mark

on

it,

from A,

equal segments
diculars to

the

AB, BC, CD, DE.. ..Erect perpen Let a line AF cut B, C, D, E. Then AB C D E perpendiculars in B

AE

at

B C CD D E
, ,

..

.are

all

equal.

D
Fig. 59-

If

AB, BC, CD,

DE be unequal, AB:BC=AB :B C

then

BC: CD = B C\
171.
If

CD

and so on.

ABCDE.

be a polygon, similar polygons

may

be obtained as follows.

Take any point O within the polygon, and draw OA, OB, OC,.... Take any point A in OA and draw A B B C
,

C D,

parallel

to

AB, BC,

CD

respectively.

IN PAPER FOLDING.
Then
the
. . .

93

polygon
.

AB

CD

will

be similar to

ABCD
mon
lie

The polygons

so described around a

com
also

point are in perspective.

The

point

O may

outside the polygon.

It is called

the center of per

spective.
172.

To
Let

divide a given line into

2, 3, 4, 5.

.equal

parts.

AB

be the given

line.

Draw AC,

BD

at right angles to

AB

on opposite sides and make

cutting

AC=BD.
Now

Draw CD

AB in

P*.

Then

produce

AC

and take

CE = EF= FG

^AC

or

BD.

Draw DE, DF,

....

DG ____ cutting AB

in PS, -A,

A,

Then from

similar triangles,

94

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
.-.

P .B: AB = BD: AF
9

=
Similarly

1 :3.

and so

on.
If

AB = \,

P = A

3-.

4,

*(

+ *)
ultimately == AB.

But

A Pi

-\-

P P + ^ A -f
2
3

is

Or

1
""

1
"3

=
_

1
2~-

2"

n-\-\

n(n-\- 1)

Adding

F2 + ^3 +

"-

IN PAPER FOLDING.

95

-"1

""
*"

J_

The

limit of

-- when

is

co is

1.

173. The following simple contrivance may be used for dividing a line into a number of equal parts.

Take

a rectangular piece of paper,

and mark

off

equal segments on each or one of two adjacent sides. Fold through the points of section so as to obtain
perpendiculars to the sides.
tion

Mark
......

the points of sec

and the corners

0, 1, 2,

Suppose

it is

re

quired to divide the

edge

of another piece of

paper

AB into n equal parts. Now place AB so that A or B may lie on 0, and B or A on the perpendicular
through
the
n.

In this case

AB

must be greater than ON.

But
for

smaller side of the rectangle

may be used

smaller lines.

The

points where

AB

crosses the perpendiculars

are the required points of section.

174.

Center of mean position.

4)

If
is

a line

AB

con

tains

(m

equal parts,

and

it

divided at

so

that
of

AC contains m
;

of these parts

and

CB

contains n

them

lars

from the points A, C, B perpendicu AD, CF, BE be let fall on any line,
then
if

m-BE -f
Now, draw
and
sion

n-AZ>

= (m -f
to

CF.
cutting

BGH parallel
are

ED

CFin G
lines

AD in H.
AB lines

Suppose through the points of divi

drawn

parallel to

BH.

These

g5
will divide

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

AH into (m-{-ri)

equal parts and

CG

into

n equal parts.

and since

DH and BE
n-l -f

are each

= GF,

Hence, by addition
Z>

^4Z>

+ m-BE = (m + + 0* .# -f
(/

CF.
position, or the
of multiples

C
mean

is

called the

center of

mean

center of
n.

and

for t.he

system

and

The

principle can be extended to any

number

of

points, not in a line.

Then

if

P represent

the feet of
if

the perpendiculars on any line from A, B, C, etc.,

a, b, c

be the

...be the corresponding multiples, and mean center

if

c-CP....

If

the multiples are

all

equal to

a,

we

get

a(AP+BP+CP+.. ..}=na-MP
n being the
175.

number

of points.

The

center of

mean
is

position of a

number

of

points with equal multiples

obtained thus.

Bisect

the line joining any two points A,

third point

B in

G, join

to a

and divide

GC

in

71 so that

GH=\GC\

in so that and divide join If to a fourth point will be found last and so on: the point

HD

HK=\HD

the center of

mean

position of the system of points.

IN PAPER FOLDING.
176.

97

The notion
is

of

mean

center or center of

mean

position

derived from Statics, because a system of

a, b,

material points having their weights denoted by

c
.

and placed
center

at

A, B,
if

would balance about

about

the

mean

M,

free to rotate

M under

the action of gravity.

The mean

center has therefore a close relation to

the center of gravity of Statics.

177.
is

The mean

center of three points not in a line,

tri

the point of intersection of the medians of the

is

angle formed by joining the three points. This

also
tri

the center of gravity or mass center of a thin

angular plate of uniform density.

178. If

is

the

mean

center of the points A, B,

b, c, etc.,

C, etc., for the corresponding multiples a,

and

if

P is

any other point, then

=a
Hence
in

A M* + b BM* + c- CM
if

any regular polygon,

is

the in-center

or circum-center and

P is

any point

4- BP* + ....= OA*

OB^ + ....+

OP

Now
AB^
Similarly

98

GE OME TRIG EXER CISES

Adding

The sum of the squares of the lines joining the mean center with the points of the system is a minimum. If J/be the mean center and P any other point
179.

not belonging to the system,

2P^ = 2MA +2PM

2

*,

(where

2 stands for

"the

sum

of all expressions of the

type").
i.

..

when

2PA P is the
2

is

the

minimum when PAf=Q,

center.

e.,

mean

180.

Properties relating to concurrence of lines

and

collinearity of points can be tested

ing.*
(1)

by paper fold Some instances are given below: The medians of a triangle are concurrent. The
point
is

common
(2)

called the centroid.

The

altitudes of a triangle

are

concurrent

The common point is called the orthocenter. (3) The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a The common point is called triangle are concurrent.
the circum-center.
(4)

The
Let

bisectors of the angles of a triangle are

concurrent.
(5)

The common

point

is

called the in-center.

point.

ABCD be a parallelogram and P any Through P draw GT and EF parallel to BC

Beman and Smith
s

*For treatment of certain of these properties see Neiu Plane and Solid Geometry, pp. 84, 182.

IN PAPER FOLDING.
and

99

AB respectively.
line
If

Then

the diagonals

EG, HF,

and the
(6)

DB are concurrent.

two similar unequal rectineal figures are so

placed that their corresponding sides are parallel, then the joins of corresponding corners are concurrent.

The common
If

point

is

called the center of similarity.

two triangles are so placed that their corners (7) are two and two on concurrent lines, then their corre
sponding sides intersect collinearly. This is known The two triangles are said as Desargues s theorem.
to be in perspective.

The

point of concurrence and

line of collinearity are respectively called the center

and axis
(8)

of perspective.

The middle

points of the diagonals of a

com

plete quadrilateral are collinear.

(9) If

from any point on the circumference

of the

circum-circle of a triangle, perpendiculars are dropped

on

its

sides,

these perpendiculars are collinear.

produced when necessary, the feet of This line is called

Simson

s line. s

Simson
drawn.

line bisects the join of the orthocenter

and the point from which the perpendiculars are

(10) In any triangle the orthocenter, circum-center, and centroid are collinear.

The mid-point
circum-center
is

of the join of the orthocenter

and

the center of the nine-points circle, so

called because it passes through the feet of the alti tudes and medians of the triangle and the mid-point

ioo

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
each altitude which
vertex.
is

of that part of

lies

between the

orthocenter and

The
known
(11)
circle

center of the nine-points circle

twice as far

from the orthocenter as from the centroid.

as Poncelet s theorem.
If

This

is

A, B,

C,

D, E, F, are any

six points

on a

which are joined successively in any order, then the intersections of the first and fourth, of the second
and
fifth,

and

of the third

and sixth

of these joins

pro

duced when
as Pascal (12)
s

necessary) are collinear.

This

is

known

theorem.
joins of the vertices of a triangle with the

The

points of contact of the in-circle are concurrent.

The
tri

same

property holds for the ex- circles.

(13)

The

internal bisectors of two angles of a

angle, and the external bisector of the third angle in

tersect the opposite sides collinearly.

(14)

The

external bisectors of the angles of a

tri

angle intersect the opposite sides collinearly.

(15) If

any point be joined to the vertices

of a

triangle, the lines

drawn through the point perpen

dicular to those joins intersect the opposite sides of

the triangle collinearly.

(16) If

on an axis
fi

of

symmetry

of the

congruent

triangles

ABC, A

a point

be taken

O,

O,

and

CO
(17)

intersect the sides

BC, CA and

AB

collin

early.

The

points of intersection of pairs of tangents

to a circle at the extremities of

chords which pass

IN PAPER FOLDING

101

through a given point are collinear. This line is called the polar of the given point with respect to the circle.
(18)
lines

The

isogonal conjugates of three concurrent

AX, BX,

CX with

respect to the three angles of

a triangle

ABC

are concurrent.

(Two

lines

AX,

AY
its

are said to be isogonal conjugates with respect to an

angle

BAC, when
If in

they

make equal

angles with

bisector.)

(19)

a triangle

ABC,

the lines

AA\ BB CC
,

drawn from each

of the angles to the opposite sides

are concurrent, their isotomic conjugates with respect

to the corresponding sides are also concurrent.
lines

(The

AA A
,

A"

are said to be isotomic conjugates,

with respect to the side

the intercepts
(20)

BC of the
CA"

triangle

ABC, when
con

BA
three

and

are equal.)
of a triangle are

The
is

symmedians

current.

(The

isogonal conjugate of a

median

AM oi

a triangle

called a

symmedian.)

XIII.

THE CONIC SECTIONS.

SECTION
I.

THE

CIRCLE.

181.

piece of paper can be folded in numerous

point.

ways through a common

lines so taken as to

Points on each of the

point will
the

lie

be equidistant from the on the circumference of a circle,

point
is

common
of

which

common

the center.

The

circle is the

locus of points equidistant from a fixed point, the

centre.
182.

drawn.
183.

Any number of concentric circles can be They cannot meet each other.
The center may be considered
it

as the limit of

concentric circles described round

radius being indefinitely diminished.
184. Circles

as center, the

with equal radii are congruent and

equal.
185.

The

curvature of a circle

is

uniform through

out the circumference.

to slide along itself

A circle

can therefore be made

its

by being turned about

center.

Any

figure connected with the circle

may

be turned
its re

about the center of the circle without changing

lation to the circle.

PAPER FOLDING
186.

103

straight line can cross a circle in only

two

points.
187.

Every diameter
It
is

is

bisected at the center of

radii.

the circle.

equal in length to two

All

rjiameters, like the radii, are equal.

188.

The

center of a circle

is

its

center of

sym

metry, the extremities of any diameter being corre

sponding points.
189.
circle,

Every diameter and conversely.

is

an axis of symmetry of the

190.

The

propositions of

188, 189 are true for

systems
191.

of concentric circles.

Every diameter divides the

circle

into

two

equal halves called semicircles.

192.

Two

diameters at right angles to each other

divide the circle into four equal parts called quadrants.

193.

By

bisecting the right angles contained by

the diameters, then the half right angles, and so on,

we

obtain 2 n equal sectors of the

radii of

circle.
4.

The

angle

between the
Of
27T
.

each sector

is

of a right angle

7t

2*
194.

2-i-

As shown

in the

angle can be divided also into

17 equal parts.

preceding chapters, the right 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 15 and

of the parts thus obtained

And each
2"

can be subdivided into

equal parts.

io4

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
195.

circle

can be inscribed

in a regular

polygon,
it.

and a

circle

can also be circumscribed round

will

The

former circle
196.

touch the sides

at their mid-points.

ter;

Equal arcs subtend equal angles at the cen and conversely. This can be proved by super
If

position.

a circle be folded

upon

a diameter, the
in

two semicircles coincide.

below

Every point

one semi-

circumference has a corresponding point in the other,

it.

197.

Any two

radii are the sides of

an isosceles

tri
is

angle, and the chord which joins

their extremities

the base of the triangle.

198.

radius which bisects the angle between two

radii is perpendicular to the base

chord and also

bi

sects

it.

199.

pairs of radii

Given one fixed diameter, any number may be drawn, the two radii of each
to the

of
set

being equally inclined

it.

diameter on each side of

The
all

chords joining the extremities of each pair of

radii are at right angles to the diameter.

The chords

are

parallel to one another.

200.

The same diameter

bisects

all

the chords as
i.

well as arcs standing

upon the chords,

e.,

the locus
is

of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords

diameter.
201.

The perpendicular

bisectors of

all

chords of a

circle pass

through the center.

IN PAPER FOLDING
202.

105

Equal chords are equidistant from the

center.

203.

The

extremities of two radii which are equally

it,

inclined to a diameter on each side of

distant from every point in the diameter.

are equi

number

of circles

the two points.

Hence, any can be described passing through In other words, the locus of the cen
through two given points
is

ters of circles passing

the

straight line

which bisects

at right angles the join of

the points.
204. Let

CC

be a chord perpendicular to the ra

the angles

dius OA.

Then

AOCand AOC

are equal.

Suppose both move on the circumference towards A with the same velocity, then the chord CC is always
parallel to itself

the points C,

and perpendicular to OA. Ultimately and C coincide at A, and CA C is

perpendicular to OA.

is

the last point

common

to

the chord and the circumference.

CAC

produced

becomes ultimately
205.

a tangent to the circle.

is

The tangent

perpendicular to the diameter

through the point of contact; and conversely.

206.
If

two chords

of a circle are parallel, the arcs

joining their extremities

equal.

towards the same parts are

of either

So are the arcs joining the extremities

chord with the diagonally opposite extremities of the

other and passing through the remaining extremities.

This

is

easily seen

by folding on the diameter perpen

dicular to the parallel chords.

io6

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
207.

The two chords and

the joins of their extrem

ities

has an axis of symmetry,

towards the same parts form a trapezoid which viz., the diameter perpen

dicular to the parallel chords.

The diagonals
It is

of the

trapezoid intersect on the diameter.

evident by

folding that the angles between each of the parallel

chords and each diagonal of the trapezoid are equal. Also the angles upon the other equal arcs are equal.
208.

The angle subtended

arc
is

at the center of a circle

it

by any

double the angle subtended by

at the

circumference.

Fig. 61.

Fig. 62.

Fig- 63.

An

inscribed angle equals half the central angle

standing on the same arc.

Given

A VB

an inscribed angle, and

arc. AB.

AOB
*-

the central angle

on the same

To prove
Proof.
1.

that /

A VB =

A OB.

Suppose VO drawn through center O, and pro duced to meet the circumference at X.

IN PAPER FOLDING

107

2.

Then And
.-.

XOB= /.XVB +
/_XVB = \_
/

Z VBO,

3.

4.

A VX= \i_AOX (each=zero in Fig. 62), and .-. LAVB = tAOB. The proof holds for all three figures, point A hav
Similarly

ing

moved

to

X (Fig.

62),

and then through

X (Fig.

63).*
209.

The angle

at the center

being constant, the

points of the cir

angles subtended by an arc at

all

cumference are equal.

210.
211.

The angle
If

in a semicircle is a right angle.

circle,

AB

be a diameter of a
it,

and
is

DC

chord

at right angles to

\\\tn.ACBD

a quadri

lateral of

which
and

AB

is

an axis of

symmetry.

The

angles

BCA

remaining two

CAD are together If A and B be any other equal to a straight angle. points on the arcs DAC and CBD respectively, the /_CAD=-/_ CA Dand /_DBC=Z.DB C, and ^CA D
and -\-DB

ADB being angles DBC

each a right angle, the

C=

a straight angle.

Therefore, also, /_B

CA

+ / A DB
site

== a straight angle.
if

Conversely,

a quadrilateral has

two

of its

oppo
it is

angles together equal to

two right angles,

inscriptible in a circle.

*The above figures and proof and Solid Geometry, p. 129.

are from

Beman and Smith

New

Plane

io8

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
212.

The angle between

the tangent to a circle

and
is

a chord which passes through the point of contact

equal to the angle at the circumference standing upon

that chord and having
its

vertex on the side of

first

it

op
a

posite to that on which the

angle

lies.

Let
chord.

AC

be a tangent to the circle at

of the circle

and

AB

Take O the center

and draw OA,

OB.

Draw OD perpendicular to AB. Then ^_BAC^=L AOD = % / BOA.

213. Perpendiculars to diameters at their extremi

ties

touch the circle

at these extremities.

(See Fig. 64).

The

line joining the center and the point of intersection

IN PAPER FOLDING
of

109

two tangents bisects the angles between the two It also bisects tangents and between the two radii.
the join of the points of contact.
equal.

The tangents

are

This

is

seen by folding through the center and

the point of intersection of the tangents.

Let AC,
line

AB

be two tangents and

ADEOF
A

the

through the intersection of the tangents

and

the center O, cutting the circle in

in

and

F
of

and

BC

E.

Then

AC or AB is
is

the geometric

mean

AD and

AF\ AE

the harmonic

mean;

andAO

the arith

metic mean.

2AD- AF AD-AF_ ~
~OA~

AD-^AF

any other chord through A be ob tained cutting the circle in P and R and BC in Q, then AQ is the harmonic mean and AC the geometric mean between AP and AR.
Similarly,
if

214.

Fold a right-angled triangle

OCB
Take

and

CA

the perpendicular on the hypotenuse.

D in AB

such that

OD= OC (Fig.
Then O
and
:

65).

OA OC=OC: OB, OA OD=OD\ OB.

:

no

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

circle

can be described with

as center and

OC or OD
The

as radius.

points

and

are inverses of each other

with reference to the center of inversion

circle of inversion

O and

the

CDE.

Fig. 65.

Hence when

the center

is

taken as the origin, the

foot of the ordinate of a point on a circle has for its

mverse the point

the axis taken.

of intersection of the tangent

and

215.
line
to

Fold

FBG

FBG is

called the polar of point

Then the perpendicular to OB. A with reference

and polar center
Conversely B

the polar circle

CDE
FBG.

and

is

called the pole of

is

the pole of

2N PAPER FOLDING

Mi
reference to the

CA

and

CA

is

the polar of

B with

same

circle.

216.

Produce

OC to
OC.

meet

FBG in
points.

F, and fold

AH
F

perpendicular to

Then
to
is

F and Zf are inverse

the polar of H.

AJfis
<9^

the polar of 7% and the perpendicular at

217.

The
is,

points A, B, F,

H,

are concyclic.

That
cyclic
;

two points and

their inverses are con-

and conversely.
take another point

Now
and
fold

on

FBG.

Draw OG,

AK

perpendicular to OG.

Then

and

are inverse points with reference to the circle

218.

CDE.

The

points F,

J3,

are collinear, while their

polars pass through A.

Hence, the polars of collinear points are concur

rent.

on the polar of the other are called conjugate points, and lines so related that each passes through the pole of the other
219. Points so situated that each lies

are called conjugate lines.

and

F are

conjugate points, so are

and B,

and G.

The
points
is

point

of

intersection of

the polars of two

the pole of the join of the points.

220.

Finally A

As A moves towards D, B also moves up to it. and B coincide and FBG is the tangent at B.

ii2

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Hence
the polar of any point on the circle
is

the

tangent at that point.

221.
infinity.

As

A moves
is

back

to O,

B moves

forward to

The

polar of the center of inversion or the

polar center
222.
is

the line at infinity.

the polars of two points

The angle between

equal to the angle subtended by these points at the

polar center.
223.

The

circle described with

B as

a center

and

BC as
to

a radius cuts the circle

CDE

orthogonally.

224. Bisect

AB
all

in

and fold

LN perpendicular
through

AB.

Then

circles passing
this line.

and

will

have their centers on

These
and

circles cut

the circle
scribing

CDE

orthogonally.

The

circles

circum
are

the quadrilaterals

ABFH
two

ABGK

such

circles.

AF

and

AG
if

are diameters of the re

circles cut

spective

circles.

Hence

ally the extremities of

any diameter

of either are

orthogon con

jugate points with respect to the other.

225.

The

points O, A,

//and

K are concyclic.
FBG,

H,
the

A,

K being

inverses of points on the line

is

inverse of a line

a circle through the center of in

line,
;

version and the pole of the given

these points

being the extremities of a diameter

226.
If

and conversely.

DO produced

cuts the circle

CDE

in

D and D

are harmonic conjugates of

and B.

Sim-

IN PAPER FOLDING
ilarly,
if

11.3

any
of

line
in

circle

CDE

through B cuts AC in A and the d and d then ^/ and */ are harmonic

k

conjugates

and B.

227. Fold any line

LM=LB = LA,

and

J/6>

per

pendicular to

LM meeting AB produced in

Then
dius

the circle described with center

O O and
.

ra

O Mcuts orthogonally center L and radius LM.

the circle described with

Now
and

OL
<9

2 2

= O* + L = O M* ZJ/
2
,

2
.

.-.

ZTVis the radical

axis of the circles

O (OC}

and

O (O M). By taking other

points in the semicircle

AMB and
get two

repeating the same construction as above,

infinite

we

systems of circles co-axial with

viz.,

O(OC} and

O\O M),
axis,

one system on each side of the radical point circle of each system is a point, or B, which may be regarded as an infinitely small

LN. The

circle.

The two infinite systems of circles are to be re garded as one co-axial system, the circles of which range from infinitely large to infinitely small the
radical .axis being the infinitely large circle,

and the

limiting points the infinitely small.

co-axial circles
If
is
is

This system of

called the limiting point species.

two

circles cut

each other their

Therefore
all

common chord
circles passing

their radical axis.

ii4

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

through

and

are co-axial.

This system of co
point species.

axial circles is called the

common

228.

Take two
and

lines

OAB

and OPQ.

From two

points
to

in

OAB

draw AP,

BQ

perpendicular

OPQ.
at

Then

circles described with

and

as

centers and

OPQ

AP and BQ P and Q.

as radii will touch the line

Then

OA-.OB = AP:BQ.

This holds whether the perpendiculars are towards the same or opposite parts. The tangent is in one
case direct, and in the other transverse.
In the
first

case,

is

outside

AB, and
in

in the sec
it is

ond

it is

between

and B.

In the former

called

the external center of similitude and

the latter the

internal centre of similitude of the two circles.

229.

The

line joining the extremities of

two par

allel radii of

the two circles passes through their ex

if

ternal center of similitude,

the radii are in the

if

same
they

direction, and through their internal center,

are

drawn
230.

in opposite directions.
radii of

The two

one

circle

drawn

to its points

any line passing through either center of similitude, are respectively parallel to the
of intersection with

two

radii of the other circle

line.

drawn

to its intersections

with the same

231. All secants passing through a center of simil

itude of two circles are cut in the

circles.

same

ratio

by the

IN PA PER FOLDING
232..
If
B\>

11

D\ and B^
t

D<t

be the points of inter

section,

B\,

2,

and D\, DI being corresponding

points,

= OD
Hence

OBi

the inverse of a circle, not through the cen

ter of inversion is a circle.

Fig. 66.

The The

center of inversion

is

the center of similitude

of the original circle

and

its

inverse.

original circle,

its

inverse,

and the

circle of

inversion are co-axial.

233.

The method

of inversion is

one of the most

It was discov important in the range of Geometry. ered jointly by Doctors Stubbs and Ingram, Fellows

of Trinity College, Dublin, about 1842.

It

was em

ployed by
proof of

Sir

William Thomson
of the

in giving

geometric

some

most

difficult

propositions in the

mathematical theory of
SECTION
234.

electricity.

II.

THE PARABOLA.

parabola
in a

is

the curve traced by a point

its dis-

which moves

plane in such a manner that

n6

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
is

tance from a given point

always equal to

its

dis

tance from a given straight line.

235. Fig. 67

shows how a parabola can be marked

of the square

on paper.
rix,

The edge
axis.

MN

is

the direct

the vertex, and

F the focus.

Fold through

OX

and obtain the

Divide the upper half of the

Fig. 67.

square into a number of sections by lines parallel to

the axis.
of points.

These

lines

meet the

directrix in a

number

Fold by laying each of these points on the focus and mark the point where the corresponding
horizontal line
is

cut.

The

points thus obtained

lie

on a parabola. The folding gives also the tangent to the curve at the point.

IN PAPER FOLDING
236.

117

FL

which

is at

right angles to

OX

is

called

the semi-latus rectum.

237.

When

points on the upper half of the curve

have been obtained, corresponding points on the lower half are obtained by doubling the paper on the axis

and pricking through them.

238.

When

the axis and the tangent at the vertex

are taken as the axes of co-ordinates,

as origin, the equation of the parabola
2
j>

and the vertex

becomes

= 4:ax

or
Y

The parabola may be denned as the curve traced which moves in one plane in such a manner by
a point

that the square of

its

distance from a given straight

;

line varies as its distance

or the ordinate

is

from another straight line the mean proportional between the

1 1

GEOME TRIG EXERCISES

and the latus rectum which
is

abscissa,

equal to 4- OF.

Hence the following construction. Take O T in FO produced = 4 OF. Bisect TN m M. Take Q in OYsuch that MQ = MN=MT.
Fold through
to

so that

QP may

be

at right angles

OY.
Let

be the point where

QP meets

the ordinate

of

N.

Then
239.

P is

a point on the curve.

The subnormal^ 2 OF and

FPFG = FT

These properties suggest the following construc

tion.

Take ^Vany point on the

axis.

On

the side of

remote from the vertex take

Fold

NP
P is

perpendicular to

OG

and

find

P in NP

such that

FP = FG.
a point

Then

on the curve.

circle

can be described with

as radii.

F as center and FG,

is

FP and FT

The double
as

ordinate of the circle

i.

also the double

a parabola

ordinate of the parabola,

e.,

P describes

Amoves
240.

along the axis.

Take any point

between
OF.

O and F (Fig.

69).

Fold

RN P at right angles to Take R so that OR = OF.

Fold ^/^perpendicular
to

OR,

N being on the axis.

IN PAPER FOLDING

119

NP perpendicular to the axis. Now, in OX take OT=OW. Take P in RN so that FP = FT. Fold through P F cutting NP in P.
Fold

Then

P and .P

are points on the curv

/F

Fig. 69.

241.

and

coincide

when

PFP

is

the latus

rectum.

As

recedes from

F to

O, 7^ moves forward

from

infinity.

At the same time,

Amoves toward

O, and

T (OT =
infinity.

moves
242.

in the opposite direction

toward

To

find the area of a parabola

bounded by

the axis and an ordinate.

Complete the rectangle

ONPK.

Let

OK

be

di-

\20

GE OME TRIG EXER CISE S

vided into n equal portions of which suppose Om to contain r and mn to be the (r -f- 1) *. Draw mp, nq at
right angles to
at right

OK meeting
The

the curve in p,

q,

and pn

angles to nq.

curvilinear area

OPK is
con

the limit of the

structed as

sum

of the series of rectangles

mn on
:
I I

the portions corresponding to mn.

But mi/

NKpm

mn PK- OK,
:

and, by the properties of the parabola,

pm\PK=Om*\ OK*
and mn
.
.

pm mn\PK
. .

OK= OK= r* r ipn = w x en A^:

n.

;z

Hence

the

sum
22
-f-

of the series of rectangles

p
(

_|_

32

+
1)

I)

1)(2

1-2-3-w 3

=
.
.

-J

of

nn^VA

in

the limit,

i.

e.,

when
,

is oo.

The

curvilinear area

OPK=^
of of
I

of

cZi^VA and the

parabolic area
243.

^^TV^^f
line

\NK.
proof applies

The same

when any

diameter and an ordinate are taken as the boundaries

of the parabolic area.

IN PAPER FOLDING

121

SECTION
244.

III.

THE ELLIPSE.

An
in a

ellipse is the curve traced

by a point which
its

moves

plane

in

such a manner that

distance

from a given point

is

in a constant ratio of less in

from a given straight line. Let Fbe the focus, OYthe directrix, and XX the Let FA \AObe the perpendicular to O Y through F.
equality to its distance

Fig. 70.

constant

ratio,

FA

being less than

AO.

is

a point

on the curve called the vertex.

As

in

116, find

in

XX

such that

FA :A O = FA :AO.
Then A
is

another point on the curve, being a

second vertex.

Double the

line

AA
O.

on

itself

and obtain

its

middl e
corre

point C, called the center, and

mark

F
O

and

sponding

to

F and

Fold through

so that

OY

122

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
at right angles to

may be

XX

Then F*

is

the sec

ond focus and O

Y the second directrix. A A obtain the perpendicular through C. By folding

,

FA :AO = FA A O
-.

= FA-\-FA = AA OO = CA CO.
: :

:AO + A O

B and B in the perpendicular through on opposite sides of it, such that FB and FB are each equal to CA. Then B and B are points on
Take points

C and

the curve.

AA
axis.

is

called the major axis,

and

BB

the minor

245.

To

find other points

point

E in

the directrix, and fold through

.

on the curve, take any E and A,

and through E and A Fold again through E and F and mark the point P where FA cuts EA produced.
Fold through PF and points on the curve.

P on EA
P

Then

P and P
and

are

Fold through
the directrix and

and

so that

KPL

KLP

are perpendicular to the directrix,

K and K

being on

FL

bisects the angle

.-.

L and L on EL. A FP,

tLFP = LPLF

and

FP\PK=PL\PK

= FA
And

AO.

FP -.PK =P L

-.PK

IN PAPER FOLDING

123

= FA :AO.
If

FP=FP
246.

EO = FO, FP is at right angles PP is the latus rectum.

.

to

FO, and

When

number

of points

on the

left half of

the curve are found, corresponding points on the other

half can be

minor

axis

marked by doubling the paper on the and pricking through them.

ellipse

247.
If

An
is

a point

may also be move in such

defined as follows
a

manner

that

/W
,

\AN-NA
of

a constant ratio,

P from
which

the line joining two fixed points A,

,

PN being the distance A and

P is an ellipse

N being between A and A

of

the locus of

AA

is

an

axis.

248. In the circle,

In the ellipse

PN AN-NA
2
:

is

a constant ratio.

This ratio

may

the former case

be less or greater than unity. APA is obtuse, and the curve

In
lies

within the auxiliary circle described on

eter.
is

AA

as

diam
the

In the latter case,

APA
it is

is

acute and the curve

case

outside the circle.

In the

first

AA

is

major, and in the second

249.
tion

the minor axis.

The above

definition corresponds to the

equa

when

the vertex

is

the origin.

124

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
250.

AN* NA
of

is

equal to the square on the ordicircle,

nate

QN

the

auxiliary

and

PN QN =
:

BC-.AC.
251. Fig. 71

shows how the points can be deter

ratio
is

mined when the constant

Thus,
lay off

less

than unity.

CD=-AC,
of

the semi-major axis.

Through
to

E any point

^Cdraw
Q

DE and

produce

it

meet

the auxiliary circle in Q.

to

Draw

JB

and produce

it

meet the ordinate

QN
is

&C\DC=BC\AC.
cable

in P. Then is PN: QN The same process is appli

when

the ratio

greater than unity.

When

points in one quadrant are found, corresponding points

in other

quadrants can be easily marked.

If

252.

P and P

are the extremities of two conju

gate diameters of an ellipse and the ordinates

MP

IN PAPER FOLDING
and

MP

meet the auxiliary

is

circle in

and

the

angle

QCQ

a right angle.

Now

take a rectangular piece of card or paper and

mark on two adjacent edges beginning with the com mon corner lengths equal to the minor and major
axes.

By

turning the card round

r

C mark

correspond

ing points on the outer and inner auxiliary circles.

Let Q, R and Q R be the points in one position. and RP and R P Fold the ordinates and Q
,

QM

perpendiculars to the ordinates.

points on the curve.

Then

P and P

are

Fig. 72.

253. Points on the curve

may

also be easily deter

mined by the application

the conic sections.

of the following property of

The

focal distance of a point on a conic

is

equal

126

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
produced
to

to the length of the ordinate

meet the

tangent at the end of the latus rectum.

and produce the

in

Draw A A From any point D A A produced draw DR perpendicular to AD. Take

254. Let

and

be any two points.

line

both ways.

RA and RA Fold AP perpendicular to AR, meeting RA in P. For different positions of R in DR, the locus of P is an ellipse, of which AA is the major axis.
any point

R in DR

and draw

Fig. 73-

PN perpendicular to A A Now, because PN parallel to RD, PN:A N=RD:A D. Again, from the triangles, APN and DAR, PN\AN=AD\ RD. PN* .AN A N=AD\A D, a constant
Fold
.

is

.-.

ratio,

less

than unity, and

it

is

evident from the construc

tion that

jVmust

lie

between
IV.

and

SECTION
255.

THE HYPERBOLA.
the curve traced by a point
its

An hyperbola
in

is

which moves

a plane in such a manner that

IN PAPER FOLDING.
distance from a given point
is

127

in a

constant ratio of

greater inequality to its distance

line.

from a given straight

256.

The

construction

is

the

same

as for the el

As the position of the parts is different. lipse, but 119, X, A lies on the left side of the explained in
directrix.

Each
lie

directrix lies

between

and

and

the foci
sists

without these points.

The curve con

two branches which are open on one side. The branches lie entirely within two vertical angles
of

formed by two straight lines passing through the cen These are tan ter which are called the asymptotes.
gents to the curve at infinity.

The hyperbola can be defined thus If a point move in such a manner that PN^ AN NA is a
257.
:

constant ratio,
line joining

PN being
,

the distance of
,

P from

the

being between bola, of which

two fixed points A and A and TV not A and A the locus of P is an hyper

AA

is

the transverse axis.

This corresponds to the equation

where the origin

hyperbola. Fig. 74 shows

is

at the

right-hand vertex of the

how

points on the curve

this formula.

may be

found by the application of Let C be the center and

the vertex of the curve.

12 S

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

CA
Fold
Fold

= CA = CA =
to

a.

CD

any

line through

C and make
Fold

C>

= CA.
cut

DN perpendicular

CD.

dicular to
ting

CA and make NQ = DN. Fold Q CA in S. Fold ^ S cutting (Win P.

NQ

perpen
A"

Fig. 74-

Then
diameter

/>

is

a point

on the curve.
tangent to the circle on the

For, since

DN

is

AA

DN* = AN- (2CA + AN),

or since

QN=DN,

IN PAPER FOLDING.

za?

QN
Squaring,
or
If

A"C

_=_
y
2

(2ax

+x

).

QN=b
BC

then

^
If

is

the focus and

CD

is

one of

the asymptotes.

we complete
is

the rectangle on

AC

and

the asymptote

a diagonal of the rect

angle.

258.

The hyperbola can

253.
is

also be described

by the

property referred to in
259.

An hyperbola

said to be equilateral

when
Here

the transverse and conjugate axes are equal.

fr,

and the equation becomes

In this case the construction

is

simpler as the ordi-

nate of the hyperbola

is itself is

the geometric

mean be

tween

AN and A N,

and

therefore equal to the tan

gent from TVto the circle described on A A as diameter.

260.
bola,

The polar equation to the rectangular hyper when the center is the origin and one of the axes
is

the initial line,

r 2 cos

26

=a
-pj

or r 2

= cos26

a.

Let OX,

OYbe
number

the axes; divide the right angle

of equal parts.

VOX into

Let

XOA, A OB

130

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fold

be two of the equal angles.

to

XB

at right angles

OX.

Produce

perpendicular to
is

BO and take OF= OX. Fold OG BF and find G in OG such that FGB
Take

a right angle.

OA =

OG.

Then

is

a point

on the curve.

Fig. 75-

Now,

the angles

XOA

and

AOB being each

a
COS29**"

0,

OB=
And O4 2 =OG^=

COS 26

261.

The

points of trisection of a series of conter

lie

minous
of

circular arcs

on branches
is 2.

which the eccentricity

two hyperbolas This theorem affords

of

means

of trisecting
s

an angle.*
Conies,

* See Taylor with footnote.

Ancient

and Modern Geometry of

examples

308,

390

XIV.
262.

MISCELLANEOUS CURVES.
this,

propose in

the last chapter, to give

hints for tracing certain wall-known curves.

THE
263. This

CISSOID.*
It is

word means ivy-shaped curve.

de

OQA (Fig. 76) be a semicircle be two on the fixed diameter OA, and let QM,
nned as follows: Let

RN

ordinates of the semicircle equidistant from the cen

ter.

Draw
is

OR

cutting

QM

in P.

Then
is

the locus

of

P
If

the cissoid.

OA=2a,
let

the equation to the curve

/(2a
Now,
and draw

x)=x*.

PR

cut the perpendicular from

in

AP cutting CD in E. RN:CD = ON: OC=AM~AC=PM:EC,

:

.-.

But

RN-,PM=CD:CE. RN\ PM=ON\ OM=ON: AN^ON* NR*

If

CF be

the geometric
s

mean between

CD and

CE,

*See Beman and Smith mentary Geometry, p. 44.

translation of Klein s

Famous Problems of Ele

132

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

CD:CF=OC:CD
. .

tween

CD and CF OC and CE.

are the two geometric

means be

C
Fig. 76.

264.

The

cissoid

was invented by Diocles (second

century B. C.) to find two geometric means between OC and two lines in the manner described above.

was determined by the being given, the point aid of the curve, and hence the point D.
265. If

CE

the angle

PD and DR are each equal AOQ is trisected by OP.

to

OQ, then

IN PAPER FOLDING.
Draw QR.
Then

133

QR

is

parallel to

OA, and

THE CONCHOID OR MUSSEL-SHAPED CURVE.*

266. This curve

was invented by Nicomedes

be a
disline,

(c.

150 B. C.).
fixed

Let
a

point,

its

tance from a fixed

DM,
On

and let a pencil of

rays through

cut

DM.

each
off,

of

these rays

each way from its lay intersection with DM, a

segment

b.

The

locus

of the points thus deter

mined

is

the conchoid.
b
>,

According as
or
<#,

=,
is

the origin

node, a cusp, or a con

jugate point.

The

fig-

ure| represents the case

when

>

a.

267. This curve also

was employed

Fig. 77-

for finding

two geometric means, and

for the trisection of an angle.

*See Beman and Smith s translation of Klein s Famous Problems of Eltmentary Geometry, p. 40. tFrom Beman and Smith s translation of Klein s Famous Problems of
Elementary Geometry,
p. 46.

134

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Let

OA

be the longer of the two lines of which

with

two geometric means are required.

Bisect

OA

in

B\

as a center

and

OB
in

as a

radius describe a circle.

circle

Place a chord

BC

the

equal to the shorter of the given lines.

Draw

AC and

produce

AC and BC
such that

to

D and E,
OB,

two points
or

collinear with

O and

DE

BA.

Fig. 78.

Then
required.

ED and CE are the two

cut the circles in
s

mean
G.

proportionals

Let

OE

E and
-

By Menelaus

Theorem,*

BC-ED OA=CE OD -BA ... BC OA=CE-OD BC ~~ _ OD

~CE

OA

BE
CE
See
~

OD + OA
OA

GE
OA
p. 240.

Beman and Smith

New Plane and Solid

Geometry,

IN PAPER FOLDING.
But
.-.

135

GE EF= BE -EC. GE -OD =

OA -OD =

.-.

The

position of

E is
is

choid of which AD DE the constant intercept.

268.

found by the aid of the con the asymptote, O the focus, and

The

trisection of the angle is thus effected.

<

In Fig. 77, let

= / MOV,
OM=b,
and

the angle to be trisected.

On

OM

lay

off

any arbitrary length.

to the axis of

With
and

as a center

a radius b describe a circle,

through

M perpendicular
O with A,
Then

X with origin

O draw

a vertical line representing the asymptote of

the conchoid to be constructed.

choid. Connect

Construct the con

the intersection of the circle

is

and the conchoid.

A OY one

third of
<p.*

THE WITCH.
269. If

OQA
it,

(Fig. 79) be a semicircle and

NQ an

ordinate of
to

and

NP be taken
,

a fourth proportional

ON, OA and (M7 then

Fold

the locus of

P is

the witch.

AM at right angles to
PN\

OA.

Fold through O, Q, and M.

Complete the rectangle

NAMP.

QN=OM: OQ

= OA\ON.
Famous Problems of Elemen

"-Beman

and Smith
p. 46.

translation of Klein s

tary Geometry,

136

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Therefore
Its

P is
is,

a point on the curve.

equation

Fig- 79-

This curve was proposed by a lady, Maria Gaetana

Agnesi, Professor of Mathematics at Bologna.

THE CUBICAL PARABOLA.

270.

The equation

to this

curve

is

a*y

x*.

Let

OX and OYbe

the rectangular axes,

OA=a,

and

OX=x.
In the axis

OY take OB = x. Draw BA and draw AC at right

ting the axis

angles to

AB cut

O Kin

C.

IN PAPER FOLDING.

137

Draw CX, and draw XYat right Complete the rectangle XOY.

angles to CX.

P is

a point

on the curve.

Fig. 80.

THE HARMONIC CURVE OR CURVE OF

271. This
is

SINES.

the curve in which a musical string

vibrates

when sounded.

The

tional to the sines of angles

ordinates are propor which are the same frac

tions of four right angles that the corresponding ab

scissas are of

some given

length.

Let

AB (Fig. 81) be the given length.

Produce

BA

38

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

to

and

fold

right angle
four.

AD perpendicular to AB. DAC into a number of equal

1
,

Divide the
parts, say,

Mark on each

radius a length equal to the

am

plitude of the vibration,

ACAP=AQ = AR = AD.
R
fold perpendiculars to

From points/
then
, ,

Q,
,

A C;

PP QQ RR
bisect

and

DA

are proportional to the

sines of the angles

PAC, QAC, RAC, DAC.

divide

Now,
twice the

AB in E and

AE and EB into
for the right

number

of equal parts

chosen

C ?

T U

angle.

Draw
U,

the successive ordinates

,

SS

TT UU\
,

VV,
S,

etc., equal to

PP, QQ RR DA,
,

etc.

Then
is

T,

are points on the curve, and

it.

the

and pricking through S, T, U, V, we get corresponding points on The portion of the the portion of the curve VE.
highest point on

By

folding on

VV

curve corresponding to

EB

is

equal to

A VE

but

lies

on the opposite side of AB. The length from A to is half a wave length, which will be repeated from

E E

PAPER FOLDING
to

139

on the other side

of

AB.

is

a point of inflec

tion on the curve, the radius of curvature there be

coming

infinite.

THE OVALS OF
272.

CASSINI.
in a

When
its

a point

moves

plane so that the

product of
plane
is

distances from two

it

fixed points in the

s

constant,

traces out one of Cassini

ovals.
of

The

fixed points are called the foci.

The equation

MA

B
Fig. 82.

the curve
of

rr =k?, where r and r are the distances on the curve from the foci and k is a con any point
is

stant.

F be the foci. Fold through F and Bisect FF in C, and fold BCB perpendicular to FF Find points B and B such that FB and FB are each =k. Then B and B are evidently points on
Let

and

jF".

the curve.

40

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Fold

FK perpendicular to FF
take

and make

FK=k,

and on

FF
A

CA and CA

each equal to CK. Then

and

are points on the curve.

For

CA*

=CK* = CF* -f

Produce
point

FA

and take

AT=FK.
Fold

In

AT

take a

J/and draw MK.

in

A ^/

perpendicular to

MK meeting FA
With
center
the

J/

FM-FM =&. center F and radius FM,

Then

and with the

and radius
in P.

FM

describe two arcs cutting

the curve.

each other

When

Then P is a point on number of points between

and

are

found, corresponding

points in the other

quadrants
curve as

can be marked by paper folding.

When FF
sumes the form

=V*k
is

and rr

= \k*
(

the

of a lemniscate.

279.)

When FF
of

greater than

V 2k,

the curve consists

two distinct ovals, one about each focus.

THE LOGARITHMIC CURVE.

273.

The equation

to this

curve \sy
is

a*.

The
If

ordinate at the origin

unity.

the abscissa increases arithmetically, the ordi

nate increases geometrically.

The

values of y for integral values of x can be ob

108.

tained by the process given in

IN PAPER FOLDING.
The curve extends
to infinity in the

141

angular space

XOY.
If

x be negative

y= a x

and approaches zero

as

increases numerically.

The negative

side of the axis

OX is

therefore an asymptote to the curve.

THE COMMON CATENARY.

274.

The catenary

is

the form assumed by a heavy

inextensible string freely suspended from two points

and hanging under the action

of gravity.

The equation

of the curve is

the axis of y being a vertical line through the lowest

point of the curve, and the axis of x a horizontal line

in the plane of the string at a distance c

below the

lowest point

c is

the parameter of the curve, and e

the base of the natural system of logarithms.

When
when x
275.

= -e^C

2c,

(fi -f-

e~ 2

~)

and so on,

From

the equation
,=(<*--,-

can be determined graphically.

42

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

I/}-

f 2 is
-j-

tween y

found by taking the geometric mean be and jv r.

THE CARDIOID OR HEART-SHAPED CURVE.

276.

From

a fixed point

on a
off

circle of radius

draw

a pencil of lines

and take

on each ray, meas

ured both ways from the circumference, a segment equal to 2a. The ends of these lines lie on a cardioid.

Fig. 83.

The equation The origin is

is

to the curve

is

= 0(1 -f cos #)
The
cardioid
its

a cusp on the curve.

the inverse of the parabola with reference to

focus as center of inversion.

THE LIMACON.
277.

From

a fixed point on a circle,

off

draw a num

ber of chords, and take

of these lines

a constant length on each

measured both ways from the circum

ference of the circle.

IN PAPER FOLDING
If

143

the constant length

is

is

equal to the diameter of

the circle, the curve

If it

a cardioid.
is

be greater than the diameter, the curve

altogether outside the circle.

If
it

be less than the diameter, a portion of the

the circle in the form of a loop.
is

curve
If

lies inside

the constant length

is

exactly half the diameter,

its

the curve

called the trisectrix, since by

aid any

angle can be trisected.

The equation

is

= acos6-\-

b.

The

first

sort of

liir^on
is

is

the inverse of an ellipse

and the second

sort

the inverse of an hyperbola,

with reference to a focus as a center.

The loop

is

the

inverse of the branch about the other focus.

278.

The

trisectrix is applied as follows

Let

AOB be
O

the given angle.

to the radius of the circle.

Take OA, OB equal Describe a circle with the

OB.
Produce

center

and radius

OA

or

AO

in-

i 44

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
beyond the
circle.

definitely

Apply the

trisectrix so

that

O may
in

correspond

to the center of the circle

and

OB

the axis of the loop.

C.

Let the outer curve cut

AO

produced

Draw

BC

cutting the circle in D,

Draw OD.

Fig. 85.

Then

^ACB

is

\ of

For

CD
/_CJ3O

/_ODB

THE LEMNISCATE OF BERNOULLI.

279.

The

polar equation to the curve

r
2

is

=a

cos26.

Let

be the origin, and

OA=a.
at right angles to

Produce AO, and draw

OD

OA

Take the

angle A OP =8 and A OB =--26.

Draw
In

AB perpendicular to OB. AO produced take OC=^OB.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Find

145

D in OD such
OP = OD.

that

CD A

is

a right angle.

Take

P is

a point on the curve.

= OB-OA =a
As stated above,
the ovals of Cassini.
2

cos 2 6.

this curve is a particular case of

Fie. 86.

It is

the inverse of the rectangular hyperbola, with

its

reference to
its

center as center of inversion, and also

pedal with respect to the center.

The area

of the curve is a 1

THE CYCLOID.
280.

The

cycloid

is

the path described by a point

circle

on the circumference of a
roll

which

is

supposed

to

upon
Let

a fixed straight line.

and
in

point

when

be the positions of the generating contact with the fixed line after one

1 46

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES
Then

complete revolution of the circle. to the circumference of the circle.

AA

is

equal

The circumference
length in this

of a circle

may be

obtained in

way.

Wrap
off

a strip of

paper round a

circular object,
gift

e. g.,

the cylinder in Kindergarten

No.

JI.,

and mark

two coincident points.

Un

paper and fold through the points. Then the straignt line between the two points is equal to the circumference corresponding to the diameter of the
fold the

cylinder.

By
to

proportion, the circumference corresponding

vice versa.

any diameter can be found and

D
Fig. 87.

Bisect

AA

in

D and
to the

draw

DB

at right angles to

AA

and equal

diameter of the generating

circle.

Then A, A and
Find

are points on the curve.

O
O

the middle point of

BD.
circle

Fold a number
through

of radii of the generating

dividing the semi-circumference to

the

right into equal arcs, say, four.

Divide

AD into

the

same number

of equal parts.

IN PAPER FOLDING
Through the ends
right angles to
of the

147

diameters fold lines at

BD.
one of these
lines,

Let

EFP be
and
let

F being
off

the end of

a radius,
tion of
to

be the corresponding point of sec

AD, commencing from D. Mark

or to the length of arc

FP equal

GA

BF.
to other points of sec

Then
tion of

P is

a point

on the curve.

Other points corresponding

AD may be
is

marked

in the

symmetric to the other half of the curve can be on sponding points marked by folding on BD.

The curve

same way. the axis BD and corre

The length

of the

curve

is

4 times

BD and

its

area

3 times the area of the generating circle.

THE TROCHOID.
281. If as in the cycloid,

a circle rolls along a

straight line,

not on

its

plane of the circle but circumference traces out the curve called a

any

point in the

trochoid.

THE EPICYCLOID.
282.

An

epicycloid

is

the path described by a point

on the circumference

of a circle

which

rolls

on the
it

circumference of another fixed circle touching

the outside.

on

THE HYPOCYCLOID.
283.
If

the rolling circle touches the inside of the

fixed circle, the curve traced

by a point on the

cir

cumference

of the

former

is

a hypocycloid.

148

GEOMETRIC EXERCISES

When
latter

the radius of the rolling circle

is

a sub-

multiple of the fixed circle, the circumference of the

has to be divided

in the

same

ratio.

These sections being divided

circle

into a

number

of

equal parts, the position of the center of the rolling

corresponding to each point of section of the fixed circle can be found by dividing the circumference of the rolling circle into
the

and

of the generating point

same number

of equal parts.

THE QUADRATRIX.*
284. Let

OACB

be a square.

If

the radius

OA

of

a circle rotate uniformly round the center

from the
if

position

OA

through a right angle to

OB

and

in the

same time

a straight line

drawn perpendicular

to

OB

move uniformly

parallel to itself

from the position

OA

to

BC

the locus of their intersection will be the

quadratrix.

This curve was invented by Hippias of Elis (420 B. C.) for the multisection of an angle.
If

and

are points on the curve, the angles

are to one another as the ordinates

A OP and A OP

of the respective points.

THE SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES.

285.
If

the line

OA

revolve uniformly round

as

center, while point

OA, then the point

medes.
*

P moves uniformly from O along P will describe the spiral of Archi

s

Beman and Smith

p. 57.

translation of Klein

Famous Problems of Elemen-

tary Geometry,

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