A Look at Nuclear Science and Technology

Larry Foulke

Radiation and Realism 4.3 Damage to materials and protection from radiation Background radiation

REACTOR MATERIALS
Quantification

NEUTRON ENVIRONMENT

Knief Problem 3-19: A pressure vessel is fabricated from a material whose properties become unacceptable after receiving a fast fluence of 1021n/cm2. Calculate the expected lifetime in years for such a vessel subject to a fast flux (fluence) of 5x1011n/cm2-sec 10 21 n / cm 2 21 2 9 = 2 x 10 sec (nvt )max = t max = 10 n / cm sot max = 11 2 5 x10 n / cm sec

or 63.4 yrs
Nuclear Engineering Program

REACTOR MATERIALS
POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES
Hardening / Embrittlement Swelling Phase Transformations Decreased Corrosion Resistance Changes in Mechanical Properties
Nuclear Engineering Program

Radiation Effects on Materials Lattice Defects

Radiation Effects on Materials

Nuclear Engineering Program

Image Source: See Note 1

Dose Reduction
How do we optimize radiation exposure to get it as low as reasonably achievable? Three basic principles
Restrict proximity TIME Dose = Dose Rate Time Increase the DISTANCE from the source Point source: 1-over-r-squared reduction

S0 (r ) = 4r 2

Use SHIELDING material

Nuclear Engineering Program

Dose Reduction
Other subordinate approaches
Allow to DECAY away with time Provide CONTAINMENT
Isolate contaminated materials & surfaces Containment enclosures Isolate workers Respirator Protective clothing (Bunny suits, Anti-Cs)

Monitor (personal dosimetry, area monitors) Provide engineered controls Procedures, physical controls
Nuclear Engineering Program

Radiation Shielding
Purpose of radiation shielding
Protect personnel and/or equipment behind the shield from radiation exposure
Absorb primary radiation incident on the shield Reduce primary radiation energy (usually through scattering) to produce secondary radiation that is less damaging / easier to absorb. Absorb secondary radiation generated within the shield material.

Nuclear Engineering Program

Shielding Effects
Radiation Buildup
Absorption/scattering collisions Secondary radiations

Secondary Radiation
Scattered gamma rays
Compton scattering

Capture gamma rays

Neutron capture (n, )

Can dominate over primary radiation

Nuclear Engineering Program

Radiation Shielding
Alpha / beta radiation
Short range, small thickness of any material will work. Requires only simple shielding (Layer of skin / piece of foil).

Gamma / neutron radiation

Extremely penetrating, reaction rates are highly material dependent (preferred shielding materials). Shielding Have to worry about both primary and secondary radiations Usually requires composite shields containing several different materials.
Nuclear Engineering Program

Penetrating Properties of Radiation

Image Source: See note 2

Radiation Shield Types

Simple Lead Concrete Water Now hazardous (toxic) General Purpose Good for stopping neutrons

Composite (for mixed n, radiations) Optimize gamma & neutron attenuation Minimize thickness / weight Specialized shields Lead Glass for use in shielded hot cells that workers must see inside of.
Nuclear Engineering Program

Composite Shield

Nuclear Engineering Program

Image Source: See Note 1

Radiation Protection
Clearly massive amounts of ionizing radiation can cause biological damage. However, cells have advanced repair mechanisms for this damage and can easily cope with mild to moderate exposure. How much is too much radiation?
Government sets radiation standards that provide dose limits to prevent people from receiving harmful radiation exposure.

Nuclear Engineering Program

Radiation Standards
Intent
Protect health and safety
Workers Public

Allow efficiency in operations

Basic standards
External radiation sources (excluding background). Derive limits for intake and internal deposition of radionuclides in body.

Nuclear Engineering Program

 Natural background radiation

Varies in world with altitude and soil composition. US Average -- 300 mrem/y + Medical mrem/y [NCRP] Cosmic 33 mrem/y 0.33 mSv/yr Terrestrial 21 mrem/y 0.21 mSv/yr Internal (Food/Water) 28 mrem/y 0.28 mSv/yr Inhaled (Radon) 228 mrem/y 2.28 mSv/yr Medical / Etc. 300 mrem/y 3.0 mSv/yr
Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States, National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, 2009, NCRP 60

Background Radiation

Nuclear Engineering Program

 Natural background radiation

Varies in the U.S. with altitude and soil composition.

Background Radiation

Nuclear Engineering Program

Image Source: See Note 3

 Natural background radiation

Varies in world
My personal Average -- 620 mrem/y.

Background Radiation

Take a few minutes to fill out your background dose worksheet on http://www.new.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/ What is your average and where is it coming from?

Nuclear Engineering Program

 Natural occurring background radiation is the main source of exposure for most people.

Background Radiation

Nuclear Engineering Program

Image Source: See Note 4

Image Source Notes

1. Adapted with permission from the American Nuclear Society. Nuclear Engineering Theory and Technology of Commercial Nuclear Power by Ronald Allen Knief, 2nd Edition. Copyright 2008 by the American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, Illinois. Figure 3-3 (slide 5) and 3-6 (slide 13). 2. Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic: User: Stannered: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma _radiation_penetration.svg 3. U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-9, 1993. 4. Reprinted with permission from World Nuclear Association.