Intervention in School and Clinic

http://isc.sagepub.com/ Teaching Social Skills to Students with Learning and Behavior Problems
Linda K. Elksnin and Nick Elksnin Intervention in School and Clinic 1998 33: 131 DOI: 10.1177/105345129803300301 The online version of this article can be found at: http://isc.sagepub.com/content/33/3/131

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Teaching Social Skills to Students with Learning and Behavior Problems

L I N D A K. E L K S N I N AND N I C K E L K S N I N

Children who fail to acquire appropriate social skills have a lower probability of completing school, becoming employed, and becoming well-adjusted adults. This article provides the practitioner with strategies that can be used for teaching social skills to children with learning and behavior problems. These include how to select students for training, which social skills to use, teaching discrete skills and problem-solving routines, and helping students generalize training across settings and situations. arol Zigmond watched her fifth-grade students form their cooperative groups during social studies. As usual, things went smoothly for about the first 10 minutes, and then Alan shouted loudly at members of his group, "You never listen to my ideas and I'm not working with you anymore." Carol changed the composition of the groups about every 2 weeks. No matter which group Alan joined, he didn't cooperate. Carol had reached her limit. She strode over to Alan's group, grabbed him by the wrist, pulled his face close to hers, and loudly said, "Alan, you can work on this project for the rest of this year by yourself until you can learn to work with others." Dominick Saunders taught third grade in the same school as Carol Zigmond. He expected his students to have difficulty getting along with one another on occaINTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

sion. On a beautiful spring day, Mr. Saunders supervised his class during recess and observed Paige Larson attempt to join in a game with a group of five girls. The girls ignored Paige's attempts until Sarah shouted, "It's too late for new people. Find someone else to play with." Paige walked up to Sarah and stuck her tongue out at her. Mr. Saunders asked Paige to sit on the steps. He sat down next to her and asked, "OK, what went wrong? Why did Sarah tell you to play with someone else?" With the help of Mr. Saunders's questions, Paige began to analyze the events leading to her sticking her tongue out at Sarah. In our 20 years of teaching, we have encountered many "Carol Zigmonds" and "Dominick Saunders," who adopt two radically different approaches to social skills instruction. The "Carols" expect students to get along with others and believe students choose to engage in antisocial behavior. If a student failed to solve a math problem, these teachers would show them how to correctly solve it. Yet, they expect students to teach themselves appropriate social skills. In contrast, the "Dominicks" regard social problems differently. They believe students need instruction in performing social skills and developing effective problem-solving strategies. A student's antisocial behavior is regarded as a teaching opportunity. Just as a student would have a difficult time teaching herself to read, she also may have difficulty selecting and using the appropriate skill in social situations.
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W H A T A R E SOCIAL SKILLS? Social skills are complex. They involve overt, observable behaviors, as well as covert problem-solving skills. We can appreciate their complexity when we identify potentially taxing adult social situations such as going out on a blind date, moving into a new neighborhood, starting a new job, or attending a cocktail party. By realizing how difficult some social situations can be, we may become more willing to teach our students to be more socially skillful. Social skills enable children to experience positive consequences during social interaction (L. K. Elksnin, 1996). A list of types of social skills is provided in Table 1. W H Y THE INTEREST IN SOCIAL SKILLS? When we first began teaching students social skills, most educators regarded basic academic skills instruction as their only responsibility. Social skills instruction was considered the responsibility of parents; children were expected to arrive at school socially skilled. Several factors have caused educators to reconsider the importance of social skills instruction. Studies examining outcomes of children socially skilled and unskilled have yielded some startling results. Perhaps the most alarming result of outcome studies is the relationship between social skills problems during early childhood and adult mental health difficulties. Strain and Odom (1986) reported that social skill deficiency in early childhood Table 1. Types of Social Skills

Interpersonal Behaviors These behaviors are "friendship-making skills," such as introducing yourself, joining in, asking a favor, offering to help, giving and accepting compliments, and apologizing. Peer-Related Social Skills These are skills valued by classmates, which are associated with peer acceptance. Examples include working cooperatively, asking for and receiving information, and correctly assessing another's emotional state. Teacher-Pleasing Social Skills Behaviors associated w i t h school success include following directions, doing your best work, and listening to the teacher. Self-Related Behaviors These skills allow a child to assess a social situation, select an appropriate skill, and determine the skill's effectiveness. Other self-related behaviors include following through, dealing w i t h stress, understanding feelings, and controlling anger. Assertiveness Skills These behaviors allow children to express their needs without resorting to aggression. Communication Skills Communication skills include listener responsiveness, turn taking, maintaining conversational attention, and giving the speaker feedback.

was the single best predictor of significant p?'oblems in adulthood. More recently, in his book Emotional Intelligence, Daniel Goleman (1995) has suggested that emotional intelligence, or EQ, is more important in predicting life success than IQ. EQ includes skills such as understanding the feelings of others, regulating one's own emotions, and putting others at ease. School performance and social skillfulness appear to be related as well, with children who are socially deficient having more school problems (Gresham, 1981). Children with poorly developed social skills are at greater risk for dropping out of school, and juvenile delinquency rates are higher for these children. Poor social skills are responsible for much of our unemployment and underemployment, whereas adequate social skills and high levels of emotional intelligence can lead to occupational advancement (N. Elksnin & L. K. Elksnin, 1998). Employers consistently rank interpersonal skills as being as important or more important than vocational preparation (N. Elksnin & L. K. Elksnin, 1991; L. K. Elksnin, N. Elksnin, & Sabornie, 1994; L. K. Elksnin & N . Elksnin, 1995). Bullis, Nishioka-Evans, Fredericks, and Davis (1992); Hagner, Rogan, and Murphy (1992); and Johnson and Johnson (1990) reported that 90% of job loss was related to socialproblems. Finally, violence in our schools and communities has heightened educators' interest in social skills instruction. Violence in our society has escalated dramatically over the past several years, and the American Psychological Association (1993) reported that violent acts are being committed by children at younger ages than ever before. After surveying 700 schools across the country, the National School Boards Association (1993) found that 39% of districts reported a gun or knife attack and 29% reported a drive-by shooting (p. 5). Many of these violent acts are the result of lack of self-control. One way to regard social skills is to consider prosocial behavior as the antithesis of antisocial behavior. In fact, antisocial behavior has been described by some as the absence of social skills (Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). Teaching violent students self-control is one of the greatest challenges we face as educators. Although social skills instruction is important for all students, it is particularly critical for students with learning and behavior problems. As a group, these students tend to exhibit social skills deficits more frequently than their normally achieving peers (Bender & Wall, 1994; L. K. Elksnin & N. Elksnin, 1995; Frederick & Olmi, 1994; Margalit, 1993; Mathur & Rutherford, 1996; Merrell, Johnson, Merz, & Ring, 1992; Moffatt, HanleyMaxwell, & Donnellan, 1995; Schonert-Riechl, 1993; Schumaker, 1992; Vaughn & Haager, 1994). For example, after conducting a meta-analysis of the social skills literature, Kavale and Forness (1996) reported that about 75% of students with learning disabilities (LD) mani-

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tested social skills deficits. In addition, social skills deficits persist as students age: The U.S. Department of Education (1996) reported that 29% of adolescents with disabilities who graduated during the 1994-1995 academic year required social skills instruction beyond high school. In the following sections, we present strategies you can use to select students for instruction, identify skills to be taught, teach students discrete skills and problem-solving routines, identify instructional strategies that address factors affecting acquisition and performance of social skills, and encourage your students to generalize skills across settings and situations. TEACHING Y O U R STUDENTS SOCIAL SKILLS Identifying Which Students N e e d Instruction Although children with learning and behavior problems generally are more at risk for social skills problems, normally achieving students also may have poorly developed interpersonal skills. You can identify students who will benefit from instruction by using the assessment approaches listed in Table 2. In addition to helping you identify students who will benefit from social skills instruction, assessment will help you identify social skills considered essential by parents, teacher, peers, and employers; determine the disparity between the skills a student needs and those he or she has; and determine reasons for social skills problems (L. K. Elksnin & N. Elksnin, 1997). Selecting Skills to Be Taught Generally, social skills fall within two categories: skill specific and problem solving. Skill-specific approaches to teaching social skills involve breaking a skill into its constituent parts and having students perform each skill step. For example, a student may be taught to "accept a compliment" by acknowledging another's positive comment and thanking the person for it. We have included a list of available social skills curricula for elementary-age and secondary-age students that you can use to identify relevant social skills to teach your students (see Table 3). Teaching Social Skills We present an instructional model based upon our experience, results of empirical studies, and the work of Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, and Sheldon (1995), which we believe enables students to acquire social skills in an efficient and effective manner. An instructional planning sheet you can use when planning and delivering social skills instruction is shown in Figure 1. 1. Define the skill. Provide students with a clear and concise definition of the social skill.

2. Describe the skill. List the steps involved in performing the skill. These steps include verbal steps (i.e., what the student says), nonverbal steps (i.e., what the student does), and cognitive steps (i.e., what the student thinks). After listing skill steps, identify what Hazel et al.
Table 2. Social Skills Assessment Approaches

Rating Scales Useful when you want to * screen large numbers of students to determine who will benefit from instruction * obtain information from a variety of raters * identify a place to start before conducting informal assessment * identify behaviors that may interfere with social skills acquisition and performance Keep in mind that * rater bias may occur; use more than one rater to reduce bias * results will not help you pinpoint the cause of the social skills problem * results may be inconsistent with observational data Interviews Interviews with parents, teacher, peers, and employers are useful when you want to * identify social skills considered essential by these individuals * determine the discrepancy between student's current and expected performance Interviews with students are useful when you want to * determine the student's level of self-awareness regarding his or her social competence * determine the student's level of motivation to acquire social skills * observe the student's social skills (i.e., eye contact, communication skills, sustained conversation, etc.) during the interview Keep in mind that * interviews can be time-consuming * persons you interview may not be reliable * useful information may not be forthcoming unless you structure the interview Behavioral Observation Useful when you want to * determine if a student needs social skills instruction * compare students' social skills performance * evaluate the effectiveness of your instructional program * communicate clearly with parents, teachers, students, and employers Keep in mind that * behavioral observation tends to be time-consuming * this approach cannot be used to assess infrequently occurring social behaviors Role Play Useful when you * don't have time to observe in the natural setting or the skill is performed so infrequently it is unlikely to be observed * want to know how well a student performs a skill rather than a rater's perception of performance * want to control the assessment

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Table 3.

Selected Social Skills Curricula

Curricula Designed for Elementary-Age Children ACCEPTS: A Curriculum for Children's Effective Peer and Teacher Skills. (1983). H. M. Walker et al. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. CLASSIC: A Program for Socially Valid Social Skills Training. (1993). J. A. Dygdon. Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing Company. Getting Along with Others. (1983). N. F. Jackson, D. A. Jackson, and C. Monroe. Champaign, IL: Research Press. / Can Behave. (1986). D. Mannix. Portland, OR: AIESP. / Can Problem Solve. (1992). M. B. Shure. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Skillstreaming the Elementary School Child. (1984). E. McGinnis and A. P. Goldstein. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Social Skills Activities for Special Children. (1993). D. Mannix. West Nyack, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education. Social Skills in the Classroom. (1992). T. M. Stephens. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Taking Part: Introducing Social Skills to Children Preschool to Grade 3. (1991). G. Cartledge and J. Kleefeld. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Think Aloud Classroom Programs: Grades 1-2, Grades 3-4, Grades 5-6. (1981, 1985, 1985). B. W. Camp and M. A. S. Bash. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Working Together: Building Children's Social Skills Through Folk Literature, Grades 3 through 6. (1994). G. Cartledge and J. Kleefeld. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Curricula Designed for Adolescents ACCESS: Adolescent Curriculum for Communication and Effective Social Skills. (1988). H. M. Walker, S. McConnell, D. Holmes, B. Todis, J. Walker, and N. Golden. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Assessing and Teaching Job-Related Social Skills. (1987). D. Baumgart and O. J. Anderson. Moscow: University of Idaho, Secondary Transition and Employment Project. ASSET: A Social Skills Program for Adolescents. (1995). J. S. Hazel, J. B. Schumaker, J. A. Sherman, and J. Sheldon. Champaign, IL: Research Press. CLASSIC: A Program for Socially Valid Social Skills Training. (1993). J. A. Dygdon. Brandon, VT: Clinical Psychology Publishing Company. Job-Related Social Skills. (1991). M. Montague and K. A. Lund. Ann Arbor, Ml: Exceptional Innovations. Learning to Get Along. (1991). D. A. Jackson et al. Champaign, IL: Research Press. The PREPARE Curriculum. (1988). A. P. Goldstein. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Skillstreaming the Adolescent. (1980). A. P. Goldstein, R. P. Sprafkin, N. J. Gershaw, and P. Klein. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Social Skills for Daily Living. (1988). J. B. Schumaker, J. S. Hazel, and C. S. Pederson. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Social Skills on the Job. (1989). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. The Waksman Social Skills Curriculum: An Assertive Behavior Program for Adolescents. (1985). Portland, OR: ASIEP.

(1995) have referred to as body basics. Body basics are behaviors that occur throughout the skill, such as facing the person, maintaining eye contact, using an appropriate tone of voice, using an appropriate facial expression, using an appropriate body posture, and so forth. 3. Provide a rationale. Tell the students why they are learning the skill. Have them come up with positive and negative rationale statements like, "If I learn to control my temper, I won't get into trouble at home and school," and, "If I don't learn to control my temper, I could get into another fight and get suspended." Students are much more motivated to learn the skill if they know it will pay off. 4. Describe situations in which to use the skill. Our ultimate goal is for students to use skills across situations, locations, and individuals. We can accomplish this by describing, and having students describe, general situations that indicate skill use. For example, you can cue students to use the skill "resisting peer pressure" by reminding them this skill is good to use "when other kids your age want you to do something you don't want to do or you know you should not do." Students also can be encouraged to generate situations and settings in which specific skills may be used. 5. Teach the skill using role-play situations. Many of the commercial curricula included in Table 3 include role134 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

play scenarios. However, it has been our experience that students are more motivated to learn skills when they generate their own role-play situations. These situations are the vehicles through which students learn social skills. We have found the following instructional sequence (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980) most effective: Model the skill. Show the student each step and "talk out loud" to model cognitive decisions. Guide the student through the skill. As the student performs the skill, provide specific, informative feedback to help the student perfect performance. While several students are role playing, other students can monitor use of skill steps and provide their classmates with feedback at the end of the role play. Allow the student to independently practice the skill. Like academic practice, social skills practice can be accomplished through completion of homework assignments such as the one shown as Figure 2. Students can be asked to use specific skills throughout the day or week and to self-evaluate skill execution. 6. Help students identify social rules. Social rules govern generally acceptable social behavior. The purpose of identifying social rules is to give students a framework when they are using a specific social skill. For example, a

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SOCIAL SKILLS INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING SHEET SKILL: 1. Definition of Skill:

Skill Steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. "Body Basics": 1. 2. 3. 4. Rationale Statements: Positive Statements: If then If then If then Negative Statements: If then If

Figure 1.

Social skills instructional planning sheet.

(Figure 1 continues)
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(Figure 1 continued!

then If then 4. Situations in Which to Use Skill: 1.

2. 3.

5.

Role-Play Scenarios: Be sure these are situations the student has/will encounter!

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Role Play Instructional Sequence: 1. Teacher Role Plays/Students Critique 2. Students Role Play/Students Critique (Remember: All students role play every skill!) 3. Teacher Gives Role Players Feedback

6.

Social Rules:
1.

2.

3.

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social rule that is important for the skill of negotiating is to "never argue with someone in authority." Teaching Problem-Solving Skills In addition to teaching discrete social skills, we need to teach children how to identify and solve social problems. Well-developed problem-solving ability enables children to determine where, when, and how to use social skills. Problem solving involves these steps: defining the problem, identifying possible solutions, selecting an alternative, predicting outcomes, and evaluating actual outcomes (D'Zurrilla & Goldfried, 1971). We have taught this problem-solving sequence to children as young as preschool age and have used it to teach children of all ages to control their impulsive or aggressive behavior. Problem-solving routines also form the basis for anger-control programs, which have been implemented by educators concerned with violence in schools. You can teach your students social problem-solving strategies by using a self-instructional model developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1977), a pioneer in cognitive strategies instruction: Model the skill while talking to yourself. Think out loud while the student performs the skill. Have the student perform the skill while he or she talks out loud. Have the student perform the skill while whispering. Have the student perform the skill while talking to him- or herself.

For example, a teacher (T) might model the skill, resisting teasing in this way: T: "Those boys are teasing me to see if I'll get upset, but I know ways not to let them bother me. I'll ignore them." T: "They're still teasing me, even though I didn't do or say anything. I think I'll try telling them to stop, using a brave voice." T: "If this doesn't work, I'll need to tell an adult." Other Factors Affecting Social Skills Acquisition and Performance In our discussion of how to teach students with learning and behavior problems social skills, we have thus far assumed that the social skills deficit was the result of the student's lack of knowledge. Given this assumption, our responsibility as teachers was to teach the student the skill using the instructional sequence provided. However, there are other reasons children fail to acquire and perform social skills: 1. Interfering behaviors. Students in your class may exhibit behaviors that interfere with learning and using social skills. At one end of the behavior continuum, students may suffer from such high levels of anxiety that they avoid social situations, denying themselves opportunities to become more socially skillful. At the other extreme, certain students who are impulsive and inattentive may be unable to acquire and perform social skills. For these students, you need to address the interfering behaviors before teaching, or while teaching, social skills. 2. Lack of opportunity. Some students fail to acquire or perform social skills because they have few occasions to use the skill. In this case, we must provide students with opportunities to use skills, including unstructured classroom activities such as cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and other group activities; as well as ensuring that our students have opportunities to informally interact throughout the day. 3. Lack offeedback. We rely on feedback to maintain or change our behavior. In order for students with learning and behavior problems to become more socially proficient, we must provide them with specific, informative feedback after a skill is performed. In addition, we need to encourage parents, teachers, peers, employers, and co-workers to provide students with feedback when we are not present. 4. Lack ofsensitivity to environmental cues. Some of our students know how to perform social skills, but they are unable to identify appropriate times and places to use them. We can teach students to become more environmentally sensitive by eliminating behaviors that may interfere with attention, prompting the student to use the skill at an appropriate time, or teaching the student to generate situations, places, and times in which to use the skill.
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Social Skills Homework Assignment

Name Sean Adams Date May 13,1997 Skill to be practiced: Dealing with Teasing 1. Stop and count to 5. 2. Think about choices: a. ignore b. tell the person how you feel in a nice way c. tell the person why to stop 3. Do your best choice. Where I did it: At cub scouts How I did: Pretty good Mike stopped. Steps:

What happened: Mike stopped teasing me.

Figure 2. Social skills homework assignment.

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5. Lack of reinforcement. Students must be reinforced to continue to perform social skills. We can provide students with positive reinforcement following skill use by teaching skills that are highly valued by peers, teachers, parents, and others; teachers, peers, parents, and others to reinforce the student; the student to recruit his or her own reinforcement; the student to self-reinforce. PROMOTING U S E OF SOCIAL SKILLS Although we have been successful in teaching students with learning and behavior problems social skills, we have been less effective teaching them to use these skills when and where it counts. In the following sections, we review several strategies you can use to promote students' generalization of social skills across settings and situations (N. Elksnin & L. Elksnin, 1998). 1. Make social skills instruction an integral part of the curriculum. One approach is to integrate social skills instruction on an as-needed basis throughout the day. When you observe a student having difficulty executing a social skill, seize the opportunity to teach the appropriate skill. We assist our students by having them perform social skill autopsies (Lavoie, 1994). When social situations result in negative (or positive) outcomes, we use questions to help students analyze events surrounding the outcome. In this way, students learn to avoid negative outcomes and repeat social successes. Another strategy is to teach significant others (SOs) to use coincidental teaching to capitalize on social opportunities. Teach SOs to coincidentally teach by helping them select skills to teach; enabling them to identify potential situations in which skills can be taught; telling them how to identify potential times during the day when skills can be taught; showing them how to prompt students to use skills and praise them when they do; teaching them to reinforce skill use.

they highly value the social skill. Interview parents, teachers, peers, employers, and co-workers to find out the types of skills they consider essential. Observe various natural settings to determine which social skills are reinforced. 4. Use instructional techniques proven to promote generalization. The same instructional techniques that promote generalization of academic skills will enhance transfer of social skills training: Teach multiple social skills. Require mastery, but introduce new social skills prior to mastery. Teach social skills throughout the day. Integrate social skills instruction within the existing curriculum. Vary directions so that your instructional language resembles that in the natural setting. Use a variety of models and role-playing actors. Use role-play scenarios that represent a variety of situations across different settings. 5. Teach students to generalize. Students are more likely to use social skills across situations and settings if we teach them to use cognitive mediators, such as self-monitoring, self-recording, self-evaluation, and selfreinforcement (Misra, 1992; Schloss, 1987). We have provided a self-recording form that enables the student to write skill steps, keep track of how many times the skill was used, identify the disparity between how many times he or she used the skill and how many times he or she would like to use the skill, and list environmental cues that prompt skill use (see Figure 3). W H A T A R E Y O U W A I T I N G FOR?

We have found social skills instruction to be a critical component of the curriculum. Some children learn social skills informally at home, but many do not. Children who fail to acquire appropriate social skills have a lower probability of completing school, becoming employed, and becoming well-adjusted adults. The most powerful social skills programs integrate instruction within the existing curriculum. Teaching social skills 2. Teach social skills in the natural setting whenever possi- only during planned lessons ignores teaching opportunities that occur throughout the day. Social skills instrucble. Co-teaching with general educators is one way to do tion, provision of cues for skill use, and reinforcement of this (L. K. Elksnin, 1996). However, when teaching in appropriately executed skills must occur when opportuthe natural setting is not possible, arrange the physical nities present themselves. environment to look like the natural setting, include students in the instructional group with interpersonal skills We have found that social skills instruction becomes similar to children in the natural setting, use schedules of much more powerful and lasting when we involve everyreinforcement found in the natural setting, and use roleone in students' lives. Teach all members of the school to play scenarios depicting a variety of natural settings (i.e., use consistent cuing and reinforcement procedures. home, community, school, work). Ensure that students receive instruction from secretarial, 3. Teach social skills that are valued in the natural setting. janitorial, and clerical staff as well as teachers (Jones, Sheridan, & Binns, 1993). Significant others are more likely to reinforce skill use if
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Name: Social Skill: Definition:.

Date:

Skill Steps: 1. 2._ 3.. 4._ 5._ 6.. 7._ 8._ Body Basics:

Make a tally mark each time you use the skill: I used this skill. .times. I would like to use this skill. times.

I can use this skill in these situations: 1. 2. 3. Figure 3.

Self-recording form.

We also need to carefully examine our classrooms to see if they promote use of social skills. When children interact with one another, they learn new skills and perfect acquired skills. Cooperative learning and peer tutoring are two approaches that can promote social interaction. We have presented strategies you can use to identify students who would benefit from social skills instruction, identify skills to be taught, teach students discrete skills and problem-solving routines, select instructional strategies that address factors affecting acquisition and performance of social skills, and encourage your students to generalize skills across settings and situations.

We have the opportunity, and we believe the obligation, to teach our students to be prosocial. It is not necessary to revamp our current classroom structure, because social skills instruction can occur when situations present themselves throughout the day. By promoting prosocial behavior through teaching social skills, we will increase our children's odds for success both now and in the future. A B O U T THE AUTHORS
Linda K. Elksnin, PhD, is a professor, Citadel Development Foundation faculty fellow, and coordinator of special education at The
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Hagner, D., Rogan, P., & Murphy, S. T (1992). Facilitating natural supports in the workplace: Strategies for support consultants. Journal of Rehabilitation, 58, 29-34. Hazel, J. S., Schumaker, J. B., Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon, J. (1995). ASSET: A social skills program for adolescents (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Research Press. Johnson, D. W , Johnson, R. T. (1990). Social skills for successful group work. Educational Leadership, 41, 29-33. Jones, R. N., Sheridan, S. M., & Binns, W R. (1993). Schoolwide social skills training: Providing preventive services to students at-risk. School Psychology Quarterly, 8, 57-80. Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (1996). Social skills deficits and learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 226-237. Lavoie, R. (Producer). (1994). Learning disabilities and social skills with A U T H O R ' S NOTE Richard Lavoie: Last one picked . . . first one picked on. Washington, DC: WETA. Margalit, M. (1993). Social skills and classroom behavior among adoThe first author gratefully acknowledges the support of The Citadel lescents with mild mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Development Foundation in the preparation of this article. Retardation, 91, 685-691. Mathur, S. R., & Rutherford, R. B., Jr. (1996). Is social skills training effective for students with emotional or behavioral disorders? Research issues and needs. Behavioral Disorders, 22, 21-28. REFERENCES Meichenbaum, D. (1977). Cognitive-behavior modification: An integrated approach. New York: Plenum Press. Merrell, K. W , Johnson, E. R., Merz, J. M., & Ring, E. N. (1992). American Psychological Association. (1993). Violence and youth: Social competence of students with mild handicaps and low Psychology's response. Washington, DC: Author. achievements: A comparative study. School Psychology Review, 21, Bender, W. N., & Wall, M. E. (1994). Social-emotional development 125-137. of students with learning disabilities. 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The ing disabilities: Through the looking glass of KU-IRLD research. Journal of Vocational Special Needs Education, 17(1), 1-7. Elksnin, N., & Elksnin, L. K. (1991). Facilitating the vocational sucSchool Psychology Review, 21, 387-399. cess of students with mild handicaps: The need for job-related Stephens, T. M. (1992). Social skills in the classroom (2nd ed.). Odessa, social skills training. The Journal of Vocational Special Needs EduFL: Psychological Assessment Resources. cation, 23(2), 5-11. Strain, P. S., & Odom, S. L. (1986). Peer social initiations: Effective intervention for social skills development of exceptional children. Elksnin, N., & Elksnin, L. K. (1998). Teaching occupational social skills. Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Exceptional Children, 52, 543-551. U.S. Department of Education. (1996). Eighteenth annual report to Frederick, B. P., & Olmi, D. J. (1994). 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Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina. She has a long-standing interest in social skills assessment and instruction. Other research interests include assessment, collaboration among parents and professionals, and career and vocational education for adolescents with disabilities. Nick Elksnin, PhD, has more than 20 years of experience as a school psychologist, special education consultant, and special education administrator. He is particularly interested in occupational social skills and the social development of infants, toddlers, and preschoolage children. Address: Linda K. Elksnin, Department of Education, The Citadel, 171 Moultrie St., Charleston, SC 29409. E-mail: elksninl@citadel.edu

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