Unit5:Training andDevelopment Structure:

5.1 Introduction Objectives 5.2 MeaningofTraining SAQs 5.3 ObjectivesofTraining SAQs 5.4 ImportanceofTraining SAQs 5.5 TrainingNeedsIdentification 5.51 5.52 5.53 SAQs 5.6 TrainingAreasidentifiedbyTrainers SAQs 5.7 TypesandTechniquesofTraining SAQs 5.8 NeedandImportanceofManagementDevelopment SAQs 5.9 TrainingEvaluation SAQs 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 WhyTrainingFails? Summary TQs Answersto SAQsandTQs OrganizationAnalysis TaskAnalysis ManAnalysis

5.1Introduction

Every organization needs to have welltrained and experienced personnel to perform the activities thathavetobedone.Ifthecurrentorpotentialjoboccupantcanmeetthisrequirement,trainingisnot important. But when this is not the case, it is necessary to raise the skill levels and increase the versatility and adaptability of employees. Inadequate job performance or a decline in productivityorchangesresultingoutofjobredesigningortechnologicalchangesrequiresometype oftrainingand developmentefforts.Asthejobsbecomemorecomplex,theimportanceofemployee developmentalsoincreases.Thisunitthrowslightonvariousfacetsoftraining.

Objectives: Afterstudyingthisunit,youwillbeableto: TheimportanceofTraining. MentionthetypesandTechniquesofTrainingandDevelopment. Explainthetypes,methodsandproceduresoftraining. ReasonsforfailureofTraining.

5.2MeaningofTraining
Theterm,'training'indicatesanyprocessbywhichtheaptitudes,skillsandabilitiesofemployeesto performspecificjobsareincreased.Employeetrainingtriestoimproveskills,oraddtotheexisting levelofknowledgesothattheemployeeisbetterequippedtodohispresentjob,ortopreparehimfor ahigherposition withincreasedresponsibilities.However, individualgrowthisnotan endin itself. Organizational growth needs to be meshed with the individual's growth. The concern is for the organization'svariability,thatitisshouldadaptitselftoachangingenvironment. Training refers to the teaching/learning activities carried on for the primary purpose of helping membersofanorganizationtoacquireandapplytheknowledge,skills,abilitiesandattitudesneeded bythatorganization.Broadlyspeaking,trainingistheactofincreasingtheknowledgeandskillofan employeefordoingaparticularjob.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsI 1. ___________indicatesanyprocessbywhichtheaptitudes,skillsandabilitiesof employeestoperformspecificjobsareincreased 2. Theconcernisfortheorganization'svariability,thatitisshouldadaptitselftoa ______________________. 3. Broadlyspeaking,trainingistheactofincreasingtheknowledgeandskillofan employeefordoinga_____________ 5.3ObjectivesofTraining

Thechiefaimofformaleducationforthemanageristoincreasehisabilitytolearnfromexperience. Thesecondaimistoincreasehisability tohelphissubordinateslearnfromexperience.Accordingto DouglasMcGregor,therearethreedifferentpurposesoflearning. 1. AcquiringIntellectual Knowledge: An electrical engineer may need more knowledge than henowpossessesaboutcircuitdesign.Anewemployeemayrequireknowledgeaboutcompany policies.Aforemanmayrequireinformationaboutthenewprovisionsinthelabouragreement. Theacquisitionofknowledgeisafairlystraightforwardprocessprovidedtheindividualwants thenewknowledge.Itcanbemadeavailabletohiminseveralways.However,ifhedoesnot wanttheknowledge,thereisconsiderabledifficultygettinghimtolearnit.Inindustry,attempts shouldbemadetocreatea'feltneed'fornewknowledge. 2. Acquiring Manual Skills: The acquisition of a manual skill requires practice or experience accompanied by feedback pure trial and error learning can be speeded up by guidance but the individualcannotlearnunlessheperformsandreceivesclueswhichtellhimaboutthesuccessof hisefforts. Thenecessaryeffortwillbeexpandedonlyifthereisafeltneedonthepartofthe learner.

3. Acquiring ProblemSolving Skills: Much of a manager's work is solving problems. These include organizinghisownand hissubordinate'sactivities,planningandawiderangeofother decisionmaking activities. These are skills involved in diagnosing problems, interpreting relevant data, assessing alternative solutions and getting feedback concerning the effectivenessofthesolution.Theseskills canbeimprovedand classroom education is one methodutilizedforthis purpose. As withanyskill,practiceandfeedback areessentialforlearning.Themostwidelyusedclassroom method for improving the problemsolving skills is the case method. In the hands of a skilful teacher,itcanbehighlyeffective.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsII 1. AccordingtoDouglasMcGregor,therearethreedifferentpurposesoflearning........... . 2. Anewemployeemayrequireknowledgeabout __________________. 3. Muchofamanager'swork is____________________.

5.4ImportanceofTraining
Training is the cornerstone of sound management, for it makes employees more effective and productive.Itisactivelyandintimately connectedwithallthepersonnelormanagerialactivities.Itis

anintegralpartofthewholemanagementprogramme,withallitsmany activitiesfunctionallyinter related.Trainingisapracticalandvitalnecessitybecauseitenablesemployeestodevelopandrise within the organization, and increase their "market value", earning power and job security.It also enables managementtoresolvesources of friction arising fromparochialism, tobring hometothe employeesthefactthatthemanagementisnotdivisible.Itmouldstheemployeesattitudesandhelps them to achieve a better cooperation with the company and a greater loyalty to it. Training heightens the morale of the employees, for it helps in reducing dissatisfaction, complaints, grievances andabsenteeism, reduces the rate ofturnover. Further, trained employees make abetter andeconomicaluseofmaterialsandequipment.

The importance of training has been expressed as follows "training is widely accepted problem solving device. Indeed, our national superiority in manpower productivity can be attributed in no smallmeasuretothesuccessofoureducationalandindustrialtrainingprogrammes." Thissuccesshasbeenachievedbyatendencyinmanyquarterstoregardtrainingasapanacea.Itis almosttraditional in Americatobelievethatifsomethingis good, more ofthethingisevenbetter. Hence,wetakemorevitaminpillstosolvepersonalhealthproblemsandmoretrainingtosolveour manpowerproblems.Overandunderemphasisontrainingstemslargelyfrominadequaterecognition and determination of training needs and objectives. It stems also from lack of recognition of the professionaltechniquesofmodernindustrialtraining.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIII
1. Trainingisapracticalandvitalnecessitybecause 2. Itmouldstheemployees______________andhelpsthemtoachieveabetterco

operationwiththecompanyandagreaterloyaltytoit.
3. Overandunderemphasisontrainingstemslargelyfrom.

5.5TrainingNeedsIdentification
Training could be a useful aid in improving the transformation process that takes place in an organizationintermsoftheprocessingofinputstooutputs.Trainingneedshavetoberelatedbothin termsoftheorganization'sdemandsandthatoftheindividual's.Diversificationofproductlines,new technology,andhenceanewkindofjobdemandstheindividual'sgrowthanddevelopmentthrough induction,training,ortrainingnecessitatedbyjobrotationduetoanorganization'sinternalmobility policies. AsurveyconductedbyA.D.Sinha,listedinrankorderthefollowingmethodsofidentifyingtraining needs:

1. Viewsofthelinemanager 2. Performanceappraisal 3. Companyanddepartmentalplans 4. Viewsoftrainingmanager 5. Analysisofjobdifficulties. The model we shall examine here is the Thayer and McGhee model. It is based on the following threefactors: 1. Organizationanalysis 2. Taskanalysis 3. Mananalysis

5.5.1TotalOrganizationAnalysis
TotalOrganizationAnalysisisasystematicefforttounderstandexactlywheretraining effortneeds to be emphasized in an organization. It involves a detailed analysis of the organization structure, objectives,humanresourcesandfutureplans,andanunderstandingofitsculture,milieu. Thefirststepinorganizationanalysisisachievingaclearunderstandingofbothshortrunandlong rungoals.Longtermobjectivesarethebroaddirectionsinwhichtheorganizationswouldmoveover alongduration.Theselongtermobjectivesarethenbrokendownintospecificstrategies andshort term goals for each of the units/departments. In an organization, the cumulative effect of all these wouldultimatelyleadtothelongtermgoal.Shorttermgoalsareconstantlyinneedofadaptationto thechangingenvironment,bothexternalandinternal. For an organization analysis, there are three essential requirements: (1) an adequate number of personnelavailableto ensurefulfilmentofthebusinessoperation(2)thatpersonnelperformanceis uptotherequiredstandard(3)thattheworkingenvironmentintheirunits/departmentsisconducive tofulfilmentoftasks. In order to ensure the first two requirements a human resource inventory needs to be made. Data regarding positions, qualifications, vacancies, replacements and training time required for replacementshavetobeworkedout.Jobstandardsmustalsobeworkedout. Variousefficiencyandproductivityindexes,orratiossuchaproductivityratios,costperunitetc,can be worked out to determine not only efficiency but also adequacy, in terms of undermanning or overmanning,oftheworkforce. Diagnosing the state of the organization "climate" isa less precise exercise than the two indicators suggested above. While rules, procedures,systems and methods all contribute to the making of the environment,muchofitisalsodeterminedbytheattitudethatthe"people"haveintheorganization forinstance,theattitudethattopmanagementhastowardsitssubordinatestaffandtheattitudesthat members have towards work, supervisors and company procedures. These attitudes are learnt, they

resultfromtheperson'sexperiencebothwithinandoutsidetheorganization,andtraininginputscould beusedtoeffectchangesofattitudeandconsequentlyoftheorganizationalclimate. Inanalyzingtheorganizationclimate,bothdirectandindirectmethodscouldbeused.Directmethods areobservation,useofquestionnaires,andinterviews.Relianceorindirectmethodswouldnotgivea clear understanding of the attitudes and predispositions of employees. In fact, factors such as low absenteeismandlowturnoverarenotbythemselvesindicators ofpositiveornegativeattitudes,and high or low morale. It would be better to make a careful analysis and study each indicator in a particular situation in conjunction with more direct methods like attitude surveys. Analysis and interpretationofthedatamaygiveclearcluesnotonlytoattitudinaltrainingneedsbutpossiblyalso tokilltrainingneeds.

5.5.2TaskAnalysis
This activity entailsadetailed examination of ajob, itscomponents,itsvarious operations andthe conditionsunderwhichithastobeperformed.Thefocushereisonthe"task"itself,ratherthanon theindividualandthetrainingrequiredtoperformit.Analysisofthejobanditsvariouscomponents willindicatetheskillsandtrainingrequiredtoperformthejobattherequiredstandard. Standard of Performance: Every job has an expected standard of performance. Unless such standards are attained, not only will interrelated jobs suffer, but organizational viability will be affected,andsowilltheexpectationsthathavebeensetforthatparticularjobitself.Ifthestandards set for the performance of a job are known, then it is possible to know whether the job is being performedatthedesiredlevelofoutputornot.Knowledgeofthe"task"willhelpinunderstanding whatskills,knowledgeandattitudesanemployeeshouldhave. Methods:Ifanemployeeisaskedtoperformajob,theexactcomponentsofthejobandthestandard ofperformancemustbeknown.Taskanalysis entails notmerelyasimplelistingofthevariousjob components,butalsooftherelativelycriticalnatureofthevarioussubtasks.Conventionalmethods ofjobanalysisareusuallysuitablefortask analysis.Theyare: 1. Literaturereviewregardingthejob. 2. Jobperformance. 3. Jobobservation, 4. DataCollectionregardingjobinterviews. Forbluecollarworkers,morepreciseindustrialengineeringtechniques,liketimeandmotionstudies, could be used, and for whitecollar workers, work sampling observation, interviews, and job performance data analysis could be employed. The object of this exercise is to get as much information as possible about the nature of the task and its various components, leading to the performance standard to be set. This information would be useful in establishing the training programmeforanemployee.

Analysisofthejobisbutonepartoftaskanalysis.Otherareasaretheskillrequired,eitherinterms ofeducationortraining,toperformthejob,knowledge,andfinallyattitudinalpredispositionssuch astheattitudes,towardssafety,orinterpersonalcompetence.

5.5.3ManAnalysis
Mananalysisisthethirdcomponentinidentifyingtrainingneeds.Thefocusofmananalysisison the individual employee, his abilities, and the inputs required for job performance, or individual growthanddevelopmentintermsofcareerplanning. Mananalysisisstilllessprecisethantheothertwoanalyses,primarilybecausetheavailablemeasures are much less objective and there are many individual variations. Yet, through observation and unobtrusivemeasuresitispossibletogetanindicationofthetrainingrequirementsofanindividual. Mananalysishelpstoidentifywhethertheindividualemployeerequirestrainingandifso,whatkind ofistraining.Cluestotrainingneedscancomefromananalysisofanindividual'soragroup'stypical behaviour.Theprimarysourcesofsuchinformationare: (1)Observationatplaceorwork, examinationofjobschedules,quantumofspoilage, wastage, and cluesaboutinterpersonal relations ofthe employees (2)interviews withsuperiors and employees (3)comparativestudiesofgoodvs.pooremployees,toidentifydifferences,skillsandtraininggaps (4) personnel records (5) production reports and (6) review of literature regarding the job and machinesused.Jobknowledgetests,worksamplinganddiagnosticpsychologicaltestsalsoprovide informationaboutemployees.Thusitmaybestatedthatavarietyofsourcesneedtobestudied.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIV 1. Thefirststepinorganizationanalysisisachievingaclearunderstandingofboth . 2. Inanalyzingtheorganizationclimate,both.couldbeused. 3. Analysisofthejobanditsvariouscomponentswillindicatethe.......................... 4. Mananalysisisthethirdcomponentinidentifying.................................... 5. ______________helpstoidentifywhethertheindividualemployeerequirestraining andifso,whatkindofwastraining.

5.6TrainingAreasidentifiedbyTrainers

A survey conducted by Sinha identified the following areas, in rank order, as preferred by respondingmanagers. 1. Analysisofbusinessenvironment(Social,economicandpolitical). 2. General management training, consisting of areas like planning organizing, directing, motivating,coordinatingandcontrolling. 3. Functionalareas,suchasmarketing,personnelandfinance. 4. Specialized techniqueoriented programmes, such as production planning, maintenance management,valueanalysis,workssimplificationandinterviewtechnique. 5. Problemsolvinganddecisionmaking.

Trainingistheresponsibilityoffourmaingroups: a. Thetopmanagement,whichframesthetrainingpolicy b. Thepersonneldepartment,Whichplans,establishesandevaluatesinstructionalprogrammes c. Supervisors,Whoimplementandapplydevelopmentalprocedureand d. Employees, who provide feedback, revision and suggestions for corporate educational endeavours. AccordingtoProfJohnMee,theworkoftrainingshouldbedoneattwolevels. 1. Thetrainingdepartmentshouldassumetheprimaryresponsibilityfortheinstructionoftrainees inmethodsofteachingfornormalorientationforthetrainingofsupervisorsinhumanrelations for the development of executives, for cooperative education in schools and collegesand for thegeneraleducationofemployees. 2. Line supervisors and employees should carry the bulk of the

teaching load in the following areas onthejob instruction of employees instruction in the technicalandprofessionalaspects ofabusinessdailydevelopmentofsuperiors andexecutives through counselling departmental communication and staff meetings as part of an overall trainingprogramme.Itisneedlesstosaythatthetoplineexecutivehastheresponsibilityfor: I. Authorisingbasictrainingpolicies II. Reviewingandapprovingthebroadoutlinesoftrainingplansandprogrammesand III. Approvingtrainingbudgets.

Thereareseveraladministrativeaspectsthathavetobetakenintoaccountbeforelaunchinginhouse trainingprogramme,ornominatingparticipantstoexternalprogrammes. Incompany/External Programmes: The Company needs to formulate its thinking regarding participation in programmes offered by external agencies like educational management institutes, government institutions and consultant programmes, visvis conducting its own inhouse programmes. Where employee numbers are small, it may not be worthwhile to set up a training establishmentandconductinhouseprogrammes,butasthenumbersincrease,thisoptionmayoffer

adistinctpossibility.Thereisthecostaspecttobeconsidered:forthecostofsendingaparticipantto an external programme, several employees could be trained within an organization. Yet, the advantage of an externalprogramme wouldbe abreath of fresh airthroughdiscussions with other participantsandafreshapproachcouldbebroughtintotheorganizationanditsproblems.Theskills andtechniqueslearntmayalsobedifferentfromthoseofferedbyone'sowninhouseprogrammes. TrainingBudgets:Atrainingbudgetforeachinternalprogrammehastobeprepared,whichwould includecostoffacilitiesliketrainingroom,food,transport,guestfaculty,ifany,andcostofteaching materials.Infact,thecosttotheorganizationshouldalsoincludethewagesandsalariesofemployee participants who would be temporarily pulled out of their regular jobs and sent for training. The reason for costing the trainee employee's salary would be that they would not be making any contributiontothecompanyduringthetrainingperiod, andthatthisis anadditionalburdenonthe company'sfinances.

Atrainerneedstoplanhistrainingactivitieswellinadvance,beitinhousecompanyprogramme,in order that the lead time is adequate for preparation, both for the nominee and the organization, without disruption of normal work. In the case of internal programmes there is much more background work to be done by the trainer, in terms of course design, preparation of teaching materials, announcement of the programme, receiving and sifting of nominations, administrative arrangements such as training room, teaching aids and material, food, transportation and accommodationarrangements.Withregardto externalprogrammes,thereis a need for takinginto account organizational factors suchas release ofthe nominee fromthejob, temporaryreplacement and his career plans i.e., to what extent the employee would benefit from the training programme either in terms of improved job performance, better interpersonal competence, or preparation in termsofattitudes,conceptsandskillsforhigherresponsibilitiesintheorganization,giventhecareer plans based on performance appraisals formulated by the manpower development cell. Career planningwouldtakeintoaccountbothexternalandinternalnominations. Training methods are a means of attaining the desired objective in a learning situation. In fact, methodsaremultifacetedinscopeanddimension,andeachissuitableforaparticularsituation.The choice of a method would depend on a wide variety of factors, such as competence of instructors, relevancetotheparticipants,theprogrammedesign,i.e.,aparticularmethodthebestvehicletoput acrossthecontents,andfinallyitscostimplications.Thebestmethodforonesituationmaynotbethe bestfordifferentgroupsortasks. Each method has structured procedures for conduct which offer certain advantages in developing certainlimited factsof atrainee, andsuffer fromsomelimitations.Inadaptingaparticular method, oneshouldknowitsmeritsanddemerits, giventhesituation, andanalyzeitsrelevance, its purpose,

and if it is useful, how to get the most of it. The trainer should know the rationale of each of the methodsbeforeattemptingtouseanyofthem.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsV 1. Thereareseveraladministrativeaspectsthathavetobetakenintoaccountbefore launching______________________,ornominatingparticipants ______________________. 2. A________________foreachinternalprogrammehastobeprepared,whichwould includecostoffacilitieslike trainingroom,food,transport,guestfaculty,ifany,and costofteachingmaterials 3. Trainingmethodsareameansofattainingthedesiredobjectiveina ________________.

5.7TypesandTechniquesofTraining
Trainingmethodshaveanumberofoverlappingobjectives.Theyhavetobechoseninrelationtothe programme design requirements. The main objectives of individual training methods could be: demonstrationvalue,developinginterestandfinallyappealtosenses. DemonstrationValue:Completedemonstrationofjobrequirementsenablesthetraineetograspthe meaningofideas,concepts,orproceduresvisually.Suchamethodcanbeusedeffectivelyasanaid toovercomethe"breakdownofcommunication". Trainees rememberthingsthattheyseeandhear, muchlongerthantheydoinformationtheyreceivethroughtalksorreadingalone. Developing Interest: One of the important factors to be kept in mind in choosing a method is its abilitytoholdandarousetheinterestofthetraineeinthelearningsituation.Atraineehastoconsider alternativemethodsofpresentingtrainingmaterialtoparticipantsinordertostimulatetheirinterest and facilitate retention of the matter. For instance, if traditionally the matter has been presented throughlectures,perhaps audiovisual methods couldbe used, orinsteadproject workbeassigned whichwouldmeanlearningbydoingorresearchingthesubjectoneself. Appealtoomanysenses:Fromthetrainer'spointofview,it wouldbebeneficialtoutilizeasmany of the trainer's senses as possible, in order to improve retention of learning. The trainer has to understandandidentifytheproblemareai.e.,hehastoexaminewhetherthereisaproblemwiththe mannerinwhichthetaskisdone.Secondly,selectingtheappropriatemethodwouldbedependenton thelevelofthetraineeinanorganization'shierarchy.Finally,beforeselectingatrainingmethod,the trainershouldkeepinmindaboutcosteffectiveness.

Depending on the learning outcome, and the process by which it is attained, it is possible to categorizethevariousmethodsintoseveralgroups.

Onthejobtrainingssincemostjobsinindustrycanbelearnedinarelativelyshortperiodoftime,this methodisthemostwidelyused.Ithastheadvantageofstronglymotivatingthetraineetolearnsince itislocatedintheartificialsituationofaclassroom.Thefactthatthesuccessofthesystemdepends almostentirelyuponthe'immediatesupervisor,thetrainer,meansthatthepersonnelunithasamajor responsibilityfor makingagood,effectiveteacheroutofeverysupervisor.Thesupervisortypically follows a set procedure (as illustrated in the table) in training an employee to perform a particular task.Thesuggestions accompanyingeachsteparegeneralguides evolvedfrombothexperienceand research.

TableonTrainingProcedure

Step
Instructorpreparation

Suggestions 1.Dividetaskintologicalparts tocreatelessonplans. 2.Selectteachingtechniquese.g.,demonstration.

Trainingpreparation

1. Placetraineeatease. 2. Relatetrainingtotraineeneeds e.g.promotion.

Presentingthetask

1. Presentoverviewoftask. 2. Proceedfromknowntounknown,easytodifficult. 3. Adjustpacetoindividualdifferences. 4. Gothroughtaskandexplain eachstep. 5. Havetraineetellinstructorwhattodo.

TryoutPerformance

1. Havetraineeexplaineachsteppriortoexecution. 2. Beawareoflearningplateaus tosustainmotivation. 3. Providefeedbackonprogress.

Followup

1. Positivelyreinforcecontinuouslyatstart. 2. Movetovariable positivereinforcementscheduleastrainee matures.

Advantages: The main advantage of onthejob training is that the trainee learns on the actual equipmentinuseandinthetrueenvironmentofhisjob.Secondly,itishighlyeconomicalsinceno additional personnel or facilities are required for training. Thirdly, the trainee learns the rules, regulationsandproceduresbyobservingtheirdaytodayapplications.Fourthly,thistypeoftraining is a suitable alternative for a company in which there are almost as many jobs as there are employees. Finally, it is most appropriate for teaching the knowledge and skills which can be acquiredinarelativelyshortperiodi.e.,afewdaysorweeks.

Disadvantages: Theprincipal disadvantage of onthejobtrainingisthatinstructionis often highly disorganizedandhaphazardandnotproperlysupervised.Thisisduetosuchreasonsastheinability oftheexperiencedemployeetoimpartskillstothetrainee,thebreakdownofthejobforthepurpose ofinstructions,andthebackofmotivationonthepartofthetraineetoreceivetraining.Further,the otherdrawbackisthelowproductivity,especiallywhentheemployeeisunabletofullydevelophis skills. Vestibule Training: This method attempts to duplicate onthejob situations in a company classroom. It is a classroom training which is often imparted with the help of the equipment and machines which are identical with those in use in the place of work. This technique enables the traineetoconcentrateonlearningthenewskillratherthanperforminganactualjob.Inotherwords, it isgearedtojobduties.Theoreticaltrainingisgivenintheclassroom,whilethepracticalworkis conductedontheproductionline. Theadvantages of usingthe vestibuletrainingsystem arethe disadvantages ofspecialization.The instructor, a specialist, should be more skilled at teaching. The student avoids the confusion and pressureoftheworksituationandthusisabletoconcentrateonlearning.Onecanalsooftenattaina givenlevelofskillmorequicklyinthespecializedlearningsituation.Wehavemoreassurancethat adequatetimeandattentionwillbegiventotrainingandthatitwillnotslightedinfavourofother problems.Moreindividualizedinstructioncanbegiven,andtrainingactivities donotinterferewith the regular processes of production. Among the disadvantages are the splitting of responsibilities leads to organizational problems. Second, an additional investment in equipment is necessary, though the cost may be reduced by getting some productive work done by trainees while in the school. Third, this method is of limited value for the jobs which utilize equipment which can be duplicatedandfinallythetrainingsituationissomewhatartificial. Apprenticeship programme: Apart from the requirements under Apprenticeship Act, various industries havetheirownapprenticeshipprogrammewhereintheworkers areemployedonasmall stipendtolearnthejobfirstandaftersatisfactorilycompletingthetrainingtheyareabsorbedinthe industry. Theadvantagesofthismethodare: 1. Askilledworkforceismaintained 2. Immediatereturnscanbeexpectedfromtraining 3. Theworkmanshipisgood 4. Thehiringcostislowerbecauseofreducedturnoverandlowerproductioncostsand 5. Theloyaltyofemployeesisincreasedandopportunitiesforgrowtharefrequent.

Simulation Methods: Simulation is a technique which duplicates, as nearly as possible, the actual conditionsencounteredonajob.Generally,simulationtechniqueshavebeenmostwidelyusedinthe aeronauticalindustry.

Knowledgebased Methods: In this method of training, an effort is made to expose participants to concepts and theories, basic principles, and pure and applied knowledge in any subject area. Basically, it is aimed at creating an awareness of the knowledge of fundamentals. The focus is essentially on transmission of knowledge which has been imbibed by the participants. This knowledgeisthebase,thefoundation,onwhichfurtherunderstandingcanbebuilt.Thecategoriesof thismethodarelectures,seminars,workshops,filmsandtraining,groupdiscussionsetc. ExperientialMethods:The emphasis inthis categoryisonachievingthrough groupprocesses and dynamics,abetterunderstandingofoneselfandothers.Ithasbeenassertedthatattitudinaltraining helps and individual to improve his comprehension of self, others, group behaviour and personal interaction. Such knowledge and understanding helps an individual to understand the problems of humanrelationshipsinaworksituation,includingattimeshismanagerialstyle.

Such training is imparted on the job by the workers' immediate supervisors. It provides to the traineesopportunitiesforgettingacquaintedwiththeirbosses.Thebosses,too,haveanopportunity tojudgetheabilitiesandpossibilitiesoftraineesfromthepointofviewoftheirjobperformance. Thesuccessofthismethoddependsuponthefactthat: 1. Theexperiencedsupervisorsmustbegoodteachers 2. Theyshouldhaveincentivesandsufficienttimeforcarryingoutthetrainingprogrammesand 3. Theyshouldbeprovidedwithanaccurateaccountofthetrainingneeds ofthetraineestheyare toteach.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsVI 1. Dependingonthe__________________,andtheprocessbywhichitisattained,itis possibletocategorizethevariousmethodsintoseveralgroups. 2. Themainadvantageof_____________________isthatthetraineelearnsonthe actualequipmentinuseandinthetrueenvironmentofhisjob. 3. Theoretical training is given in the ________________, while the practical work is conductedonthe____________________. 4. ______________isatechniquewhichduplicates,asnearlyaspossible,theactual conditionsencounteredonajob. 5. Theemphasisin__________________isonachievingthroughgroupprocessesand dynamics,abetterunderstandingofoneselfandothers.

5.8NeedandImportanceofManagementDevelopment
Dr. B. K. Madan is of the opinion that "Management development is the development of managementoverandaboveitsscienceandtheory, ofitspracticeandapplicationinorganizations, corporationsandinstitutions,alikeinrelationtotheorganizationandmanager,soascontinuouslyto reequipbothtofulfiltheirpurposesmoreeffectivelyandinharmonywitheachother,andbothwith theenvironmentinwhichtheyfunctionandhavetheirbeingandhopetothriveuponandgrow." Executivedevelopmentisanattemptatimprovinganindividual'smanagerialeffectivenessthrougha plannedanddeliberateprocessoflearning.Foranindividualthismeansachangethroughaprocessof plannedlearning.Thisshouldbethecommonandsignificantaimofdevelopmentattemptsfromthe pointofviewofthetrainerandthetraineeinanorganizationalsetting. Thechangeintheindividualmusttakeplaceinthosecrucialareaswhichcanbeconsideredasoutput variables:

1. Knowledgechange 2. Attitudechange 3. Behaviourchange 4. Performancechangeand 5. Endoperationalresults(thelasttwochangesbeingtheresultofthefirstthreechanges) Thesuccessofdevelopmenteffort,tobemarkedaseffective,dependsuponthefollowinginputs 1. Trainee'spersonalcharacteristics,suchashisintelligenceandmotivationtoteach 2. Hisactuallearningefforts. Thesetwovariablesareinfluencedbythefollowingfactors: a) Formalorganization b) Leadershipclimateand c) Culturalfactors. Theorganizationalaimsofmanagementdevelopmentaretosecurethefollowingvaluableendresults: 1. Improvementintechnicalperformance 2. Improvementinsupervisionandleadershipateachlevel 3. Improvementininterdepartmentalcooperation 4. Highlightinganindividual'sweaknesses 5. Attractinggoodmen 6. Facilitatingsound"promotionfromwithin"policiesandpractices 7. Ensuringthatthequalificationsofkeypersonnelbecomebetterknown 8. Creatingreservesinmanagementranks 9. Makinganorganizationmoreflexiblebyanincreasedversatilityofitsmembers 10. Improvingorganizationalstructure

11. Stimulatingjuniorexecutivestodobetterwork 12. Keepingthecompanyatleastoftechnicalandeconomicconditionsand 13. 'Broadening'keymeninthemiddlecadre. Inanutshell,managementdevelopmentaimsatsecuringmanagementimprovementintheshortrun.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsVII 1. Executivedevelopmentisanattemptatimprovinganindividual'smanagerial effectivenessthrougha________________________________. 2. Thechangeintheindividualmusttakeplacein thosecrucialareaswhichcanbe consideredasoutputvariables(mentionany2).. 3. Theorganizationalaimsofmanagementdevelopmentaretosecurethefollowing valuableendresults:(mentionany3) 5.9EvaluationofTraining

Objectives of training evaluation is to determine the ability of the participant in the training programmetoperformjobsforwhichtheyweretrained,thespecificnatureoftrainingdeficiencies, whetherthetraineesrequiredanyadditionalonthejobtraining,andtheextentoftrainingnotneeded fortheparticipantstomeetjobrequirements.Therearevariousapproachestotrainingevaluation.To get a valid measure of training effectiveness, the personnel manager should accurately assess trainee'sjobperformancetwotofourmonthsaftercompletionoftraining. Twowritershavesuggestedthatfourbasiccategoriesofoutcomescanbemeasured: 1. Reaction:Evaluatethetrainee'sreactiontotheprogramme.Didheliketheprogramme?Didhe thinkitworthwhile? 2. Learning: Didthetrainee learntheprinciples,skills and factthatthesupervisor orthe trainer workedthemtolearn? 3. Behaviour: Whether the trainee's behaviour on the job changed because of the training programme. 4. Results: What final results have been achieved? Did he learn how to work on machine? Did scrappagecostsdecrease?Wasturnoverreduced?Areproductionquotasnowbeingmet?etc., Structured interviews with the immediate supervisor of the trainees are acceptable methods for obtainingfeedbackintraining.Thesupervisorisaskedtoratetheformertraineeonjobproficiency directlyrelatedtothetrainingobjectives.Anotherapproachistoinvolvetheuseofexperimentaland controlgroups.Eachgroupisrandomlyselected,onetoreceivetraining(experimental)andtheother nottoreceivetraining(control).Therandomselectionhelpstoassuretheformationofgroupsquite similar to each other. Measures are taken of relevant indicators of success (e.g. words typed per minute,unitsofworkproducedperhouretc.)beforeandaftertrainingforbothgroups.Iftheresults shown by the experimental group are significantly greater than those of the control group, the trainingcanbeconsideredassuccessful.

Another method involves longitudinal or time series analysis. A series of measurements are taken beforetheprogrammebeginsandcontinuesduringandaftertheprogrammeiscompleted.Theresults obtainedareplottedonagraphtodeterminewhetherchangeshaveoccurredandremainasaresultof thetrainingeffort.Inaddition,preandposttestsareadministeredtothetraininggroups.Priortothe training,atestrelatedtothetrainingmaterialisapplied,andtheresultsofthispretestarecompared withresultsonthesameorsimilartestadministeredaftertheprogrammehasbeencompleted.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsVIII 1. To get a valid measure of__________________, the personnel manager should accurately assess trainee's job performance two to four months after completion of training. 2. The_______________________helpstoassuretheformationofgroupsquitesimilar toeachother. 3. Anothermethodinvolvedinobtainingfeedbackontrainingeffectivenessis ____________________________________analysis. 5.10WhyTrainingFails?
Thefollowingfactorshavebeenconsideredasthemainreasonsforfailureoftrainingprogrammes: 1. Thebenefitsoftrainingarenotcleartothetopmanagement. 2. Thetopmanagementhardlyrewardssupervisorsforcarryingouteffectivetraining. 3. Thetopmanagementrarelyplansandbudgetssystematicallyfortraining. 4. Themiddlemanagement,withoutproperincentivesfromtopmanagement,doesnotaccountfor traininginproductionscheduling. 5. Withoutproperschedulingfromabove,firstlinesupervisorshavedifficultyproductionnormsif employeesareattendingtraining programmes. 6. Behaviouralobjectivesareofteninprecise. 7. Training external to the employing unit sometimes teaches techniques on methods contrary to practicesoftheparticipant'sorganization. 8. Timelyinformationaboutexternalprogrammesmaybedifficulttoobtain. 9. Trainersprovidelimitedcounsellingandconsultingservicestotherestoftheorganization.

Thetrainingprogrammescanbemadeeffectiveandsuccessfulifthefollowinghintsareconsidered 1. Specifictrainingobjectivesshouldbeoutlinedonthebasisofthetypeofperformancerequired toachieveorganizationalgoalsandobjectives. 2. Attemptshouldbemadetodeterminewhetherthetraineehastheintelligence, maturity,and motivationtosuccessfullycompletethetrainingprogrammes.

3. Thetraineeshouldbehelpedtoseetheneedfortrainingbymakinghimawareofthepersonal benefitshecanachievethroughchangesinbehaviour. 4. The training programme should be planned so that it is related to the trainee's previous experiencesandbackground. 5. Attempts should be made to create organizational conditions that are conducive to a good learningenvironment. 6. Ifnecessaryacombinationoftrainingmethodsshouldbeselectedsothatvarietyispermitted andasmanyofthesensesaspossibleareutilized. 7. It should be recognized that all the trainees do not progress at the same rate. Therefore, flexibilityshouldbeallowedinjudgingtheratesofprogressinthetrainingprogramme. 8. Ifpossible,thepersonalinvolvementoractiveparticipationofthetraineeshouldbegotinthe training programme. He should be provided with opportunity to practice the newly needed behaviournorms. 9. Asthetraineeacquiresnewknowledge,skillsorattitudesandappliestheminjobsituations,he shouldbesignificantlyrewardedforhisefforts. 10. Thetraineeshouldbeprovidedwithregular,constructivefeedbackconcerninghisprogress intrainingandimplementationofthenewlyacquiredabilities. 11. Thetraineeshouldbeprovidedwithpersonalassistancewhenheencounterslearningobstacles.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIX 1. Specific __________________should be outlined on the basis of the type of performancerequiredtoachieveorganizationalgoalsandobjectives. 2. The training programme should be planned so that it is related to the trainee's _______________________andbackground. 3. If possible, the _______________________of the trainee should be got in the trainingprogramme.

5.11.Summary
The term, 'training' indicates any process by which the aptitudes, skills and abilities of employeestoperformspecificjobsareincreased. AccordingtoDouglasMcGregor,therearethreedifferentpurposesoflearning. AcquiringIntellectualKnowledge AcquiringManualSkills AcquiringProblemSolvingSkills

 Trainingincreasestheemployees"marketvalue",earningpowerandjobsecurity. Training needs have to be related both in terms of the organization's demands and that of the individual's. In analyzing the organization climate, both direct and indirect methods could be used. Direct methods are observation, use of questionnaires, and interviews. Reliance or indirect methods wouldnotgiveaclearunderstandingoftheattitudesandpredispositionsofemployees. TaskAnalysisentailsadetailedexaminationofajob,itscomponents,itsvariousoperationsand theconditionsunderwhichithastobeperformed. Ifan employeeis askedto perform ajob, the exact components ofthejob andthestandard of performancemustbeknown. Taskanalysis entails notmerelyasimplelistingofthevariousjobcomponents,butalsoofthe relativelycriticalnatureofthevarioussubtasks. Trainingmethodsareameansofattainingthedesiredobjectiveinalearningsituation. The choice of a method would depend on a wide variety of factors, such as competence of instructors,relevancetotheparticipants,theprogrammedesign,i.e.,aparticularmethodthebest vehicletoputacrossthecontents,andfinallyitscostimplications. Structuredinterviewswiththeimmediatesupervisor ofthe trainees are acceptable methods for obtainingfeedbackintraining.

5.12. TerminalQuestions
1. WhatisTraining?Whatareitsobjectives? 2. WhatdoyoumeanbyTrainingOrganisation?HowdoyouorganiseaTrainingsystem? 3. DiscussvariousmethodsofTrainingavailablewiththeirrespectivelimitations. 4. WhataretheobjectivesofTrainingMethods?

5.13.AnswerstoSAQsandTQs
SelfAssessmentQuestionsI
1Training,2changingenvironment,3particularjob

SelfAssessmentQuestionsII
1AcquiringIntellectualKnowledge,AcquiringManualSkills,AcquiringProblemSolvingSkills,2 companypolicy,3solving problem

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIII
1"market value", earning power and job security, 2 attitudes, 3inadequate recognition and

determinationoftrainingneedsandobjectives.

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIV 1shortrunandlongrungoals,2directandindirectmethods,3skillsandtrainingrequiredto
performthejobattherequiredstandard,4trainingneeds,5Mananalysis

SelfAssessmentQuestionsV
1inhousetrainingprogramme,toexternalprogrammes,2trainingbudget,3 learningsituation,

SelfAssessmentQuestionsVI
1 Learning outcome, 2onthejob training, 3classroom, production line.4Simulation, 5 ExperientialMethods

SelfAssessmentQuestionsVII 1planned and deliberate process of learning, 2 Knowledge change, Attitude change, 3 ImprovementintechnicalperformanceImprovementin supervisionandleadershipateach levelFacilitatingsound"promotionfromwithin"policiesandpractices SelfAssessmentQuestionsVIII
1Trainingeffectiveness,2randomselection,3 longitudinalortimeseries

SelfAssessmentQuestionsIX
1Trainingobjectives,2previousexperiences,3activeparticipation

AnswerstoTQs: 1. Referto5.2&5.3 2. Referto5.6 3. Referto5.7 4. Referto5.7&5.8