Notes Nervous System (Raffles Institution Year 4 Biology)

Nervous System The nervous system serves to coordinate and regulate body function. The Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is made up of the cranial nerves from the brain and the spinal nerves from the spinal cord. Stimulus/ Response A stimulus is a change that is detected by receptors. A receptor receives stimuli from the environment. Receptors include nerve endings (e.g. temperature and pain receptors in skin) and specialised cells in sense organs (e.g. mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors). A response is a reaction of the body towards the stimulus. An effector is a muscle or gland that brings about the response. Pathway of Nervous Control 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stimulus detected by receptors Information sent via sensory nerve to CNS CNS receives and processes the information Decides the response Response sent via motor nerves to effectors

Nervous Tissue The basic unit of a nervous tissue is a neuron (nerve cell). Neurons are specialized cells for carrying information in the form of electrical impulses from the receptors to the CNS, and from the CNS to the effectors. They are located in the brain and spinal cord. There are many closely packed neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and they have little intercellular space between them.

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Structure of a Neuron

Cell body (soma) contains the nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane. Axon (nerve fibres) transmits impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons or effectors. It is covered with fatty myelin sheath. Dendron (nerve fibres) conducts impulses towards the cell body. Dendrites connect neuron to receptor, effector or another neuron. Myelin sheath has a thin membrane (neurilemma) that provides nourishment for the cell. They are layers of plasma membranes of the Schwann cells, and hence are mainly made of lipids, forming an insulating layer. It enables action potential to travel more quickly down the neuron via salutatory conduction because depolarization only occurs at the unmyelinated Nodes of Ranvier. Schwann cell forms the myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons. Node of Ranvier speeds up the transmission of impulses. It is the unmyelinated part of the axon/dendron. Synapse is the junction between 2 neurons. Neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released at the synapse to transmit impulse across the synapse (e.g. acetylcholine).

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Differences between axons and dendrons Axons transfer information away from the cell body while dendrons transfer information to the cell body. Axons have smooth surfaces while dendrons have rough surfaces (dendrite spines). Axons can have myelin while dendrons do not have myelin. Axons have no ribosomes while dendrons have ribosomes. Axons branch further from the cell body while dendrons branches nearer to the cell body. Similarities and Differences between Neurons and Other Cells Both neurons and other cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, contains a nucleus with genes, and carries out basic cellular processes like respiration and protein synthesis. Neurons have dendrons and axons while other cells do not. Neurons can communicate with one another through an electrochemical process while other cells cannot. Types of Neurons Sensory/Afferent/Receptor neuron carries impulses from receptors or sense organs to central nervous system (CNS). Effector / Efferent / Motor neuron carries impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands). Intermediate / Relay neuron carries impulses from sensory to motor neuron found within the CNS (brain and spinal cord). Differences between types of neurons Property Cell Body Length of Neuron Length of Dendron Length of Axon Sensory Neuron At the middle Longer Longer Shorter Relay Neuron At the end Shorter Shorter Longer Motor Neuron At the end Longer Shorter Longer

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Sensory neuron has a single, long dendron and a short axon. It conducts impulses from receptors towards CNS. Relay neuron is found between sensory and motor neurons. It transmits impulses either upwards or downwards to the brain. Motor neuron has a single, long axon and several short dendrons projecting from the cell body. It conducts impulses from CNS to effectors. Resting Potential A resting neuron contains potential energy due to an electrical charge difference across its membrane. The voltage is called the resting potential. The extracellular fluid (inside of the cell) is negative while the cytosol (outside of the cell) is positive. Note: Inside and outside of cell are both negative, but the outside of the cell is positive relative to the inside of the cell. Concentration gradient of sodium and potassium ions maintains the negative. 1. The Na+ and K+ ion gradients are maintained by the presence of many Na+ and K+ pumps in the membrane. These pumps actively transport 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions into the cell. 2. The neurons plasma membrane contains more open K+ leak channels and fewer open Na+ leak channels. Leak channels are always open. Hence, there is a greater net outflow of K+ and less net diffusion of Na+ into the cells. The separation of charges across the membrane, producing the resting potential of -70mV. Action Potential A stimulus strong enough to produce a depolarisation that reaches the membranes threshold voltage will trigger an action potential. An action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon i.e. magnitude independent of the strength of stimulus. Action potentials are the signals that transmit information along neurons. Frequency of action potentials encode information i.e. stronger stimulus, higher frequency.

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Depolarisation and Repolarisation

1. At rest a. Inside: Negative (less majority K+) b. Outside: Positive (more majority Na+) 2. Depolarisation (stimulated past threshold) (part of action potential) (only at one specific location) a. Inside: Positive (more majority Na+) b. Outside: Negative (less majority K+) c. Stimulated past threshold d. Action potential generated e. Sodium channels open f. The stimulus causes depolarisation, causing some voltagegated sodium channels open and sodium ions rushes into the axon, causing a region of positive charge within the axon. When depolarization reaches threshold, action potential is generated. 3. Repolarisation (part of action potential) (only at one specific location) a. Inside: Negative (less majority Na+) b. Outside: Positive (more majority K+) c. Sodium channels close d. Potassium channels open e. The region of positive charge causes nearby voltage gated sodium channels to close. Just after the sodium channels close, the potassium channels open wide, and potassium exits the axon, so the charge across the membrane is brought back to its resting potential. 4. Refractory Period a. Inside: Negative (less majority K+) Done by Goh Zuo Min 4M

b. Outside: Positive (more majority Na+) c. The sodium/potassium pump restores the resting concentrations of sodium and potassium ions via active transport. (3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in) d. Second action potential cannot be generated e. Sodium and potassium channels are closed f. Ensures that no action potential can be generated during their time, ensuring the uni-directional transmission of the impulse 5. Hyperpolarisation (part of refractory period) a. Membrane interior more negative than resting potential b. Prevents action potential from travelling in the opposite direction (action potential travels in one direction, down axon towards synapses) Factors affecting speed of transmission The larger the diameter of the neuron, the faster the speed of transmission. Synapses Synapses are junctions between neurons and the receiving cell (another neuron or effector). 1. Electrical synapses a. Current passes directly from one synapse to the next b. Found in heart, digestive tract, where rhythmic, steady muscle contractions are maintained 2. Chemical synapses a. Most other organs Neurotrasmitters When action potential arrives at synaptic terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open. Rush of calcium causes vesicles filled with neurotransmitters to migrate towards the presynaptic membrane and fuse with plasma membrane. The presynaptic membrane and vesicle now forms a continuous membrane, so that the neurotransmitter molecules can be released into the synaptic cleft. This process is called exocytosis. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with complementary receptor channel membranes in the postsynaptic membrane.

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The binding causes ligand-gated ion channels to open (due to binding of a ligand) and allows sodium ions to enter the postsynaptic neuron. This causes a depolarization and generates a new action potential (sometimes can inhibit). Neurotransmitter is then destroyed by enzyme (e.g. acetylcholinesterase), reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron and resynthesized into new neurotransmitter molecules (e.g. acetylcholine). Reflex Actions Reflex action is an immediate and rapid response to a specific stimulus without conscious control. Reflex Arc Reflex Arc is the shortest pathway by which impulses travel from receptor to effector in reflex action. They comprises the receptor, sensory neurons, relay neurons, motor neurons, spinal cord (reflex center), and effector. Instead of being processed by brain, reflex are stimulated straight from sensory neuron. Spinal Cord

White matter is on the outside and contains mainly myelinated axons (nerve fibers) of relay neurons that carry impulses to and from the brain. Grey matter is in the shape of a H located in central regions, and contains relay neurons, motor neuron cell bodies and dendrons.

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Central canal is the narrow canal that runs through the middle of the spinal cord. IT carries cerebrospinal fluid, which brings nutrients to the spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglion contains sensory neuron cell bodies. Reflex Action Touch receptors (Nerve endings in the skin) sense the stimulus (pain), and generates an action potential in the sensory neuron (nervous impulses). This action potential is transmitted across the synapse to the relay neuron in the grey matter of the spinal cord, in the central nervous system. The impulse is then transmitted across another synapse to the motor neuron. The impulse leaves the spinal cord and travels along the axon of the motor neuron to the effector, which is the arm muscles, causing the arm to withdraw. Note: Axon of sensory neuron has many branches in the spinal cord. One branch may form a synapse with a relay neuron transmitting impulses up to the brain or to the voice-box. Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP) If enough depolarization occurs (for example, because the neurotransmitter released caused nearby ion channels to open), an action potential is generated Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP) The hyperpolarization will make it more difficult for the cell membrane potential to reach threshold, thereby making it less likely that an action potential will be generated Summation Spatial summation occurs when multiple synapses in nearby locations are stimulated simultaneously. Temporal summation occurs when the same channel is repeatedly opened (for example, because the presynaptic cell receives many impulses in a row), thereby altering the membrane potential further before it has the time to return to normal.

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