Why the History of Mathematics? Learning Objectives: To be able to state reasons for studying the history of mathematics.

. To be able to associate the history of mathematics with the history of human civilization in general. To identify various societal pressures that influence the development of mathematics. A concise answer for this question is to better understand mathematics; that is, to realize how mathematics evolves from the needs of human society and to appreciate that mathematics is a growing and ever changing discipline. Is mathematics absolute; does it exist outside of the minds of men and women? Certainly! Plato, the fourth century B.C. Greek Philosopher, thought so. For him, Mathematics and its associated concepts, number, line, cube, etc., were perfect ideals that the human mind strives to understand but could never fully grasp. Does mathematics exist in nature? Surely; there is geometric design, organization and pattern in the structure of crystals, snowflakes, and sea shells. Often mathematics has been described as a study of pattern. Can insects or animals do mathematics? Spiders spin geometrically designed webs, bees in building their hives construct polyhedral, crows and monkeys appear to be able to perform limited counting chores. But is this really mathematics or do the human observers see mathematics in these objects or events? These are philosophical questions worthy of concern but beyond the scope of our immediate study. For us, mathematics is a human activity and can be briefly defined as the perception, organization, and utilization of patterns in nature that deal with quantity and space. The development of mathematics can be viewed as a cycle.

Nature Applications Theorems Axioms

induction

deduction

Over a long period of time, men and women observed the world around them, nature if you will. They saw certain occurrences over and over again; for example, night followed by day; if it gets dark, they know it will get light again. Through a process of inductive thinking, they discern principles or laws which are based on continued sensory experience. These laws are self-evident and require no proof. Similarly, from collected data, certain empirical rules and formulas emerge. In mathematical context, these broad self-evident rules are now called axioms. These axioms are acted upon

using deductive logic and more specific rules, theorems, are derived. Collections of these theorems result in various forms of mathematics. The mathematics then leads itself to applications and problem solving. This is the cycle we examine in the history of mathematics. Mathematical knowledge has grown constantly and at an exponential rate. This can be shown as a graph of cumulative number of memorable mathematics that have lived prior to a designed year. Two properties of mathematical growth to note are: 1. Mathematics in the western worlds constantly increased even during the historical period known as the Dark Ages; 2. This knowledge grew even faster after 1500 due to the introduction of printing. What factors support and encourage mathematics? If a nation or an empire is powerful, does that mean it has good mathematics? If there is no livelihood for practicing mathematics, will the subject advance? If science is held in suspension, will mathematics prosper? Man and Mathematical Activity Although anthropologists seem constantly increase the time span, we may safely say that human beings, as a species are about 2,000,000 years old. When did we start doing mathematics? In the era of pre-history, the best we can do is to speculate. It is estimated that human language is about 70,000 years old. Language implies abstraction; therefore, there could have been mathematics 70,000 years ago. About 40,000 years ago, there was a proliferation of tool making and a rise in the use of technology. Perhaps then there was a use of mathematics. During these periods and into the late Stone Age, about 15,000 years ago, humans were hunter-gatherers, moving about in small bands. Due to their constant migration, they had small families and few possessions. About 10,000 years ago, people settled down as farmers. A hybrid grass we know as wheat appeared in the Middle East. Wheat supplied food, could be easily stored, and when fermented, made an intoxicating beverage. Farming is a sedentary business. You must plant the grain, tend it, harvest it, and store it. People settled into communities and had more children to tend the crops. As the communities grew, implements were needed, tools, vessels to transport and store the crops, etc. manufacturing and trade developed. We suspect that this 60,000 year span represents the early context in which general mathematical activities began. The earliest evidence of such activity is a notched leg bone from a wolf. It contains 55 notches used for a tally count and is estimated to be about 30,000 years old. Thus a man began to count!

Reference: Swetz, Frank and Catherine Vistro Yu (1999). History of Mathematics: A Study Guide. Ateneo de Manila University Office of Research and Publications, Quezon city, Philippines.