Lecturing Method (ACOBA)

Brief Description A lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or to teach people about a particular subject. Lecturing refers to giving an instructional talk on some subject, usually in front of a class or a group of people. Purposes of Lecturing The purposes of lecturing are: to introduce learners a new topic with an overview of the subject and a framework which is well-organized and to stimulate students interest in a subject and deepen their understanding. Lectures are also to guide you in further reading and research and to demonstrate how to do something. Advantages and Disadvantages Of Lecture Method Advantages 1 The lecture is one of the most efficient teaching methods for presenting many facts or ideas in a relatively short time. Material that has been logically organized can be presented concisely in rapid sequence. 2 The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a subject. To ensure that all students have the necessary background to learn a subject, we can present basic information in a lecture. By using the lecture in this manner, we can offer students with varied backgrounds a common understand. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose to a demonstration or prepare students for a discussion. 3. It provides an economical and efficient method for delivering substantial amounts of information to large numbers of student.

allows the lecturer to summarize and emphasize pertinent material. Reports, current research, and information, which change frequently, may not be easily available in written form, and the lecture can give students the most up-to-date information. 5. It helps students develop their listening skills. Disadvantages. 1 The lecture does not lead to maximum achievement in certain types of learning. Speech skills, cooperative group thinking, and motor skills, for example, are difficult to teach with the lecture method. Students can develop such skills well only through practice. Moreover, the lecture alone is generally not appropriate for presenting material above the comprehension level of the cognitive domain. Because it allows for little or no student verbalparticipation, the lecture may also be inefficient for comprehension-level lessons in which concepts and principles are developed. 2 Too often, the lecture makes no provision for participation by the students. As a result, many students willingly allow the instructor to do all the work. Learning is an active process, but the lecture method tends to foster passiveness and dependence on the lecturer. 3. It may fail to promote active learning unless other teaching strategies, such as questioning and problem-solving activities, are incorporated into the lecture. 4 Finally, many lecturers find it difficult to hold the attention of their students when they lecture for an entire class period. To use the lecture method effectively, we need considerable skill in speaking.

Lecture Method: Planning and Delivering (AGUILLAR)

PLANNING FOR THE LECTURE A lecture can be an effective method for communicating theories, ideas, and facts to students. Typically in a structured presentation, a lecture should be designed to include certain procedures in order to be effectiveprocedures that research and expert lecturers have identified as essential to assist student learning. And one of the most important things to do before the delivery of a lecture is a well-organized planning. STEPS:

4 The lecture is often useful to supplement material from other sources or for information difficult to obtain in other ways. If students do not have time for research or if they do not have access to reference material, the lecture can fill the bill. In subject areas where information is available in widely scattered places (textbooks, journals, tapes), the lecture

1. Deliberate Content Choice- it is not how much is delivered but how much is received and understood that counts; telling is not teaching, and information is not knowledge. *The lecturer saves time by only going over more difficult and important material during class rather than duplicating the coverage of the textbook. 2. Defining and Limiting the Topic The lecturer should determine which key points can be effectively developed during the class session. It is necessary to strike a balance between depth and breadth of coverage. The lecturer must be sure to: Stick to 3-4 main points in a 50-minute period Vary the format of presenting every 15 minutes Organize material in logical order: Cause-Effect: Events are cited and explained Time sequential: Lecture ideas are arranged chronologically Topical (Compare and Contrast): Related elements of various selected topics are focused on successively Problem-solution: The statement of a problem is followed by alternate solutions Pro-Con: A two-sided discussion of a given topic is presented Ascending-Descending: topics are arranged according to their importance familiarity, or complexity *Let the goal(s) guide and help one discern what to include and what to leave aside. 3. Set Objectives Questions to self: What do I want to have accomplished at the end of the lecture? What do I want the students to know at the end of the lecture? As the first step in this process, the lecturer describes the specific instructional objective students will be able to achieve after listening to and participating in the lecture. The kinds of objectives for which lectures are most appropriate are generally those at the low cognitive levels. For example, the lecturer will be able to: 1. Explain in writing six causes of World War I. 2. Write, in the lecturers own words, the definition of ethnocentrism and illustrate it with at least two examples. Significance of having Objectives:

1. Students can be expected to demonstrate successfully the desired behavior simply by virtue of having been exposed to the information. 2. The objective will serve as the standard against which all prospective constituent elements of the lecture will be compared. 3. It assures cohesiveness in the lecture and facilitates evaluation of the lectures effectiveness. 4. Consider Incentive Structures and Student Participation For effective interactive lectures, the lecturer may: 1. Offer some sort of participation grade tied to short products students produce during interactive lecture segments. E.g. Students can submit a composite of answers to quiz questions, short writing pieces, solved problems, what they produce in a one-minute write, etc. 2. Inform students that questions used during interactive segments may appear in some form on your exams 3. Consider giving students credit for completing a task 5. Know the audience It enables lecturer to: 1. Use language that is accessible to the audience, not exclusionary. 2. Demonstrate connections between the topic and the listeners concerns in terms students understand and are convinced by. 3. Focus on the common experiences, problems, and dilemmas of the audience and to keep their interest. 4. Run less risk of making needlessly offensive remarks, jokes in poor taste, or incomprehensible allusions.

6. Develop an introduction, body, and conclusion to the lecture to meet those goals and to help the students follow your thoughts The lecturer should begin the lecture with general concepts, and then move to specific ideas and theories that build on or explicate those concepts. To avoid merely describing

concepts without practical application or context, prepare examples to demonstrate them in practice.

Practical steps for delivering effective lectures: A. Step One: Opening The lecturer should have a summary before the lecture to motivate students to be interested in and focus their knowledge to the lecture.

7. Make an outline Strategies: Lecture from notes or an outline, rather than a complete text. It's too tempting to simply read, rather than lecture, from a complete text. Reading also creates a barrier between lecturer and audience. Writing up an entire lecture is very time consuming. To avoid monotony The lecturer should provide means for the student to organize the ideas to be presented by telling them in advance what the lecture or explanation will focus and how it will be structured. 6. Accommodate different learning styles The lecturer should plan not only for the use of oral, visual, and verbal presentations, but he/she should also plan short activities and the use of appropriate instructional aids. Almost any lecture will held student attention longer when the lecturer includes pictures, maps, graphs, cartoons, or similar support materials. Combining both individual aids and special materials and activities can liven a talk and reinforce its content. 1. Stating the purpose of the lecture- to prompt the learners to be engaged and to seek their immediate attention. 2. Reviewing the lecture objectives- to challenge the learners to a set of expectations. This also builds up curiosity and clearly outlines their role in meeting those expectations. 3. Posing a question at the beginning of the lecture- for the students to think about. This creates a challenge for the learners and alerts them to focus during the lecture, with the anticipation of seeking answers to that question. 4. Creating a positive and safe learning environment by acknowledging students responses An excellent opening summary is critical to the success of a lecture. It encourages the students to focus with anticipation and mental alertness. The opening summary should be brief and captivating because students first impression of the lecture is important, and their awareness and receptiveness level are their highest level during the first 5 minutes.

B. Step Two: Presentation DELIVERING THE LECTURE This part explores and exposes lecturers to new ideas about presenting lectures, organizing lecture materials, and enhancing students retention of new materials. Some of the challenges for instructors in delivering their lectures are (1) how to deliver an effective lecture in an organized manner with an efficient use of time, but at the same time enhance students learning experience and retention of knowledge, and (2) trying to cover so much content materials in a limited time. Core content is easily mastered if it is organized and analyzed into constituent components, key concepts identified and their interrelationships explored. The sequence of the concepts and their connections lays the foundation for the students to extend their knowledge in new and original ways. To enhance effective students understanding of new knowledge include: 1. Elaboration- organizing the content according to the objectives, interpreting and analyzing concepts, making connections between concepts, relating to prior

knowledge, and creating situations for students to think about extending their knowledge to new and hypothetical situations. 2. Learning activity- use of different types of stimulation. E.g. a simple rest, alternating presenting medium, and assigning students a short-learning task. 3. Learner-questioning for clarification- Lecturer should give the students the opportunity to ask questions on concepts or key facts , and address them by providing concise answers. C. Step Three: Instructor-Learner Interaction The instructor-learner interaction builds in the component of a two-way communication in an effective lecture, which is meant to engage students in active learning. Instructor-learner interaction could occur at approximately 30 minutes into the lecture to provide an opportunity to change the lecture format and regain learner attention. D. Step Four: Formative Quiz Step 4 in the delivery of an effective lecture is giving a formative quiz at the end of the lecture. Regular formative assessments, in the form of quizzes, with immediate feedback are a vital part of effective lectures, helping to promote better learning. More importantly, it should be designed around the learning objectives as this helps to promote thoughtful engagement on the part of the students. E.g. Short Quizzes E. Step Five: Conclusions Step 5 in the delivery of an effective lecture is to provide a summary of important concepts in key points or bulleted format at the end of a lecture. Some important purposes include: helps to draw attention towards the most important concepts, facts, or ideas allows time for elaboration and clarification of the concepts presented highlights the important information presented and ensures that students leave the classroom with a clear understanding of the lecture materials

Some Techniques in an Effective Delivering of Lecture: 1. Maintain good eye contact- shifting a gaze to the class by pausing momentarily 2. Speak in a natural, conversational voice 3. Check trainee comprehension carefully throughout the presentation by watching the faces of the trainees and by questioning- Observing facial expressions as an indication of doubt or misunderstanding is not a sure way of checking on trainee comprehension. The lecturer then should frequently ask if the class has any questions, thus giving the trainees an opportunity to express any doubts or misunderstandings on their part. 4. Stimulate trainees to think. 5. Move beyond monologue- A good lecture is a dialogue between the lecturer and everyone else in the room. Interactive exercises = people learn and retain more detail when someone talks with them, not at them. a. Set a conversational tone- The lecturer should arrive at class a few minutes early and chat with students about topics other than your upcoming lecture. b. Get students talking to each other- interactive exercises c. Pay attention to your speaking skills c.1 Use variety of voice: change volume from forceful to soft; change speed and tempo of speech; speak to the students NOT the board, flip- chart, or overhead; enunciate clearly; avoid repeating words/phrases/fillers (i.e., "umm, okay, uhhhh......") c.2 Use other noises to hold attention: tap briefly on the board or flipchart, snap fingers, slap table to emphasize a point; c.3 Show enthusiasm: vary speech (from excited speech to a whisper); raise eyebrows; open eyes wide, maintain eye contact (but do not stare; also look at students not your notes, scan the entire group, look at students individually for 3-4 seconds each); move freely, naturally, change pace of moving (rapidly to slowly...but do not pace back and forth);

Objectives stated in the beginning should be reiterated, assuming that they have been accomplished.

use highly descriptive words, broad smile, and vary your facial expression; show high degree of energy/vitality; (highly demonstrative); be quick to accept, praise, encourage or clarify, nod head when agreeing; try to have an enthusiastic conversation with students rather than lecture at

them.
smile often; be friendly and positive; d. Use visuals- increase understanding and impact. e. Give students a structured handout 6. Make a point of learning the students' names 7. Hand back papers and exams in person to connect names and faces 8. Check student understanding Here are some ways to make sure students are following the main ideas in your lecture: Ask students to answer given questions Verify student responses Guide incorrect answers Ask questions about each major point Ask students to share questions Present a problem Watch the class for nonverbal signs of confusion 9. Reach for the back rows Here are a few ways to reach those back rows: Wander the aisles Make the back row the front row 10. Avoid vagueness E.g. Somewhere, Somehow, anyway, I guess, Im not sure, Some, Many, it seems, and Generally.

Factors to Consider in Evaluating a Lecture 1. Clarity- the purpose of the evaluation should be clear to the learners 2. Ability- the inability to conduct an evaluation and the need to know the resources needed by the evaluation 3. Fear of Punishment/Loss of Self-Esteem- the perception of the individual about the evaluation and fear of having a low performance

LECTURE METHOD: COMPONENTS OF LECTURE METHOD (ALIPIO)

An effective lecture is composed of three components, an Introduction, Body and Conclusion, designed to promote and support learning. The Introduction -usually is the five minutes of the lecture. During the first 5 minutes of the lecture, two significant things occur: (1) (2) the speaker outlines the objectives, outcomes, and expectations held for the participants; and the audience decides whether to trust the speaker to produce what was promised (objectives) and whether to invest energy in following the presentation.

Purpose: 1. to provide a framework for students learning, providing the structure for the lectures content information 2. to gain students attention The introduction should do the following: 1. Establish a relationship with the audience. Greet the audience (e.g. Good Morning Class) Make warm-up comments and initiate rapport to set the tone of the class. Establish friendly communication to provide a positive learning environment in which students feel comfortable.

Factors Affecting an Effective Delivery of a Lecture (AGUINALDO)

1. The Purpose- answers the question what to accomplish 2. The Audience- Age, Gender, Emotional Factors, Learning Styles 3. The Topic- Is the topic appropriate to the setting? Is the topic interesting to the audience? 4. The Time- The length of time given to discuss a topic and the time of the day . 5. The Environment- Ventilation, Lighting , Adequacy of space 6. The Teacher Herself Voice, Attitude, Teaching style

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Use an "ice breaker" to introduce yourself during your first meeting with students and maintain an approachable relationship with students in subsequent classes. Gain attention and foster motivation. Relate to students goals and interests. Attention: By the way of introducing oneself to the audience (e.g. volume, pace, etc) Motivation: to allow the audience to cooperate during the span of lecture by the objectives, outcomes and expectations stated by the lecturer Clarify the purpose of the lecture and describe how it is organized. Announce the lecture topic as a title. Make a statement about the topic and how it will be developed. Make a generalization about the topic or simply list the objectives. For example: A literature class could begin: e.g.For the previous lecturers, they have discussed the description, etc. about Lecture Method. Today, our objective for todays class is that Im going to discuss you the different components of Lecture Method which are Introduction, Body and Conclusion. Conclude the introduction by establishing an open atmosphere and describing the rules of operation (e.g., Feel free to ask questions at any time; or There will be time at the end of the lecture for questions.). An open atmosphere can be established by posing a question, making a bold statement, using a controversial quote, using humor, or using a visual aid or cartoon. The better one knows the audience, the easier and more successful the introduction becomes.

-it body should be well-organized, with smooth transitions between topics. The experienced presenter knows that a lecturer cannot carry the primary responsibility for conveying all information or imparting all skills. Readings or problem-solving assignments must be made to accomplish those goals, and students need to be appraised of this connection. The body of the lecture should contain: (1) general themes that tie together other related topics; (2) topics that are difficult for students (e.g. fluid balance); (3) sufficient depth and complexity to retain the learners interest; and (4) testimonies (e.g. quotes from cancer survivors), case-specific data (e.g., lab values from unusual patient diagnoses) and exhibits (e.g., charts/graphs of statistics) to support the outcome-related point being made. -the speakers presentation style is most evident during the body of the lecture. The following are tips and suggestions to enhance the presentation style: 1. Conveying enthusiasm is the key element in presenting an effective lecture. Enthusiasm- a contagious and is demonstrated by facial expressions, excitement in the voice, gestures, and body language. 2. Know the element. 3. Use notes. 4. Speak to an audience of 200 as if they were a single student. 5. Make eye contact. 6. Use creative movement. 7. The use of a stage or podium places an automatic barrier between the speaker and the listeners. 8. Create a change of pace 9. Distribute a skeletal outline only if it will help the learners to identify key points.

The Body -The main portion of lecture; since this component is allotted the greatest amount of class time, it includes many more teaching procedures than the introduction and conclusion. -This is where you must consult your lecture notes while at the same time maintaining rapport with your students. -it should begin with a definition of concepts or principles that are illustrated by pragmatic, personal/professional experiences. The speaker then conveys the critical information the learner needs to know.

 The Conclusion -Usually is the last 5 minutes of the lecture. -Closing a notebook, running out of time or simply dismissing the class is not an acceptable conclusion. An effective communicator knows that any interaction deserves closure---a lecture is no exception to that rule. -A good conclusion ties the introduction and the body together in a manner similar to that of an abstract that precedes a well-written manuscript. -The objectives and outcomes statements that were used as a portion of the introduction should be reiterated, assuming they have been accomplished. The conclusion should also contain a review of the key points or topics covered and allow time for elaboration, amplification and/or clarification of issues presented. -Offering suggestions related to the application and transfer of knowledge may be helpful to the participants and the use of summative take-home points may provide additional reinforcement. Using this approach allows the learner to quickly rethink the content, stimulate continued interest, ad consider further action. The participants will leave the lecture hall feeling a sense of accomplishment because they can summarize what has been learned. Thus, each lecture should be carefully planned and presented with an introduction (first 5 minutes), a well-organized body, and a meaningful conclusion (last 5 minutes) (Woodring, 2001). -the most frequently neglected component of the lecture, should be used to reinforce students learning of the information as well as to clarify any misconceptions regarding their understanding of the concepts presented. Try to do the following in your lecture conclusion: Repeat and emphasize main points. Signal students that you are going to summarize and reemphasize main points. Or, even better, have several students summarize your main points. This procedure will help you to get feedback as to whether or not students identified the important information. It is also helpful to rephrase information in order to clarify key ideas. Encourage questions from students. To allow students time to review their notes and thoughts, pause for a few moments after asking for questions. Remember, however, that it is often difficult for students to respond to the vague "Any questions?" Instead,

ask specific, leading questions. By doing so, you will encourage your students to review their notes and formulate questions of their own. In this way, any misconceptions can be clarified, and understanding can be reinforced. Relate content to previous and subsequent topics. The last few statements in the conclusion should provide a connection between this lecture and previous lectures (as well as those to follow). As students see the relationship among major concepts presented in different lectures, they gain a sense of direction.

DISCUSSION (ARZADON)
I. Brief Description of Discussion Discussion is is a free exchange of ideas, opinions, or viewpoints. The free exchange of ideas, opinions, and described as a face to face relationship between two or more persons during which there viewpoints takes place after the discussant has finished delivering his talk. Discussion is also called as open forum because members of the audience are free to participate in the discussion by asking questions to be answered by the speaker or discussant, or they may contribute some vital information to make the development of the subject being discussed more complete. In a discussion, there is a person asked to control or regulate the open forum wherein he accepts questions from the audience to be answered by the discussant or accepts additional information that may enrich further the discussion (Calderon, 1998). Discussion is also described as an activity in which people talk together in order to share information about a topic or problem to arrive at a solution based on thoughts and ideas expressed by members of the group. It is used more and more in student-centered learning venues as a means of engaging students in the active construction of learning through collaboration and the exchange of perspectives. II. Purposes of Discussion To encourage learners to express their ideas, opinions, and viewpoints To develop learning skills To clarify some points during a learning activity To create greater motivation, interest, and involvement in learning To serve as a check at the end to find out if the objective of the lesson has been achieved To serve as a feedback for the discussant to undertake corrective measures especially when faulty or incorrect reasoning or misunderstanding is occurring

Advantages of Discussion 1. Both learners and discussant can acquire knowledge through discussion. Discussion is a learning activity wherein there is a free exchange of ideas and opinions between the learners and the discussant. Learners or audiences can obtain cognitive information as the discussant talks over a certain topic. On the other hand, the discussant or speaker can likewise acquire knowledge when his learners share their ideas, experiences and viewpoints in line with the topic being discussed. 2. Discussion techniques promote attitude development. Discussion setting provides an atmosphere which can develop or enhance group rapport and camaraderie in ways unattainable by lectures alone. Whether learners participate in the discussion or not, a given learner finds his/her own values and beliefs challenged. Such a finding can lead to significant self-awareness and attitudinal change on the part of the learner thus developing wholesome attitudes in accordance to the group. 3. Discussion provides the learners the opportunity to develop thinking skills and responses. As the learners or audiences learn information about certain topics, they utilize the acquired information in a meaningful manner, thus, developing critical thinking and problem solving skills which can be applied not only in the search for knowledge, but in all aspects of life. Using discussion as a teaching strategy can motivate and encourage learners to think through concepts which may be unclear to them. Learners can also learn to approach a problem or topic rationally, monitor their own thinking process and question their implicit assumptions. 4. Discussion encourages participation by everybody. Discussion is particularly effective at increasing learners involvement. Good discussion encourages learners to express their ideas and viewpoints, and integrate their thinking and understanding with others. Moreover, discussion becomes effective when there is interaction and free exchange of ideas among the participants. 5. Discussion has a positive effect on the mental activity of the student. Since the role of the learners is not as passive as with some other approaches, the learners maintain high degree of mental alertness. This alertness is one reason why discussion is often praised as being a motivator. The discussion method, when used properly, is a good way to stimulate thinking on the part of the learners. 6. Discussion can be used to develop important speaking skills.

In many professional contexts, people need to be able to speak up in a group. They may need to offer information, ask question, or argue for a different solution. People do not learn to speak up in a group by reading about how to do it because speaking skills are best developed with practice. 7. Discussion provides a means to understand a topic better. Since discussion is an activity wherein there is an exchange of ideas, some information that are not presented by the discussant may come from the learners ideas which would make a clearer view and understanding about a certain topic. Discussion also serves as a way for the discussant to undertake corrective measures particularly if the ideas presented are unclear which can cause misunderstanding or incorrect reasoning among the learners. 8. Discussion provides the facilitator with information about the student which can aid in a better understanding of students, individually and collectively. Careful observation of the behavior of students in group activities provides the facilitator with much information related to the social, psychological, emotional, and skill development of the student. 9. Learning is made interesting through discussion. More effective learning is possible when learners discuss, criticize and share ideas on a particular topic or problem. Active participation by the learners in the discussion makes learning full of interest for the learners. Disadvantages of Discussion 1. Discussion activities are usually time consuming compared with more direct approaches. The nature of discussion makes the learning process very time consuming. The process of exploring a subject, while keeping learners on task in the discussion, requires far more time than classic lecture style instruction. Short class periods may not be sufficient to accommodate a complicated subject matter or to fully explore a daily objective. Moreover, it will take longer time to teach the same material by the discussion method rather than by the lecture method. 2. Some learners may not participate while few tend to dominate during discussions. In Discussion, some learners may never participate while a few may tend to dominate, which necessitates the teaching of collaborative skills that create a sense of psychological safety such that learners feel their ideas and comments will be listened to by others. Some learners feel unable to say what they mean and are afraid of being wrong when they contribute. Others are intimidated by the dominant participants, and

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so do not speak. The tendency during discussion is that it benefits the learners who are familiar and knowledgeable with the subject to dominate. Loss of control may occur as discussion progresses. Classes tend to get a bit noisy and disorganized when the discussion method is introduced. Noise and disorganization may suggest poor control and bad teaching to the discussant. Loss of control during discussions may affect the learners ability to comprehend and understand to the topic being discussed. Discussion becomes less effective in large class sizes. Class discussions become less effective with a class size greater than twenty (20) students. As the class size grows beyond this point, individual voices become unheard and the opportunity for the class to get off topic increases. Skilled discussants begin to notice this problem with fewer than twenty (20) students, but with effective class management, the discussant will be able to hold the class despite of the large number. Topics being discussed may be go off track. Discussions naturally open avenues for exchange of ideas between instructors and learners but also between learners and other learners. The exchange of ideas may turn toward unintended areas and even move entirely away from the point of the discussion. Discussion becomes inefficient if learners lack informational background to contribute to a meaningful discussion. In order for discussion to become effective, the discussant and learners must actively participate by expressing their ideas and opinions with regards to the topic being discussed. But, if learners do not have something to contribute and tend to listen to the discussant all throughout the activity, discussion is not utilized. Discussion is not ideal for every type of class. Discussion is a learning activity which is time consuming because ideas and viewpoint among the participants must be weighed for the topic to be fully understood. Issues on the efficiency of discussion escalate as class size grows. And also, a topic which needs to be presented in a comprehensive and thorough manner is not best suited for discussion because of lack of time.

TECHNIQUES TO FACILITATE DISCUSSION (AVILA)

First, think about what you want your role to be as a facilitator.

Keengwe and Kidd (2010, in Baker, 2011) recommend that the instructor's role is to "(1) support the comments of others by acknowledging and extending their thinking; (2) extend the conversation by adding additional arguments that bolster an opinion; (3) compliment a participant for a statement; (4) persuade the more reserved students to join in." Plan, but with flexibility: Providing the group with an agenda and a set of goals to be accomplished makes participants feel secure. Accepting suggestions for changes in the agenda and goals gives participants the sense that their ideas count and sets the stage for productive discussion. Get them comfortable: Students must feel comfortable talking to each other. Little things like seating and lighting can make a difference. For instance, people feel more comfortable sitting in a circle and seeing each other as they speak. Lighting that is too bright can make people feel vulnerable. Ask the group if the setup is comfortable and make changes if you can. Start slowly: Give people a chance to introduce themselves briefly and meaningfully before getting underway. Its important to ease the group into the conversation. Make it easy: Remember, a facilitator is someone who makes things easy for other people. You dont accomplish this by setting a hectic pace, or by lecturing, or by letting a few people dominate the discussion. Model how to be a productive participant and how to give feedback: This includes items like asking relevant questions, making connections with past material, moving the discussion forward with focused questions/comments, and replying to comments posted to you.

Listen well: Active listening is crucial for good facilitation. It means total listening, instead of only partially listening while thinking about what you want to say next. The active listener thinks of himself or herself as the one whose main job is to help other express themselves. Respond in a way that indicates that you heard and understood the question or the comment Let there be quiet: Theres nothing wrong with silence. The job of the facilitator is not to fill every instant with talk. One of the best ways to get others to talk is by not talking. Let it grow: Groups evolve and mature minute by minute, comment by comment, session by session. The facilitators job is to nurture this evolution without forcing it. Allow enough time for discussion. Good discussions take some time for warm-up, reflection, and maximum input. Be wary of judgments: In many discussions there is no right or wrong answer; the main point is to get ideas on the table for discussion. Invite participants: Its okay to ask people who havent spoken if theyd like to contributethis can be done in a tactful, inviting way. End of Discussion: Summarize and provide feedback at the end of the discussion. In an announcement or email, instructors can report how well the discussion went, talk about positive points and identify where improvements are needed (Baker, 2011).

INTERACTIVE LECTURE (AVILA)

Definition of Interactive Lecture Interactive lectures are classes in which the instructor incorporates engagement triggers and breaks the lecture at least once per class to have students participate in an activity that lets them work directly with the material. The engagement triggers capture and maintain student attention and the interactive lecture techniques allow students to apply what they have learned or give them a context for upcoming lecture material. Breaking up the lecture with these techniques not only provides format change to engage students, these activities also allow students to immediately apply content and provide feedback to the instructor on student understanding. Purpose of Interactive Lecture The goal of interactive lecture is to engage students by finding ways for them to interact with the content, the instructor, and their classmates. Advantages: Making lectures interactive by including interactive techniques such as think-pairshare, demonstrations, and role playing, can: foster active engagement and accountability; promote student retention and learning of the material presented during lecture; give students practice in developing critical-thinking skills; and enable instructors to assess how well the class is learning that day. Disadvantages: Accept that your class will be noisy when discussing their works Time constraints are frequently mentioned as a reason for not giving an interactive lecture

Steps involved in the panel discussion Techniques (BAQUEL)

1. Planning and Preparation a. Taking care of the physical arrangement such as meeting place, location and seating of participants availability of the equipment. Identify the room that you would like to use for a panel discussion. Visit the room and make a list of all the physical aspects of the area that should be checked in order to have an effective panel discussion. b. Keep the Panel Small and Focused Not because having multiple perspectives on a topic doesnt mean you need an army of panelists. Panels that are too large are unwieldy and difficult to manage, while panels that are too small make it difficult to flesh out all the points of view. The ideal panel number is the fabulous fourfour experts in the chosen topic who have different experiences and who dont always agree with each other. c. Selection of the topic

In this prediscussion meeting, the leader should emphasize tactfully the purpose and philosophy of the discussion. f. Dry run Gather the panelists ahead of time on a conference call to discuss the content and the format of the session. Plan out whether each speaker will be given a set amount of time, or if the session will be wholly interactive, meaning a moderator firing questions at the panel. If each speaker has a set amount of time, determine which panelist will focus on which part of the topic to keep from duplicating presentation points.

g. Finalizing plan After planning and preparation they are now ready to present the topic. 2. Actual panel Discussion Meet and Greet the Day or Night of the Event. Arrange for you and your panel members to meet in the Speakers Lounge or the actual session room to introduce themselves and check in. Plan to arrive at either location at least 30-45 minutes before the session is about to start. Hold a brief rehearsal, reviewing the format of the session and either the questions youll start with or who will present first. Also use this time to hook up and test any equipment, check microphones, set up notes, and get settled before the audience arrives. a. Presentation of the topic The moderator introduce the topic Open With a Brief Reference to the Topic Being Discussed The moderator sets and maintains the tone for the panel discussion, so its important to welcome the audience and lead into the topic with a short hook. A lengthy story is not appropriate, but a short quote, analogy, or anecdote will kick off the discussion, warm up the audience, and highlight the importance of the event.

According to my research. Not all topics are appropriate for panel discussion, only controversial and relatively difficult subject matters. This is also serve for the basis of getting the panelist that we need for the discussion. d. Assignment of the panel members No one likes to be surprised by curveball questions. And while a little controversy and throwing people off guard can keep things interesting, you want your panel members to feel comfortable and confident in the topic at hand. Therefore, plan two or three questions per panel member, and send them your questions ahead of time. Ask that they dont create scripted answers to your questions, but that they merely review the questions and come up with some bullet points to discuss during the panel presentation. e. Preliminary meetings among the panelist

b. Introduction of the panel members including the moderator Collect biographies of the speakers for introduction purposes. Make sure you have the pronunciation of each speakers name correct. When it comes to introducing the panel members, you have two options. 1) You can have each panel member introduce him or herself with a short two-minute introduction, or 2) You can introduce the panelists. With the first option, you give the audience a chance to settle in and have a more personal connection to the panel members. With the second option, you set a more formal tone. With either option, make sure you or the panel member adds a human element to the introduction. Simply listing job titles and credentials gets boring; therefore, try to mention some interesting tidbits, such as, Jack is the father of quadruplets, or Shirley is also a backyard gardener who specializes in award-winning tomatoes. c. Orienting the audience regarding the procedure when and how to ask questions to panelists Its important to think of the audience as part of the speaking event. The audience should have the opportunity near the end of the discussion to ask. The moderator should place microphones in strategic places throughout the audience asks quality questions. If an audience member talks too much or off the topic, the moderator needs facilitates control.

Likewise, if someone is dominating the discussion, watch the persons natural breathing rhythm and then interject between breaths, Thank you, Julie. Now lets hear Bobs perspective on this topic. Its always best to ask the panel members what cutoff phrases they respond to. Tell them you will use this tactic for keeping the discussion focused and on time. e. Summary or last statement of each panelist At the end of the discussion the panelist are given the chance to give their last statement and the moderator summarizes the topic and present his point of view. 3. Open Forum Moderator should encourage constructive discussion among the panelist and the audience Also the moderator role is to guide the conversation, maintain an appropriate tone, keep people on task, and ensure everyone gets ample time to present his or her point of view.

d. Exchange of ideas All the participants should work hard to achieved unified group effort. Members must try to interact freely. Their attention must be focused on the group rather than on themselves. They should be good listeners, always attentive, and equally interested in the remarks of other participants Be prepared to cut off long-winded panel members or those who ramble off topic. Having some pre-planned cutoff phrases helps. For example, if someone goes off on a tangent that is not useful to the overall topic, you could interrupt and say, You have an interesting point there, but we want to know more about ________.

a. Asking questions to panelists Have Microphones in the Audience for the Question and Answer Session Before opening the floor for questions, tell the audience any ground rules for asking questions that you want them to follow. Then, encourage the audience to ask questions, but never turn the microphone over to an audience member. If an audience member starts to drone on, politely interrupt and ask him or her to state a question. If an audience member asks a question thats overly specific to a single panelist or otherwise not particularly relevant to the concerns of the wider audience, dont be afraid to say, Thats an interesting question and perhaps better addressed in depth by Panelist A after the wider Q&A were doing now. Final ly, if youre in a big room, not everyone will hear the questions when theyre asked, so always repeat the question. Add one quick summary comment after each question to transition to the next question. b. Clarifying certain points Clarification involves offering back to a speaker the essential meaning, as understood by the listener, of what they have just said, checking that the listener's

understanding is correct and resolving any areas of confusion. As an extension of reflecting, clarifying reassures the speaker that the listener is attempting to understand the messages they are expressing. Clarifying can involve asking questions or occasionally summarizing what the speaker has said. Through clarification it is possible for the speaker and the listener to make sense of these often confused and complex issues. c. Raising objections This happens when we are in doubt of what we have heard to someone who speaks for something. d. Complementitng ideas given This means that there should be one direction of the topic (or what we called jiving or matching of ideas) given by each member of the panels including the audience. . Give a Gracious Thank You to Each Panel Member Once the moderator facilitated a lively discussion between panelists and followed up with an audience question-and-answer session, he should end the event with good manners. Moderators should thank each panelist and encourage applause from the audience. She should also remember to thank anyone who helped make the event possible such as sponsors and the representatives in charge of event location. You certainly cant thank your panelists enough for sharing their expertise. In addition to a verbal thank you after the panel discussion, some people give their panelists a small gift at the event or send a handwritten note afterwards, or both. If you received positive feedback from your audience about the paneleither on feedback forms or just informally after the sessionyou should convey that information to your panelists.

future. So in a sense, being a moderator is a great opportunity for you to enhance your credibility and your reputation, but only if you do it right. Use these ten tips to ensure your moderate with easeand with powerso you can showcase your panelists and ultimately yourself.

PANEL DISCUSSION (BALISACAN)

1. 2. 3. 4. It refers to a setting in which a small group of well informed persons are assigned to discuss different aspects or parts of certain topic in front of audience. Speakers sat around a table or in semi- circle. Usually, an open forum follows after speakers have spoken Persons involved in typical panel discussion INSTRUCTOR Plays the most important role in panel discussion Plans where the panel discussion will be organized Prepares the schedule for panel discussion MODERATOR Keeps the discussion on the theme and encourages interaction among members recognizes appropriate questions and to reject those no bearing on the subject He may answer the question of the audience , but usually he repeat the question and call upon one of the panel to answer the question He may tell the audience that they may direct their questions at particular members of the panel if they choose Summarizes and highlights the point of discussion Should have the mastery on the theme or problem of the discussion Responsible in introducing the panelists PANELISTS There are 4 to 6 panelists in a discussion They sit in a semi circle shape in front of the audience They are the ones who answer the queries from audience AUDIENCE They ask question and seek clarifications to the panelists Shares what the know about the subject matter They make comments about the discussion

Moderate for Success When you do a great job as moderator by bringing out the best in the panelists, the audience will appreciate you. Theyll remember your name and seek out your expertise in the

I.

Purposes of Panel Discussion When use as a teaching strategy, it is intended to achieve the following, a. To develop critical thinking reasoning Questions staring with why and how encourage students to discuss because it requires them reasoning and analyzing. b. To help ensure comprehension and improve the ability to think creatively Freewheeling discussions encourage students to volunteer their own ideas, resulting in maximum generation of answer solution or alternatives. c. To promote students involvement in open discussions and sustain their interest Participating in a discussion enhances a students attitude of willingness to share as well as the ability of a student to listen others. d. To help them gain important communication skills such as stating their ideas clearly, listening to others responding to others in appropriate ways, and learning how to ask good questions. Through panel discussions, students will be able encourage to express their thoughts in a certain topic. Moreover, it develops the capacity of students to respect others ideas. Advantages of Panel Discussion 1) It facilitates clarification on knotty issues In panel discussion a group of people are gathered together to discuss an issue , often to provide feedback o something, to brainstorm solutions to a problem or to discuss an issue of public concern in front of an audience. It analyzes a problem from different viewpoints. 2) It highlights the multi- dimensionality of the issue under discussion. Panel discussion is a useful way to trigger an exchange of viewpoints among experts, either with prepared statements or in response to questions from the audience. 3) It teaches students to think of the issues under consideration and ask relevant questions

Discussion provides students the opportunity to analyze their own thinking process, at the same time motivating them to engage in discourse 4) It fosters logical thinking Higher cognitive and affective objectives are achieved 5) It helps develop critical thinking in both panelists and the audience III. Disadvantages of Panel Discussion 1. Panels are not easy to recognize. Finding suitable experts and bringing them into venue involves a great deal of logical coordination including lodging and travel. Often, panelists are paid a small fee or honoraria for their participation. 2. One personality may dominate the discussion. Someone who has the most insight on topic may find his/ herself being overshadowed by a panel member.

II.

SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION (BATALLONES) The discussion group method is often nurse-educator centered and nurse-educator planned, but the small group tutorial or leaning is learner-centered and learner-planned. This is an approach used for complex learning activities. Learning is individualized and problembased within the group context. Learners set their own goals and progress at their own rate. Concepts from several disciplines are integrated as learners attempt to think and word out complicated problems. Memorization of facts and content is deemphasized. A group of learners decide to work on a selected learning problem. They may proceed from a set of prescribed learning objectives, or they may be assisted in developing their own. The group may decide to focus on a particular clinical problem encountered through readings or through specific nurse-client interactions. The group can be given written directions regarding how to proceed. The first step is to direct learners to pose the questions for study and to identify related issues. (This is the reverse of a common teaching situation in which the nurse educator defines the problem and directs learners to answer specified questions about it). The common situation is not problem solving, but a sophisticated question-and-answer game. This approach, on the other hand, teaches learners to act pertinent questions, to collect data and search out information related to various aspects of the problem, and then to formulate the problem based on the synthesis of the available data. Once the group has researched and formulated the problem, the learners proceed the plan how to manage the

problem, choosing one, trying it out and evaluating the results. The group also evaluates individual member and group performance. This is a very flexible learning approach. Group members act as stimulants for one anothers learning. They also serve as source of peer support and feedback. Nurse educators play the roles of catalyst and resource person. Although they may be subject matter experts in the problem chosen for learner, they should avoid giving lectures or speeches on the topic rather, they should serve as facilitators who assist learners in finding the information or solution. For example, when asked for assistance, a nurse educator who tells learners simply to look it up is not helpful. Some facilitating comments that could aid learners to locate information are: What specific kind of information do you need? Where do you suppose you could find it? How do you suppose a nurse practitioner or nurse faculty member would go about researching that? How might you find out? Where could you look to find that out? Whom could you consult for information in that area? No matter what group strategy is used, a group can become blocked. Brainstorming could help. As in other efforts, tutorial groups may run into roadblocks. Brainstorming is particularly useful when this happens. Facilitate group movement through the block by suggesting the group use the brainstorming technique. If learners are unfamiliar with it they can be provided with the brainstorming directions that appear in the Nurse Educator Tip that follows. Brainstorming is a method for identifying the maximum number of solutions or ideas about a problem.

The role of the jearner in the group is active and responsible. It may not be an approach tu use with beginning learners, as it requires a high level of cogitive complexity and selfdirection. It may be more appropriate for a master degree student toward the end of the program and doctoral level learners. When using this method, the nurse educator is a colearner more than a nurse educator. The success or failure of the group is dependent on the cooperation and collaboration of the nurse educator and the group. Each person is responsible for other gropu members learning. A successful group tutorial experience can provide learners with valuable self-directed leadership, collaborative problem solving, and research skills. BRAINSTORMING Brainstorming is a technique for identifying the maximum number of solutions to or ideas about a problem. Quantity not quality is important. The most important rule in brainstorming is to write or weigh as many solutions or ideas as occur without censoring them for reasonableness. Someone in the group volunteers to write down all down the ideas so everyone in the group can refer to them and have further ideas or solutions occur to them by examining the list. Group members are to continue listing ideas and solutions without commenting on any contributions. No criticisms of others ideas is allowed. In addition to contributing ideas of their own, group members may suggest how others ideas or solutions could be combined or expanded. Only after the group has exhausted all ideas and solutions is the group to begin to decide which of them to try.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A GROUP LEARNING APPROACH 1. Greater knowledge and fuller information canbe elicited, and the variety of approaches and unique solutions increases. Group learning can provide an expansion in the number of ways of solving problems and ways of blending them into a workable whole.

2. Tasks can be subdivided, with each person being given the responsibility for completing one aspect of the task. The more group members are involved in decision making and task completion, the more investment they will have in its implementation, and the more they will support it (Watson and Michaelsen, 1991). This is of special advantage in situations where the solution cannot be implemented without the help of a number of individuals. 3. If tasks and functions are shared, leadership is shared. One view of leadership is that it is a set of influence functions. The philosophy of this is group leadership consists of actions directed toward setting and attaining group goals(task functions) to build closeness in the group, and to free individual competencies for group benefit. If leadership is defined in this manner, participation in effective groups can lead to enhancement of leadership skills for each group member. As learners work together in groups on various aspects of a project, the potential for understanding other learners and their opinions and feelings grows. This advantage allows learners to become more sensitive to anothers needs. This same skill is useful when working with clients or teaching other learners. When working in a group setting, individual learners view problems in process and identify how other group members deal with the problems and with each other. This kind of experience can help group members grow as individuals because they learn a variety of ways of communicating about, thinking about and reaching to group problems. When a group climate is open and trusting, group members can receive support from one another of their actions, thoughts, and feelings. DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL GROUP LEARNING There are several potential disadvantages of group experiences, although some negative forces can be turned into positive forces should they develop, including: 1. Pressures within groups, such as the desire to be accepted, to please others or to attain status can lead to conformity. Dr. Jacobsen, a new nurse educator, looked forward to her first meeting with her clinical group. The pre-conference went well. After an incident on the clinical unit involving an unexpected death of one of he patients, the post conference discussion took on a chaotic atmosphere; it buzzed with anxiety, anger, and argument about who or what had caused the death. Dr, Jacobsen remembered something she had learned from one of her teachers and said, This is an upsetting event. We dont rally have all the facts yet, but we can

discuss what happened, even if we dont all agree. Rather than arguing, if you disagree with something someone else just say I disagree, here is what I observed or here is how I see what happened. That way we can gather more information for discussion. After the statement, the group calmed down and put more energy into problem solving. 2. Extensive disagreement and arguing can be disruptive to a group especially when it is on the early developmental stages when trust and acceptance are important issues. In leaner groups disrupted by arguing, nurse educators must intervene by modeling effective ways of disagreeing or by providing learning experiences for learners to disagree constructively. Disagreement and argument are often due to : A lack of ability to hear or understand the others viewpoint An inability to compromise An attack of others personal attributes An insufficient knowledge or experience with ways of solving the problem. 3. Scapegoating can be problematic. Situations where one or two group members monopolize the conversation (monopolizing) or when one or more group members seem always to be blamed for what occurs (scapegoating) seem especially prone to occur in group settings. About halfway through the post-conference, Dr. Jacobsen noticed that two students were monopolizing the conversation and derided comments from other learners. Dr. Jacobsen intervened by asking for comments and suggesting that other group members make al least one positive comment to the speaker before disagreeing or criticizing. 4. Problem solving or solution finding in a group takes time. The group can be assisted to come to decisions more effectively by having one or more group members provide feedback to the group concerning its progress. Some statements to use to facilitate he progress are: Were off the topic. Lets get back to suggesting solutions. As I see it, the problem is. . .

 Lets start writing down possible solutions on the chalkboard. Ginny, would you write down our ideas as we way them? So far weve talked about . . . but we need to explore. . . It seems that most of us agree with the second solution. 5. Consensus in decisions, rather that majority rule. Even though consensus takes time, it can prove a more effective solution. Decisions that are made by coercion, emotional pleas, attacks, or a premature vote are often the result of insufficient time or knowledge on the part of the group to reach a constructive consensus. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT Bruce Tuckman (1965) developed a 4-stage model of group development. 1. Forming The group comes together and begins the process of introductions and getting to know one other and form as a group. 2. Storming In this stage people watch each other to identify who has strong opinions or who do we want to sit with. There is often a chaotic vying for leadership and temporary leaders are often interchanged. 3. Norming The group agrees what is acceptable and not acceptable . Eventually agreement is reached on how the group operates, what time they go for tea or lunch. 4. Performing This is the stage where the interpersonal skills help people to perform the required tasks. People are willing to ask for and offer help.. 5. Adjourning The process of unforming the group, that is, letting go of the group structure and moving on. This occurs in a training setting or in a work setting where groups who have shared and supported each other can go through a mourning stage.

Skills of the teacher in Small Group Discussion (BUBLO)

In a small group discussion there are important characteristics that a teacher must obtain and perform: The teacher must be a RESOURCE PERSON A resourse person is one who has knowledge, relevant skills, competence and expertise to give a talk,guidance or first-hand info in a given subject or area. They are often persons who are well versed with the subject matter. The teacher must be a Catalyst a person whose talk, enthusiasm, or energy causes others to be more friendly, enthusiastic, or energetic. The teacher must have the ability to keep the discussion focused and prevent monopolization by one or two learners Monopolization- it is obtaining exclusive possession of. The teacher must be a good FACILITATOR He/she is someone who helps a group of people understand their common objectives and assists them to plan to achieve them without taking a particular position in the discussion The teacher needs to continuously monitor the use of thinking and thoughtfulness and intervene as appropriate to direct the group-if necessary. The teacher can easily ADAPT. Adaptability is a key skill for a Nurse Educator because no two subjects (and indeed, no two students) are alike. Its impossible to apply the same template to every type of situation with which you are presented. The Nurse educator must have a strict set of ethics and practices that demand hard work from their students, but these rules must be balanced by the recognition that you can always adjust things as you go along. I. Decision-Making in Small Group Discussion Decision-making- the way in which team goes about determining various issues that arise from the team, including staffing hours, referral and follow-up; an important aspect of team dynamics. Usually, in a small group-discussion there is a so called Brainstorming. 1. Brainstorming is a technique for identifying the maximum number of solutions to or ideas about a problem. Quantity, not quality is IMPORTANT

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The most important rule in Brainstorming is to Write or Weight as many solutions or ideas as occur without censoring them for reasonableness. Someone in the group write down all the ideas so everyone in the group can refer to them and have further ideas or solutions occur to them by examining the list Group members are to continue listing ideas and solutions without commenting on any contributions No criticism of others ideas is allowed In addition to contributing ideas of their own, group members may suggest and how others ideas and solutions could be combined or expanded Only after the group has exhausted all ideas and solutions is the group begin to decide which of them to try.

Set an expectation for the volume of output. Based on this topic, I think we should be able to generate between 40-50 ideas over the next 20 minutes. This sets an expectation that the group will typically fulfill. 3. Don't change, criticize or evaluate any idea. Commenting on ideas is the quickest way to derail or even shut down a dynamic brainstorming session. You should however get clarification if people don't understand what is meant by an idea. 4. Encourage each member to present as many ideas as possible. If one or two people are dominating the discussion, it is perfectly acceptable to ask others by name if they have any thoughts or ideas. Taking some initiative to bring everyone into the discussion is part of the facilitator's role. 5. Keep going until all ideas have been presented.

5 Steps to Effective Brainstorming 1. Clearly define the topic to be brainstormed. It is important to be precise. The better the question, the better the result. Compare the following questions:

What are the challenges and opportunities regarding how we bring our next product to market? What are the problems with bringing out new product to market?' Very similar questions, but the first will elicit both positive and negative responses while the later will tend to identify only the negative areas of the issue. Which will give you the results you want? 2. Aim to generate as many ideas as possible in 20-30 minutes. Let the process continue a bit longer if the discussion is still lively. Be careful not to end prematurely. A short lull very often leads to a new wave of ideas.

2. Consensus decision making is a creative and dynamic way of reaching agreement between all members of a group. Instead of simply voting for an item and having the majority of the group getting their way, a group using consensus is committed to finding solutions that everyone actively supports, or at least can live with. This ensures that all opinions, ideas and concerns are taken into account. Through listening closely to each other, the group aims to come up with proposals that work for everyone. Consensus is neither compromise nor unanimity - it aims to go further by weaving together everyone's best ideas and key concerns - a process that often results in surprising and creative solutions, inspiring both the individual and the group as whole.

Consensus Decision Making Specific Steps 1. Define the problem / Frame the issue Be sure everyone understand the question on the table 2. Understand Take the time to understand the issue and each others perspectives Generally a presentation followed by clarifying questions 3. Ideas / Opinions / Proposals Brainstorm ideas first Hone in on one or two specific options 4. More understanding / more refinements specific proposal (written) 5. Call for consensus Consent Means that I approve the proposal and will support its implementation. Next step: Record the decision. Go to next agenda item. Stand aside Means that I do not fully support the proposal but I will not stand in its way Next step: Record the decision as consensus of the group. Hear and record the concerns of any stand asides. Go to the next agenda item. Block Means that I do not support the decision because I think its bad for the group 6. If a block A. Hear and understand the concerns of the blocker and how the proposal will hurt the group. Record the concerns. B. Take a vote on this question: Having heard the concerns, do we believe that the group interests are best served by proceeding to consent to the proposal? C. If 75% or more vote yes, record the vote and the decision as consensus. D. If less than 75% vote yes, refine the proposal to address the concerns. Back to earlier steps.

Small Group Learning (SGL) (CABINIAN)

Small group Learning (SGL) is designed to assist groups to maximize the benefits of working and learning together in a small group educational setting. Participants initially meet to determine their goals or learning objectives and plan a series of sessions to achieve these goals. Learning is encouraged through sharing and collaboration. Roles promote group cohesion and responsibility (Mudrack&Farrell, 1995). They can be used to foster positive interdependence and individual accountability (Brush, 1998). Roles can be defined as more or less stated functions, duties or responsibilities that guide individual behavior and regulating the group interaction (Hare, 1994). In addition, roles stimulate members awareness of the overall group performance and each members condition. The opinions that others form about ones contribution to the group effort will likely be influenced, in part, by which roles the focal group members play (Mudrack&Farrell, 1995, p. 559). The use of roles appears to be most relevant when a group pursues a shared goal that requires a certain level of task division, coordination and integration of individual activities. 2 TYPES OF ROLES (FUNCTIONAL AND DYSFUNCTIONAL) 1.) Functional roles contribute to the work or task the group is doing. 2.) Dysfunctional roles are those that interfere with the work or task the group is doing. CATEGORIES 1.) Task roles- a specific behavior someone performs that helps the group address the issue and perform the task. 2.) Social roles- these roles provide the oil for the machinery. They look after the emotional life of the group, help make it work, consider the needs of individuals. They open up the channels of communication. 3.) Individual/Dysfunctional roles-roles that disrupt group progress and weaken its cohesion TASK ROLES Initiator/Contributor- indicates discussions and move groups into new areas of exploration. Information Seeker- seeks expert information or facts relevant to the problem. Information Giver- provides factual information to the group. Opinion Seeker- Asks for clarification of the values, attitudes and opinions of group members.

(BUENO)

Opinion Giver- Expresses his or her own opinions and beliefs about the subject being discussed. Elaborator- Takes other peoples initial ideas and builds on them with examples, relevant facts and data. Coordinator- Identifies and explains the relationships between ideas. Orientor- Reviews and clarifies the groups position. Evaluator/Critic- Evaluates proposals against a predetermined or objective standard. Energizer- Concentrates the groups energy on forward movement. Procedural Technician- Facilitates group discussion by taking care of logistical concerns. Recorder- Acts as the secretary or minute- keeper

Help Seeker- Actively looks for sympathy by expressing feelings of inadequacy. Special Interest Pleader- Makes suggestions based on what others would think or feel.

SOCIAL ROLES These roles contribute to the positive functioning of the group. Encourager- Affirms supports and praises the efforts of fellow group members. Harmonizer- Conciliates differences between individuals. Compromiser- Offers to change his or her own position for the good of the group. Gatekeeper/Expediter- Regulates the flow of communication. Observer/Commentator- Provides feedback to the group about how it is functioning. Follower- Accepts what others say and decide even though he or she has not contributed. INDIVIDUAL/DYSFUNCTIONAL ROLES Aggressor- Actions are usually an attempt to decrease another members status. Blocker- Opposes every idea or opinion that is put forward and yet refuses to make own suggestions. Recognition Speaker- Uses group meetings to draw personal attention to him or herself. Self-Confessor- Uses the group meetings as an avenue to disclose personal feelings and issues. Disrupter/Playboy or Playgirl- Uses group meetings as fun time and a way to get out of real work. Dominator- Tries to control the conversation and dictate what people should be doing.