CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.0 PREAMBLE

It is very common to have huge crowds in places like mega shopping malls and stadiums during peak periods. In shopping malls, discounts and season sales offered by merchants can attract thousands of customers to come during the sale periods. Most of the customers travel to the shopping malls with their own vehicles and it is not surprising to see that car parks are always full during these periods. However, research into drivers' behavior when trying to park their cars indicated that this does not seem to stop many drivers from queuing at their favourite car park for significant periods (Percival and Sedgwick, 2002). New generation information services have been proposed or developed to replace traditional "Full/Spaces" sign at the entrance. These come in the form of parking information via mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), RDS-TMC, navigation systems and Urban Traffic Management and Control (UTMC) (Percival and Sedgwick, 2002). Parking guidance system such as the one developed at Shinjuku, Japan (Kurogo, et al., 1995) and Tapiola, Finland (Ristola, 1992) are examples of systems developed to guide drivers in finding vacant car parks. There are mainly four categories of car park guidance systems using different technologies: Counter-based, Wired sensor-based,
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Wireless sensor-based and Image-based categories. Counter-based systems use sensors to count the number of vehicles entering and exit a car park area. This can be gate-arm counters and induction loop detectors located at the entrances and exits (Ristola, 1992). This system can give information on the total number of vacant lots in a closed car park area, but does not help much in guiding the driver to the exact location of the vacant lots; typical display of this system is as shown in fig.1.

Fig.1: Display system of Car park Capacity 1.1

PROJECT MOTIVATION

In large parking areas such as those at mega shopping malls or stadiums, drivers always have difficulty to find vacant car park lots especially during peak periods or when the parking lots are almost full. A solution to reduce the drivers searching time for vacant car-park lots will greatly save time, reduce cost and improve the traffic flow in the car park areas. In this project a system will be designed and developed to acquire car park occupancy information. Motivation for developing this system is to provide a cost effective means using sensors on each gate of a parking lot.

The need to reduce or eliminate the problems associated with the pneumatic or manual operation of valves by humans has been the drive for this project. More so, ways of improving the control efficiency of equipments and systems provided the concept of the micro-processor based control valve. Control is better achieved with lesser human interference. This project is aimed at the following: To design a valve that can be remotely and efficiently controlled in the plant. Prevention of local operators from undertaking simultaneous operation (SIMOP). To increase operational accuracy. To prevent local operators from hazardous fluids. To increase efficiency, safety, profitability and ecology

Ultimately the time, quality and cost of production is optimized.

1.2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In a world of ever growing demand for high quality and quantity of goods, there is a great need for the constant upgrade of production processes to meet this surge in demand. This explains the technological advancement achieved in the last couple of years in the field of control engineering which not only enhances quality but also ensures reliability of the processes once control parameters are acquired correctly. Control of process variables (e.g. flow, pressure, level e.t.c.) was done manually in the past, where operators have to manually operate the valve in the field. This posed a lot of challenges

such as health issues (hazardous plants), human error, slow response time, e.t.c. Though this method served the purpose then but it was not effective. These challenges prompted the invention of pneumatic control systems which uses air and mechanical levers to operate the valves. It was recorded as a tremendous achievement in the field of control. Moving ahead, the hydraulic system was developed which uses oil instead of air in its operation. Hydraulic system helped overcome the problem of low power, slower response, leakages e.t.c. that the pneumatic system had. Still the need for increased response, accuracy and remote control was evident. A breakthrough was made with the electronic control system which filled in all the need. This uses electronic circuits to send signals to the final control element (valve). The advent of microprocessors in electronics technology made it more precise, faster and easier to achieve control objectives. (www.wikipedia.com) Dr. Fred .O. (5), a process engineer in the refining industry, in his paper titled The role of control in Process engineering highlighted the need to fully incorporate advancement achieved in the electronic field into the control of process. He also mentioned the merits of this method of control process. Engr. Benson Ihua (3), in 1999 designed and constructed a pneumatic control valve as his final year project. This involves the use of a compressor to compress the air, then through a filter to clean the air and finally to a regulator to determine the pressure that is delivered to the valve. In 2005, Abideen (4) designed and constructed a motorized valve using a toggle switch to operate a motor coupled to a valve via a gear system. This was done manually. A project was presented in the Michigan science fare (6) involving the use of a PIC programmed to drive a crankshaft in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction. This project converted rotational motion to translational motion. A servo motor was used to achieve the bi-directional motion.
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Several contributions have been listed in the world of control engineering ranging from improvement in speed and response time to reduction in size, all geared towards enhancing the quality of control methodology implemented. This project uses a programmed microprocessor to remotely drive an electric motor coupled to a valve assembly via a gear system. More so, sensors (reed switches) send position signal to the microprocessor as a feedback input.

1.3

PROBLEM DEFINITION AND METHODOLOGY

Maintaining a high level of operational stability amidst the constantly changing process variables has posed a great challenge to many industries. Control of these process variables can be implemented by a valve. Manual operation of valves by humans in the past has not made this implementation any easier. Human factors such as emotions, attitude and time lag between request and response contribute to the control errors generated during operational procedures. In this project, electronic control options are considered which reduces the problems encountered in manual operations. This project was implemented on the following design methodology; * * * * * * PIC Controller Sensor Amplifier Motor Valve Control switches
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Each of these design stages defines the integral functions that the project hopes to achieve.

1.4

PROJECT OUTLINE

The project is outlined in five (5) chapters. Chapter one (1) gives an introduction to the project, chapter two (2) gives a theoretical background of various components used. Chapter three (3) deals with the general design procedures employed in the implementation of the system including the decisions made in material and component selection. The construction and testing was carried out in chapter four (4), chapter five (5) gives the conclusion and recommendation for future work.

CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.0
INTRODUCTION

This project bothers on a couple of engineering principles and applies many other techniques ranging from Electrical Electronics Engineering to Mechanical Engineering. The overall principle that explains the entirety of this project work can be said to be the concept of control engineering. Basically the control of any system can be achieved in two different ways, closedloop or open-loop. First, there is need to explain what a control loop is in relation to process control. A control loop is a set or an arrangement of interconnected equipments or processes that accepts an input, acts on it and produces an output. The input and outputs depends on the type of control system used (pneumatic-air, electronic-current, hydraulic-oil e.t.c.). The control loop can be well explained with an example

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL Consider a scenario where a certain flow rate is to be maintained in a process. A control valve controls the flow rate in this system. In a closed loop, the controller receives its input from the process (present flow rate) and compares the value with the set point (desired flow rate) and generates an error signal. Then sends it to the final control element (control valve) in order to change the flow rate. This continues until the prevailing flow rate is same with the desired flow

rate. It is illustrated in the diagram below. ( Tony Kuphaldt, Lessons in industrial instrumentation ,version 1.12 2010)

Inpu t

Controll er

Final Control Element

Outpu t

Feedback Element

Fig 2.1: A block diagram of a closed loop control

It can be deduced that the output is fed back to the control; this is why its also called a feedback control. Closed loop is designed to achieve and maintain the desired process condition by comparing the set point to the present condition and produce an error signal to correct the offset in the process. OPEN-LOOP CONTROL A common domestic application that illustrates open loop control is a washing machine. The system is pre-set and operates on a time basis, going through cycles of wash, rinse and spin as programmed. In this case, the control action is the manual operator assessing the size and dirtiness of the load and setting the machine accordingly. The machine does not measure the output signal, which is the cleanliness of the clothes, so the accuracy of the process, or success of the wash, will depend on the calibration of the system. Illustrated by the diagram below. ( Tony Kuphaldt, Lessons in industrial instrumentation ,version 1.12 2010)
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Inpu t

Controll er

Final Control Element

Outpu t

Fig2.2: A block diagram of an open loop control

This project employs the open-loop control. This is not to state that the open-loop control is the best scheme; as a matter of fact the closed loop serves for greater efficiency in terms of control. For the purpose of this work, the open loop is sufficient to serve.

2.1

Component Description

Below is the brief explanation of the individual components used in this project work. 2.1.1 Control Valve

A control valve is a valve with a pneumatic, hydraulic, electric or other externally powered actuator that automatically, fully or partially opens or closes the valve to a position dictated by signals transmitted from controlling instruments. Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for throttling flow. Whilst a wide variety of valve types exist, this document will concentrate on those which are most widely used in the automatic control of commercial and industrial fluids. These include valve types which have linear and rotary spindle movement. Linear types include globe valves and slide valves.
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Rotary types include ball valves, butterfly valves, plug valves and their variants. Globe and the ease with which they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve opening to flow. Two typical globe valve types are shown in Figure below. An actuator coupled to the valve spindle would provide valve movement. (Emerson Process Management, Control valve system, fourth edition, 2005)

Fig.2.3 Two differently shaped globe valves The major constituent parts of globe valves are:

The body. The bonnet. The valve seat and valve plug, or trim. The valve spindle (which connects to the actuator).
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The sealing arrangement between the valve stem and the bonnet.

Fig 2.4 is a diagrammatic representation of a single seat two-port globe valve. In this case the fluid flow is pushing against the valve plug and tending to keep the plug off the valve seat.

Fig.2.4 Flow through a single seat, two-port globe valve The difference in pressure upstream (P1) and downstream (P2) of the valve, against which the valve must close, is known as the differential pressure (DP). The maximum differential pressure against which a valve can close will depend upon the size and type of valve and the actuator operating it. ((Emerson Process Management, Control valve system, fourth edition, 2005) In broad terms, the force required from the actuator may be determined using Equation below

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Valve Sizing Over sizing of valves sometimes occurs when trying to optimize process performance through a reduction of process variability. This results from using line-size valves, especially with highcapacity rotary valves, as well as the conservative addition of multiple safety factors at different stages in the process design. Over sizing the valve hurts process variability in two ways. First, the oversized valve puts too much gain in the valve, leaving less flexibility in adjusting the controller. Best performance results when most loop gain comes from the controller. If the valve is oversized, making it more likely to operate in or near this region, this high gain can likely mean that the controller gain will need to be reduced to avoid instability problems with the loop. This, of course, will mean a penalty of increased process variability. The second way oversized valves hurt process variability is that an oversized valve is likely to operate more frequently at lower valve openings where seal friction can be greater, particularly in rotary valves. Because an oversized valve produces a disproportionately large flow change for a given increment of valve travel, this phenomenon can greatly exaggerate the process variability associated with dead band due to friction. Regardless of its actual inherent valve characteristic, a severely oversized valve tends to act more like a quick opening valve, which results in high installed process gain in the lower lift regions. In addition, when the valve is oversized, the valve tends to reach system capacity at relatively low travel. Process control studies show that, for some industries, the majority of valves currently in process control loops are oversized for the application. While it might seem counterintuitive, it often makes economic sense to select a control valve for present conditions and then replace the valve when conditions change. When selecting a valve, it is important to consider the valve style,
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inherent characteristic, and valve size that will provide the broadest possible control range for the application. (Emerson Process Management, Control valve system, fourth edition, 2005)

2.1.2

MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller is a computer control system on a single chip. It has many electronic circuits built into it, which can decode written instructions and convert them to electrical signals. The microcontroller will then step through these instructions and execute them one by one. Microcontrollers are now changing electronics design. Instead of hard wiring number of logic gates together to perform some functions we now use instructions to wire the gates electronically. The list of these instructions given to the microcontroller is called a program.

INPUT

CONTROL

OUTPUT

Fig.2.5 A block diagram of the basic microcontroller system The input components would consist of digital devices such as switches, push buttons, pressure mats, float switches, keypads, radio receivers etc and analogue censors such as light dependent resistors, thermistors, gas sensors, pressure sensors etc. The control unit is the microcontroller. The microcontroller will monitor the inputs and as a result the program would turn outputs on and off. The microcontroller stores the program in its memory and executes the instructions under the control of the clock circuit.

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The output devices would be made up from LEDs, buzzers, motors, alphanumeric displays, radio transmitters, 7-segment displays, heaters, fans, etc.

Types of Microcontroller There are basically two types of microcontrollers, flash and One Time Programmable Devices (OTP). The flash devices can be programmed in the programmer whereas OTP devices once programmed cannot be reprogrammed. All OTP devices, however, do have a windowed variety, which enables them to be erased under ultraviolet light in about 15 minutes, so that they can be reprogrammed. The windowed devices have a suffix JW to distinguish them from the others. Using the Microcontroller In order to use the microcontroller in a circuit there are basically two areas one need to understand. How to connect the microcontroller to the hardware How to write and program the code into the microcontroller

Microcontroller Hardware The hardware that the microcontroller needs to function is as shown below. The crystal and the capacitors connected to pin 15 and 16 of the 16F684 produce the clock pulses that are required to step the microcontroller through the program and provide the timing pulses. The 0.1F capacitor is placed as close to the chip as possible between 5V and 0V. Its role is to divert (filter) any electrical noise on the 5V power supply line to 0V, thus bypassing the microcontroller. ( L.A. Bryan & E.A. Bryan, Programmable Controller theory and implementation, second edition, 1997)
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2.1.3

7805, VOLTAGE REGULATOR CIRCUIT

Probably, the most common power supply connection for the microcontroller is a three terminal voltage regulator IC, the 7805. The connection for this is shown below;

7805

Vin

5v

Fig 2.6: 7805 block diagram The supply voltage, Vin, to the 7805 can be anything from 7V to 10V. The output voltage will be a fixed 5V and can supply currents up to 1amp. (Linear regulator, www.wikipedia.com, 2009).

2.1.4

DIODES

Diode is one of the basic solid-state components and there are many types, each with its own characteristics and applications. The various diodes types are easily identified by name, circuit application and schematic symbols. A diode is a two-way terminal device that acts as a one-way conductor. The most basic type of diode is the pn-junction diode, which is a pn-junction with a lead connected to each of the semiconductor materials. When forward biased, the diode will conduct, but revere biased, the diodes voltage will drop to nearly zero. The schematic symbol for the pn-junction diode as well as the biasing is shown below. n-type material is called the cathode and p-type material is called the anode. (John Bird, Electrical & Electronic Principles & Technology, 2nd edition,98)

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Anode P-type

Cathode

Symbol for a diode

N-type

i d
(a)

v d A forward biased pn-junction

Depletion

layer P
N

(b)

v d A reverse biased pn-junction

i d

Fig 2.7: Circuit explanation of a diode Light Emitting Diode Light emitting diodes are semiconductor display devices. Since there is no filament that would cause excessive heating, they are very reliable, durable and long lasting. They are inexpensive, easily interfaced to circuits and do not require high voltage. The light is emitted when a conduction electron and hole recombine. This recombination requires that, the energy possessed by the unbound free electron is enough to be transferred to another state. (John Bird, Electrical & Electronic Principles & Technology, 2nd edition,98)
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Ano de

Light Emitting Diode Symbol

Catho de

Fig 2.8: Symbol of LED

2.1.5

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Most common transistor are BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistor). Basically the word transistor is as a result of the combination: Transfer + Resistance = Transistor It consist of two back to back junctions manufactured in a single piece of semiconductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to three regions called, Emitter, Base and collector. As shown in figure below, whereby a particular material of semi conductor is sandwiched in between two semi conductor materials of the same type. Fig(a) shows a layer of p-type material sandwiched between two p-type materials. This is called a PNP transistor. The Emitter, base and collector are provided with terminals that are labelled as E, B, and C. The two junctions are , Emitter- Base (E/B) junction and collector- Base junction (C/B). The

symbols employed for PNP and NPN are also shown with figure (a) and (b) respectively. The arrowhead is normally used to denote the emitter and in each case, its direction indicates the conventional direction of current flow. For a PNP transistor, arrowhead points from emitter to base (and also with respect to collector). For NPN transistor, it points from Base to Emitter meaning that the base (and collector) is positive with respect to the emitter. Various Parts of a transistor Emitter
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It is the most heavily doped then any of the other regions because its main function is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base. Base It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very thin (10-6m) as compared to either the emitter, or collector and it is lightly doped. Collector Its main function (as the name implies) is to collect/ receive majority charge carriers coming from the emitter and passing through the base, In most transistor, collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region because, It has to dissipate much greater power. Transistor as a signal amplifier The voltage applied between the emitter and collector is fixed and relatively high, while the voltage between the emitter and the base is low and variable (It is the incoming signal) When there is no base voltage, the resistance from the emitter to the collector is high, and no current flows. A small voltage across the base to the emitter however the resistance and allows a large output to flow from emitter to the collector. (John Bird, Electrical & Electronic Principles & Technology, 2nd edition,98)

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Fig 2.9: Symbol of a BJT

2.1.6

DC POWER SUPPLY

Most the electronic device and power circuit require a dc source for their operation. Dry cells and batteries are one form of dc source. They have the advantage of being portable and ripple free. However, their voltages are low; they need frequent replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional dc power supplies. Since the most convenient and economical source of power is the domestic ac supply. It is advantageous to convert this alternating voltage (usually, 220Vrms) to Dc voltage (usually smaller in value). This process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification and is accomplished with the help of a; (i) (ii) (iii) Rectifier Filter Voltage regulator circuit

These element put together constitute dc power supply

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A typical dc power supply consists of five stages -Transformer -Rectifier -Filter -voltage regulator -voltage Divider Transformer; Its job is either to step up or (mostly) step-down the ac supply voltage to suit the requirement of the solid-state electronic devices and circuits fed by the dc power supply. It also provides isolation from the supply line, an important safety consideration. Rectifier; It is a circuit which employs one or more diodes to convert ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage. Filter The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuations or pulsations (called ripples) present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier, of course , no filter can in practice give an output voltage as ripple- free as that of a dc battery but it approaches so closely that the power supply performs as well. Voltage regulator Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant even when (a) ac input voltage to the transformer varies (deviations from 0V are common); or
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(b) The load varies Usually, Zener diodes and transistors are used for voltage regulation purposes. (John Bird, Electrical & Electronic Principles & Technology, 2nd edition,98) Voltage Divider Its function is to provide different dc-voltages needed by different electronic circuits. It consists of a number of resistors connected in series across the output terminals of the voltage regulator Obviously it eliminates the necessity of providing separate dc power supplies to different electronic circuit working on different dc levels

AC INPUT

TRANSFO RMER

RECTIFIER

FILTER

VOLTAGE REGULAT OR

VOLTAGE DIVIDER

DC OUTPUT

Figure 2.10: A typical DC supply Due to low-cost fabrication technique, many commercial integrated- circuit (IC) regulators are available since the past few decades. These include fairly simple, fixed- voltage types of high quality precision regulators. These IC regulators have much improved performance as compared to those made from discrete components. They have a number of unique build- in features such
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as current limiting, self protection against over temperature, remote control operation over a wide range of input voltages and feedback current limiting. Types of IC voltage regulators -Fixed positive linear voltage regulators -Fixed negative linear voltage regulators Adjusted positive linear voltages regulator and Adjusted negative linear voltage regulators For the sake of this report, I am going to limit myself to the fixed positive linear voltage regulators. (Newnes Power Engineering Series, Power Electronic Control in Electrical system, 2002) Fixed positive linear voltage Regulators There are many IC regulators available in the market that produces a fixed positive output voltage. But 7800 series of IC regulators is representative of three terminal devices that are available with several fixed positive output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. Figure (2.9a) below shows a standard configuration of a fixed positive voltage IC regulator of 7800 series. It should be noted that it has three terminals labelled as input, output and ground. The last two digits (marked xx) in the part number designate the output voltage. For example, IC 7805 is a +5V regulator .Similarly IC 7812 is a +12V regulator and Ic 7815 is a +15v regulator. The capacitor (typically 0.33F) is required only if the power supply filter is acts

located more than 3 inches from the IC regulator. The capacitor basically as a line filter to improve transient response.

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78XX INPUT OUTPUT

C1 GND

C2

Fig 2.11 Circuit implementation of a 78xx IC

2.1.7

REED SWITCH

Another sealed-contact type of switch is the magnetic reed switch. Like the mercury switch, a reed switchs contacts are located inside a sealed tube. Unlike the mercury switch which uses liquid metal as the contact medium, the reed switch is simply a pair of very thin, magnetic metal strips (hence the name reed) which are brought into contact with each other by applying a strong magnetic eld outside the sealed tube. The source of the magnetic eld in this type of switch is usually a permanent magnet, moved closer to or further away from the tube by the actuating mechanism. Due to the small size of the reeds, this type of contact is typically rated at lower currents and voltages than the average mercury switch. However, reed switches typically handle vibration better than mercury contacts, because there is no liquid inside the tube to splash around. (Reed switches, www.wikipedia.com, 2001)
2.1.8 MECHANICAL GEAR

Gear, toothed wheel or cylinder used to transmit rotary or reciprocating motion from one part of a machine to another. Two or more gears, transmitting motion from one shaft to another, constitute a gear train. Gearing is chiefly used to transmit rotating motion, but can, with suitably

23

designed gears and flat-toothed sectors, be employed to transform reciprocating motion into rotating motion, and vice versa. Gear system has been used in the motion field to vary the speed of a particular object. The variation in the speed depends on the number of teeth on the meshing surfaces and the diameter/radius of the driven part. Gears were used to also transfer rotational motion to the valve spindle. (Gear systems, www.howstuffworks.com, 2000)

Fig 2.12: A gear wheel assembly

2.1.9

ELECTRIC MOTOR

Electric motors are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy by the interaction between magnetic field set up in the stator and rotor windings. It operates on the principle of electromagnetism. It explains that, if a current is passed through a conductor located in a magnetic field, the field exerts a mechanical force on it.
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The electric motor has several classifications, but of interest is the type of supply voltage used i.e Direct current (DC motor) and Alternating current (AC motor). For a DC motor; when current is passed through the armature of a DC motor, a torque is generated by magnetic reaction, and the armature revolves. The speed at which a DC motor operates depends on the strength of the magnetic field acting on the armature, as well as on the armature current. The stronger the field, the slower is the rate of rotation needed to generate a back voltage large enough to counteract the applied voltage. For this reason the speed of DC motors can be controlled by varying the field current. (How a dc motor works, www.howstuffworks.com, 2005).

Fig 2.13: Electric motor make up diagram

CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN PROCEDURES
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3.0

INTRODUCTION

This chapter entails the different design considerations made in the selection of materials and the implementation of the project structure. Also describing the factors that influenced the decisions taken with respect to the limitations encountered. The project structure diagram and the circuit diagram are contained and explained herein. Moreover, it also discusses how the microcontroller (PIC 16F84) was interfaced with the circuit board. In this write-up, each of the components is briefly described and later, the main principles of operation of the project is now discussed in details.

3.1

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Sensor

PIC Controller Control Input Switch

Amplifier

Motor Valve Stem Valve Body

Fig 3.1: Block diagram of the project outline.

Control Switch: is a switch used in this case for uttering the position of the valve

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PIC Controller: is a programmable integrated circuit controller that processes the instruction from the control switch to either open more or close more. Sensor: the sensor senses the current position of the valve stem Amplifier: the output commend signal from the PIC controller is further amplified so that the motor gets enough power to effect the command. Motor: is an induction meter that implements the command to turn. Valve stem: is the part of the valve that transmit motion Valve body: The main pressure boundary of the valve that also provides the pipe connecting ends, the fluid flow passage way, and supports the seating surfaces and the valve closure member. The project was implemented on the structure illustrated by the block diagram above. Components were selected to achieve the purpose intended. It is pertinent to note at this point that this project is a prototype, therefore size is not fully considered.

3.2

SENSOR

The general definition of a sensor is a device capable of detecting and responding to physical stimuli such as movement, light or heat etc. The design requires a sensor that can detect circular motion. The sensor is the eye of the PIC by providing the PIC with signals indicating the number of revolution made by the valve spindle. A set of reed switches were selected to implement this. As described earlier in the previous chapter, reed switch close its contact when placed in the vicinity of a magnetic field.

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Magnet

Reed switch Gea r

Fig 3.2: Gear wheel showing reed switch position As seen in the diagram above, the reed switches were placed at the four quadrants of the gear circumference and a magnet placed on the gear surface. So as the gear rotates, the magnet rotates with it; making and breaking the contacts of the reed switches as it moves along. This making and breaking of contacts is sent to the PIC as counting pulses.

3.3

PIC CONTROLLER

This is a programmable integrated circuit that receives input from sensors, processes it and compares it with the resident program and then sends out appropriate output signal in response to the input. In order to choose a microcontroller for a particular control system let us first of all consider the block diagram of the microcontroller system which is as shown below;

INPUT

CONTOROL The basic microcontroller system

OUTPUT

28

The input components would consist of digital devices such as switches, push buttons, pressure mats, float switches, keypads, radio receivers etc and analogue censors such as light dependent resistors, thermistors, gas sensors, pressure sensors etc.

The control unit is the microcontroller. The microcontroller will monitor the inputs and as a result the program would turn outputs on and off. The microcontroller stores the program in its memory and executes the instructions under the control of the clock circuit.

The output devices would be made up from LEDs, buzzers, motors, alphanumeric displays, radio transmitters, 7-segment displays, heaters, fans, etc.

The next consideration would be what size of program memory storage is required. The clock frequency determines the speed at which instructions are executed. This is important if any lengthy calculations are being undertaken. The higher the clock frequency the quicker the micro will finish one task and start another. Other considerations are the number of interrupts and timer circuits required, and how much data EEPROM if any is needed. After due consideration, PIC16F628A controller was selected as suitable to implement the controller function. The description of this PIC has been detailed in the previous chapter. (Newnes Power Engineering Series, Power Electronic Control in Electrical system, 2002)

3.4

AMPLIFIER

An amplifier in the electronic application is a circuit that increases the magnitude of some of the features of a signal i.e. current, voltage, power etc. Electronic amplifiers find applications where the input level (current, voltage, power etc) is not up to the level required. So a boost is needed to
29

achieve the input level. For the purpose of this project, the amplification is needed because the PIC output is not enough to drive the electric motor. The amplification circuit consist of transistors (TIP41, TIP42, BC557, BC548), resistors and capacitors. The values of these circuit components were carefully selected to produce an output that can drive the motor conveniently. More so, the PIC also needs a voltage transformation because its input voltage is 2.2v to 5.5v DC. This is necessary because the voltage supply is an unregulated 220v AC. So the power supply circuit is considered to convert the unregulated 220v AC to a regulated 5v DC voltage for the use of the PIC. (Newnes Power Engineering Series, Power Electronic Control in Electrical system, 2002)

3.5

CONTROL INPUT SWITCH

These are toggle switches that when depressed closes a contact and sends signal in form of pulses to the PIC. This helps for the selection of the desired position of the valve from fully closed (0%), 25%, 50%, 75%, and fully open (100%). The switch was selected for its durability and good temporal contact switching.

3.6

VALVE ASSEMBLY

The implementation of the valve assembly was achieved with a number of components. First is the valve body which houses the valve internals. The selection of this part of the assembly is very important because it determines the effectiveness of flow control. The plunger should be able to handle throttling and shut off without wear. It should also be able to handle the pressure, flow, and temperature it will be subjected to. Next is the valve stem which consist of spindle
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used in the movement of the valve. The valve body and the valve stem forms the valve. The last (not in any other) of this assembly is the gear system. Four gear wheels were used to transfer the rotational motion from the motor to the valve spindle. The gears were arranged in a way to provide speed reduction and motion conversion from rotational to vertical motion of the spindle. The gears were properly meshed to avoid slip between the gear teeth.

3.7

MOTOR.

For the purpose of this project, a 12v 0.8kw servo DC motor was selected. The motor can provide enough power (torque) to drive the entire valve assembly.

3.8

DESIGN SUMMARY Rating of components Capacitors C1 C2 = 2.2F C3 = 1000F Transformer 220v/24v,50Hz, centre tapped, voltage transformer Oscillator 4.5MHz clocking pulse

Table 3.1

Resistors R1 R10 = 1K R11 = 10K

R12 = 100K

C4 = 470F C5 C6 = 473F C6 = 47pF

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Table 3.2

TRANSISTOR RATING VCEO -40v 40v -65v VEBO -5v 5v -5v IC -6A 6A 100mA hfe 75 75 80 0 Tj 150oC 150oC 150oC

Transistor VCBO TIP42 TIP41 BC557 -40v 40v -80v

3.9

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

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Fig. 3.3: Circuit Diagram The individual circuit components have been explained in the previous chapter. So the circuit will be explained as a functional block.

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As contained in the programme of the PIC, switching on the power will reset the system by sending an output to the motor to close the valve. Depressing any of the switch sends a discriminate input pulse to the PIC, the PIC then acts on the input according to the program. In response to the input, the micro controller reads the present position of the valve using a magnetic sensor, it will now use this to determine the extent the valve stem is to travel and whether the dc motor will operator. turn clockwise or anti-clockwise to achieve the request from the

3.10

Process Control Terminology

Actuator: A pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrically powered device that supplies force and motion to open or close a valve. Actuator Assembly: An actuator, including all the pertinent accessories that make it a complete operating unit. Capacity (Valve): The rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions. Closed Loop: The interconnection of process control components such that information regarding the process variable is continuously fed back to the controller set point to provide continuous, automatic corrections to the process variable. Controller: A device that operates automatically by use of some established algorithm to regulate a controlled variable. The controller input receives information about the status of the process variable and then provides an appropriate output signal to the final control element. Control Valve Assembly: Includes all components normally mounted on the valve: the valve body assembly, actuator, positioner, air sets, transducers, limit switches, etc.

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Dead Band: The range through which an input signal can be varied, upon reversal of direction, without initiating an observable change in the output signal. Dead band is the name given to a general phenomenon that can apply to any device. For the valve assembly, the controller output (CO) is the input to the valve assembly and the process variable (PV) is the output When the term Dead Band is used, it is essential that both the input and output variables are identified, and that any tests to measure dead band be under fully loaded conditions. Dead band is typically expressed as a percent of the input span. Dead Time: The time interval (Td) in which no response of the system is detected following a small step input. It is measured from the time the step input is initiated to the first detectable response of the system being tested. Dead Time can apply to a valve assembly or to the entire process. Final Control Element: The device that implements the control strategy determined by the output of the controller. While the final control element can be a damper, a variable speed drive pump, or an on-off switching device, the most common final control element in the process control industries is the control valve assembly. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gasses, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point. Hysteresis: The maximum difference in output value for any single input value during a calibration cycle, excluding errors due to dead band. Inherent Characteristic: The relationship between the flow coefficient and the closure member (disk) travel as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel with constant pressure drop across the valve. Typically these characteristics are plotted on a curve where the horizontal axis is labeled in percent travel and the vertical axis is labeled as percent flow (or Cv). Because valve flow is a function of both the valve travel and the pressure drop across the valve, conducting flow characteristic tests at a constant pressure drop provides a systematic way of comparing one
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valve characteristic design to another. Typical valve characteristics conducted in this manner are named Linear, Equal-Percentage, and Quick Opening. Installed Characteristic: The relationship between the flow rate and the closure member (disk) travel as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across the valve is influenced by the varying process conditions. I/P: Shorthand for current-to-pressure (I-to-P). Typically applied to input transducer modules. Linearity: The closeness to which a curve relating to two variables approximates a straight line. (Linearity also means that the same straight line will apply for both upscale and downscale directions. Thus, dead band as defined above, would typically be considered a non-linearity.) Linear Characteristic: An inherent flow characteristic that can be represented by a straight line on a rectangular plot of flow coefficient (Cv) versus rated travel. Therefore equal increments of travel provide equal increments of flow coefficient, Cv. Loop Gain: The combined gain of all the components in the loop when viewed in series around the loop. Sometimes referred to as open-loop gain. It must be clearly specified whether referring to the static loop gain or the dynamic loop gain at some frequency. Open Loop: The condition where the interconnection of process control components is interrupted such that information from the process variable is no longer fed back to the controller set point so that corrections to the process variable are no longer provided. This is typically accomplished by placing the controller in the manual operating position. Packing: A part of the valve assembly used to seal against leakage around the valve disk or stem. Positioner: A position controller (servomechanism) that is mechanically connected to a moving part of a final control element or its actuator and that automatically adjusts its output to the actuator to maintain a desired position in proportion to the input signal.

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Process: All the combined elements in the control loop, except the controller. The process typically includes the control valve assembly, the pressure vessel or heat exchanger that is being controlled, as well as sensors, pumps, and transmitters. Process Gain: The ratio of the change in the controlled process variable to a corresponding change in the output of the controller. Process Variability: A precise statistical measure of how tightly the process is being controlled about the set point. Process variability is defined in percent as typically (2s/m), where m is the set point or mean value of the measured process variable and s is the standard deviation of the process variable. Response Time: Usually measured by a parameter that includes both dead time and time constant. When applied to the valve, it includes the entire valve assembly. Sensor: A device that senses the value of the process variable and provides a corresponding output signal to a transmitter. The sensor can be an integral part of the transmitter, or it may be a separate component. Set Point: A reference value representing the desired value of the process variable being controlled. Sizing (Valve): A systematic procedure designed to ensure the correct valve capacity for a set of specified process conditions. Transmitter: A device that senses the value of the process variable and transmits a corresponding output signal to the controller for comparison with the set point. Travel: The movement of the closure member from the closed position to an intermediate or rated full open position. Trim: The internal components of a valve that modulate the flow of the controlled fluid. Bonnet: The portion of the valve that contains the packing box and stems seal and can guide the stem. It provides the principal opening to the body cavity for assembly of internal parts or it can
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be an integral part of the valve body. It can also provide for the attachment of the actuator to the Valve body. Typical bonnets are bolted, threaded, welded, pressure-seals, or integral with the body. (This term is often used in referring to the bonnet and its included packing parts. More properly, this group of component parts should be called the bonnet assembly.) Packing Box (Assembly): The part of the bonnet assembly used to seal against leakage around the closure member stem. Included in the complete packing box assembly are various combinations of some or all of the following component parts: packing, packing follower, packing nut, lantern ring, packing spring, packing flange, packing flange studs or bolts, packing Flange nuts, packing ring, packing wiper ring, felt wiper ring, Belleville springs, and antiextrusion ring. Plug: A term frequently used to refer to the closure member. Port: The flow control orifice of a control valve. Seat: The area of contact between the closure member and its mating surface that establishes valve shut-off. Static Unbalance: The net force produced on the valve stem by the fluid pressure acting on the closure member and stem with the fluid at rest and with stated pressure conditions. Stem Connector: The device that connects the actuator stem to the valve stem. Valve Body: The main pressure boundary of the valve that also provides the pipe connecting ends, the fluid flow passageway, and supports the seating surfaces and the valve closure member. Among the most common valve body constructions are: a) single-ported valve bodies having one port and one valve plug; b) double-ported valve bodies having two ports and one valve plug; c) two-way valve bodies having two flow connections, one inlet and one outlet; d) three-way valve bodies having three flow connections, two of which can be inlets with one outlet (for converging or mixing flows), or one inlet and two outlets (for diverging or diverting flows). The term valve body, or even just body, frequently is used in referring to the valve body together with its bonnet
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assembly and included trim parts. More properly, this group of components should be called the Valve body assembly. Yoke: The structure that rigidly connects the actuator power unit to the valve. Clearance Flow: That flow below the minimum controllable flow with the closure member not seated. Double-Acting Actuator: An actuator in which power is supplied in either direction. Fail-Safe: A characteristic of a valve and its actuator, which upon loss of actuating energy supply, will cause a valve closure member to be fully closed, fully open, or remain in the last position, whichever position is defined as necessary to protect the process. Fail-safe action can involve the use of auxiliary controls connected to the actuator. Flow Characteristic: Relationship between flow through the valve and percent rated travel as the latter is varied from 0 to 100 percent. This term should always be designated as either inherent flow characteristic or installed flow characteristic. Inherent Flow Characteristic: The relationship between the flow rate and the closure member travel as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel with constant pressure drop across the valve. Installed Flow Characteristic: The relationship between the flow rate and the closure member travel as it is moved from the closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across the valve is influenced by the varying process conditions. Vena Contracta: The portion of a flow stream where fluid velocity is at its maximum and fluid static pressure and the cross-sectional area are at their minimum. In a control valve, the vena contracta normally occurs just downstream of the actual physical restriction. Controller: A device that operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable. Feedback Signal: The return signal that results from a measurement of the directly controlled variable. For a control valve with a positioner, the return signal is usually a mechanical indication of closure member stem position that is fed back into the positioner.
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Hunting: An undesirable oscillation of appreciable magnitude, prolonged after external stimuli disappear. Sometimes called cycling or limit cycle, hunting is evidence of operation at or near the stability limit. In control valve applications, hunting would appear as an oscillation in the loading pressure to the actuator caused by instability in the control system or the valve positioner. Repeatability: The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value of the input under the same operating conditions, approaching from the same direction, for full range traverses. It is usually measured as a non-repeatability and expressed as repeatability in percent of span. Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output magnitude to the change of the input that causes it after the steady-state has been reached. Signal: A physical variable, one or more parameters of which carry information about another variable the signal represents. (Broiles Tega, Basic Instrumentation handbook, U.S.A., 2006)

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CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING

4.0

INTRODUCTION

The focus of this chapter will be on the precaution observed, construction details, performance evaluation, testing and results obtained during the course of the construction of this project.

4.1

PRECAUTIONS

During the construction of this project, various precautionary measures were observed to ensure the safety of both the personnel and the components. Some of these precaution are listed below. Ensure proper electrical isolation is done before terminating any point. When drilling, cutting and bending, the work has to be fastened on a vice. Before testing or using any component, its capacity (voltage, current, power) is confirmed. During soldering of component on the board, a good temperature is maintained in order to prevent the damage of any of the temperature sensitive components, ICs and transistors. Finally, the workshop was well ventilated and rid of hazards.

4.2

CONSTRUCTION

Individual functional blocks were constructed separately and then coupled together. This method enhanced the overall efficiency of the project work because it made testing and fault isolation easier and accurate. The circuit was first produced and tested in a circuit maker before transferring the circuit onto a bread board. The components were soldered correctly as shown in the circuit diagram. The
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outputs of the circuit were terminated out using single 0.5mm signal cable. The circuit was screwed on the casing of the project. The electric motor was mounted on a support/base constructed using Perspex glass. It was firmly screwed to the base to prevent any external movement as a result of vibration. More so, the valve assembly was adequately supported to avoid any vibration. It is important to note that vibration is not totally eradicated by firm support but reduced. Ensuring a proper meshing of the gear wheels is a necessary part for effective motion transfer. Firm connections using nuts were made at the drive and driven ends of the gear wheels. By this no wobbling was observed. Supports were also constructed for the reed switches suspended at the top of the valve spindle. A magnet was glued to the surface of the gear wheel attached to the valve spindle. So that when it rotates, the magnet passes each reed switch. A frame was constructed to serve the purpose of a casing and a general support for all the interconnected functional blocks. This was achieved using a Perspex glass.

4.3

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION & TESTING. 42

Numerous test were conducted first on the individual functional blocks and then an overall performance evaluation was deduced. Detailed below are the tests carried out.

Test on the power supply unit Test on the servo motor Test on the reed switch sensors Test on the amplifier circuit Test on the control switches Test on the PIC Test on the PIC for output voltage of 5v Test on transformer Test on the power supply unit By design the power supply unit is to supply the circuit with two levels of voltage, these are; a 5v regulated voltage and 12v unregulated voltage. After construction, the circuit was tested with a 220v AC supply which is stepped down to 12v. A 5v regulated voltage and 12v unregulated voltage was produced respectively at the outputs. Power supply unit was confirmed ok. Test on the servo motor The servo motor is a 12v operated motor. A 12v supply was injected to the terminals of the motor and it was tested for servo action by interchanging the input at the terminal. At the first connection ( + -), the motor ran in the clockwise direction. When input was reversed (- +), the motor rotated in the anti-clockwise direction. Test was successful. Test on the reed switch sensors. The reed switch sensors are magnetic switches i.e they operate under the influence of a magnet . An ohmmeter was connected at the terminal of the reed switch to test for continuity. At start (without a magnet), the switch was not continuous (open). When a
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magnet was moved to the vicinity of the reed switch, it became continuous (close). This verifies that the reed switch responds as appropriately expected. Test on the amplifier circuit The amplifier circuit is meant to amplify the signal coming from the PIC to a working signal to be able to provide enough power to power the motor. A 5v supply was connected at the terminals of the amplifier circuit and the output was also connected to the motor. When connections were established, the electric motor coupled to the valve operated smoothly. Test ok. Test on the control switches Test on control switches was successful, however one failed and was replaced. It was tested for continuity at depressed state. Test on the PIC Test on the PIC was done using a programming software in a computer and it confirms that the PIC was okay with no memory problems. The memory was cleared and a simulation program was used to check the functionality of the PIC. Few adjustment were made to the program and the test on the PIC was ok. The input voltage test was successful as 5v was seen using an Avometre. Test on transformer Test for shorting and expected voltage at the secondary of the transformer was successful. 220v ac was connected to the primary terminal and a 24v ac was read at the secondary side of the transformer using an Avometre.

4.4

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

From above, it is obvious that the test result is okay however among the result obtained only one control switch failed it test, when sort to replace it, was no longer available in the market so an
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improvised one was gotten, tested and installed. After assemble of the entire constructed work, it was tested and was found successful. Below is the table of the test carried out and the result obtained from the various component of the project.
S/N 1 COMPONENT Power supply TEST CARRIED OUT Tested with a 220v AC supply RESULT Produced a regulated 5v and unregulated 12v DC signal

Servo Motor

Reed Switch

Rotated clockwise with Tested with a 12v DC voltage and normal input but antiinput interchanged clockwise with reversed input contact open in the absence Tested for continuity with a magnet of the magnet but closes in the presence of a magnet

Tested with a 5v input and connected The motor rotated Amplifier circuit to the terminal of the motor appropriately Control Switch PIC Tested for continuity Tested for program error and memory status Contact closed when depressed but open when otherwise Program ran successfully and 5v output verified

5 6

Table 1:Test and result table

4.5

COST EVALUATION

The cost of components and construction is tabulated below.

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S/N COMPONENT 1 PIC 16F628 2 Resistors 3 Capacitors 4 IC 7805 5 Transistors 6 Transformer 7 Diodes 8 Flip switch 9 Reed switches 10 Push buttons 11 Oscillator 12 Electric motor 13 Gear wheels 14 Perspex glass 15 Slide valve 16 Screws, nuts and bolts

QTY 1 15 9 1 10 1 3 1 4 5 1 1 4 1 yard 1 TOTAL

PRICE 1500 200 300 200 1000 300 100 20 400 250 100 200 100 700 500 200 6870

Table 2: Cost estimation

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION 46

This chapter states the aim and significance, limitations, conclusion and recommendations of this project work.
5.1 APPLICATION

The project was carried out because of the great importance of a electronically actuated control valve in the petrochemical industry and the need to design an intrinsically safe final control element so as to meet the marketing challenges
5.2 LIMITATIONS

Like every other work project, this project was not without constraints that posed challenges to the optimum actualisation of the design structure. The motor movement was not properly detected by the reed switch due to vibration during operation, there by sending an incorrect position of the PIC. This leads to error. After several operation, Slip is experienced in the motor belt leading to non response of the valve. Gears jamming cause jerking and non response. This is due to inability to reduce vibration.
5.3 CONCLUSION

This project Design and construction of a microprocessor based remote control valve for industrial application is a step towards the enhancement of control processes in industries. It describes a small loop which when implemented on a large scale will improve the control system. This project has not only achieved its aim but has also provided room for advancement if the limitations are corrected and recommendations implemented.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION 47

This project is controlled with the use of switch by the operator in a control room but a fully automated version can be achieved if valve is controlled based on the set point from a controlled variable. More so, it would be a great improvement if a display module is incorporated as a read out for the position of the valve.

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APPENDIX TMR0 EQU 01H PORTA EQU 05H TRISA EQU 85H PORTB EQU 06H TRISB EQU 86H STATUS EQU 03H OPT EQU 81H INTCON EQU 0BH STATE EQU 10H TIMER EQU 11H COUNTER1 EQU 12H COUNTER2 EQU 13H LIST P=16F84 ORG 0 NOP NOP NOP GOTO START INT BCF INTCON,2 DECFSZ COUNTER1,F RETFIE INCF COUNTER2,F BTFSSCOUNTER2,4 RETFIE BSF TIMER,0 RETFIE CLEAR CLRF TMR0 CLRF COUNTER1 CLRF COUNTER2 CLRF TIMER RETURN OFF CALL CLEAR CLRF STATE OFF1 MOVLW 0X40 MOVWF PORTB BTFSC TIMER,0 GOTO OFF2 BTFSSPORTA,1 CALL CLEAR BTFSSPORTA,2 CALL CLEAR BTFSSPORTA,3 CALL CLEAR GOTO OFF1 OFF2
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CLRF PORTB RETURN ONGEN MOVLW 0X20 MOVWF PORTB ONGEN1 BTFSC PORTA,1 GOTO ONGEN1 ONGEN2 BTFSC PORTA,0 GOTO ONGEN2 CLRF PORTB RETURN OFFGEN MOVLW 0X40 MOVWF PORTB OFFGEN1 BTFSC PORTA,3 GOTO OFFGEN1 OFFGEN2 BTFSC PORTA,0 GOTO OFFGEN2 CLRF PORTB RETURN ONE MOVF STATE,W BTFSC STATUS,2 GOTO ONE1 MOVF STATE,W SUBLW 0X02 BTFSC STATUS,2 GOTO ONE3 MOVF STATE,W SUBLW 0X03 BTFSC STATUS,2 GOTO ONE4 MOVF STATE,W SUBLW 0X04 BTFSC STATUS,2 GOTO ONE5 RETURN ONE1 MOVLW 0X01 MOVWF STATE CALL ONGEN GOTO ONGEN ONE3 MOVLW 0X01 MOVWF STATE CALL OFFGEN GOTO OFFGEN
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ONE4 MOVLW 0X01 MOVWF STATE CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN GOTO OFFGEN ONE5 MOVLW 0X01 MOVWF STATE CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN CALL OFFGEN GOTO OFFGEN START BANKSEL TRISB MOVLW 0X1F MOVWF TRISB CLRF OPT BANKSEL PORTA CLRF PORTA CLRF PORTB MOVLW 0XA0 MOVWF INTCON CALL OFF REDO BTFSSPORTB,0 NOP BTFSSPORTB,1 CALL ONE BTFSSPORTB,2 NOP BTFSSPORTB,3 NOP BTFSSPORTB,4 NOP GOTO REDO END

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REFERENCES

(1) (2) (3)

Tony Kuphaldt: Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation, Version 1.12, 2010 Emerson Process Management, Control Valve Handbook, fourth edition, U.S.A., 2005 Newnes Power Engineering Series, Power Electronic Control in Electrical System, Oxford, 2002

(4)

Oladigbolu Abideen, Design and construction of a motorized valve, B.Eng (Electrical) University of Ibadan, Ibadan, 2005.

(5) (6) (7) (8)

Dr. Fred .O., The role of control in process engineering, Asian Oil Journal, 2003. Michigan Science Fare, Design and construction of a PIC controlled crankshaft, 2005. http://www.howstuffworks.com http://www.wikipedia.com

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