Immaculate Conception College

Plaza Mabini, Balayan, Batangas SY 2012 2013

A term paper entitled DIFFRACTION

Is submitted by: _______________________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements In Science IV

Submitted to: ______________________

12 October 2012

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This paper would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of several individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. First and foremost, my utmost gratitude to our Science Teacher, whose sincerity and encouragement I will never forget. He has been my inspiration as I hurdle all the obstacles in the completion this research work. Secondly, my dearest family, whose supportive guidance and confidence me provide sufficient inspiration for me to strive towards the accomplishment of this academic paper. To my beloved institution and second home, Immaculate Conception College, for providing a safe and secure environment conducive to quality learning. My colleagues, classmates and friends for their extensive moral support and encouragement that has driven me to this point. Last but not the least, the one above all of us, the omnipresent God, for answering my prayers for giving me the strength to plod on despite my constitution wanting to give up and throw in the towel, thank you so much Dear Lord.

The Researcher

DEDICATION

This Research Paper is lovingly dedicated to my respective parents who have been my constant source of inspiration. They have given me the drive and discipline to tackle any task with enthusiasm and determination. Without their love and support this project would not have been made possible.

The Researcher

TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page Acknowledgement Dedication Table of Contents Introduction Statement of Problem Significance of the Study Scope and Limitation Definition of Terms Conceptual Framework Review of Related Literature Methodology Design Procedure Conclusions Recommendations Bibliography 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 i ii iii iv 1 2 2 3 4 5 6

INTRODUCTION Clouds may come, but clouds must go, and they all have a silver lining. For behind each cloud you know, the light of the sun, or moon, is shining. - Ambrose Bierce Indeed every cloud has a silver lining, no matter how we perceive the quote above, literally or metaphorically. This silver lining is the result of light bent at the seams of the clouds up in the sky. We classically think of light as always traveling in straight lines, but when light waves pass near a barrier they tend to bend around that barrier and become spread out. This is diffraction. Diffraction of light occurs when a light wave passes by a corner or through an opening or slit that is physically the approximate size of, or even smaller than that light's wavelength. (Alioto, 2003) It is this specific and characteristic nature of light that heightened the interest of the researcher, thereby becoming driven to undertake this study on diffraction. How light reacts and how it is affected when struck upon nontransparent materials creating images of amazing proportions. It is not possible for any living human not to have witnessed this phenomenon of light. In the simplest of things, a shadow is created by the science of diffraction. If observed carefully, the edges of shadows are not solid, but slightly fuzzy. When the wave front of a light ray is partially obstructed, only those wavelets which belong to the exposed parts superpose, in such a way that the resulting wave front has a different shape. This permits bending of light around the edges. Colorful fringe patterns are observed on a screen due to diffraction. (Suplee, 2000) However, it has also come to the proponents attention that this property of light is not much tackled into discussion thus making it an unfamiliar concept to mostly everyone. Henceforth, the researcher of this study has taken the liberty of undertaking this academic endeavor onto understanding the nature, background and modern applications of the diffraction of light.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study aims to understand the phenomenon of diffraction as a natural phenomenon of light. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: 1. What is diffraction of light? 2. How does diffraction occur? 3. How was diffraction discovered? 4. What are the forms of diffraction? 5. How is the concept of diffraction applied? SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This section will provide brief description on the various significances of the study. The study of diffraction of light can be a learning paradigm in the secondary level and vocational schools to enhance the students knowledge and entrepreneurial skills as well. This is but a small contribution that not only basic education be learned by todays students but acquisition of learning skills and knowledge for gainful employment and full participation in countrys society. The papers goal is designed to help students improve academic competence and widen scientific knowledge. To students. The proposed study serves the students as their reference or guide in relevant scientific research. It will also help students taking physics related courses as it may instigate interest for the concerned. To teachers. The proposed study will help teachers to have a deeper understanding to the said topic. By this study they will come up with a more indepth discussion of lessons related to diffraction.

To future researcher. The proposed study will benefits and help the future researcher as their guide. The study can also open in development of this study.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION The study will determine the phenomenon of diffraction as a natural property of light. This study will also gather pertinent data on the definition, mechanism and the historical background of this concept. The forms and applications of diffraction will be studied and analyzed. However, every study has its own limitation. Since the concept of diffraction encompasses all energy forms expressed in wavelengths, this study is only focused on diffraction with regards to light. DEFINITION OF TERMS Airy's disk The diffraction pattern produced by a circular aperture such as a lens or a mirror. Bragg's law An equation that describes the diffraction of light from plane parallel surfaces. Diffraction limited The ultimate performance of an optical element such as a lens or mirror that depends only on the element's finite size. Diffraction pattern The wave pattern observed after a wave has passed through a diffracting aperture. Diffractometer A device used to produce diffraction patterns of materials. Fresnel diffraction

Diffraction that occurs when the source and the observer are far from the diffraction aperture. Interference pattern Alternating bands of light and dark that result from the mixing of two waves. Wavelength The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs in a wave. X-ray diffraction A method using the scattering of x rays by matter to study the structure of crystals. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The basis for conceptualizing this paper is to provide a birds eye view on the concept of diffraction as a natural phenomenon of light for secondary level students to acquire skills and knowledge aside from the basics. Prior to the data collection and analysis, the focus was on discussing the concepts mechanism and background and how it is applied technologically. Mechanism and Background of the Concept of the Diffraction

Application of the Concept of Diffraction

Technological Benefits to the Society

Different Forms of Diffraction The conceptual paradigm above illustrates the relationship of the various concepts. Each box represents a subconcept of diffraction. Lines that connect these boxes indicate joining of ideas represented. The first upper box represents the mechanism by which diffraction of light occurs and how it was discovered as depicted in its historical background.

The lower box depicts the different forms of diffraction as a vital concept in the in-depth understanding of diffraction as a process. The second box in the middle pane shows the application of diffraction. Whereas, the third and last box represents how this application would lead to technological outcomes from which the society at large will benefit. The arrows indicate relationship between concepts shown. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Definition of Diffraction Diffraction is defined as the apparent spreading of waves when they meet an obstruction. It can occur with any type of wave, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. Diffraction also occurs when any group of waves of a finite size is propagating; for example, a narrow beam of light waves from a laser must, because of diffraction of the beam, eventually diverge into a wider beam at a sufficient distance from the laser. It is the diffraction of "particles," such as electrons, which stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. (Gjertsen, 2006) Hall (2001), on the other hand, defined diffraction as the bending of light waves around an object. The amount of light diffracted or which changes direction is dependent on an object's size. This also applies to light waves that pass through an opening, such as the aperture of a camera or through the pupil of an eye. As light waves pass around the edge of an object or through an opening, light is diffracted or broken into the colors of the rainbow. However, physicists are somewhat divided on the usage of the terms, diffraction and scattering. Nevertheless, this was noted by Buchwald (2004) when he cited that the terms diffraction and scattering are often used interchangeably and are considered to be almost synonymous. Diffraction describes a specialized case of light scattering in which an object with regularly repeating features produces an orderly diffraction of light in a diffraction pattern. In the real world most objects are very complex in shape and should be considered to be composed of many individual diffraction features that can collectively produce a random scattering of light. Mechanism of Diffraction Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are

closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye.

In the atmosphere, diffracted light is actually bent around atmospheric particles -- most commonly, the atmospheric particles are tiny water droplets found in clouds. Diffracted light can produce fringes of light, dark or colored bands. An optical effect that results from the diffraction of light is the silver lining sometimes found around the edges of clouds or coronas surrounding the sun or moon. The illustration above shows how light (from either the sun or the moon) is bent around small droplets in the cloud. Optical effects resulting from diffraction are produced through the interference of light waves. To visualize this, imagine light waves as water waves. If water waves were incident upon a float residing on the water surface, the float would bounce up and down in response to the incident waves, producing waves of its own. As these waves spread outward in all directions from the float, they interact with other water waves. If the crests of two waves combine, an amplified wave is produced (constructive interference). However, if a crest of one wave and a trough of another wave combine, they cancel each other out to produce no vertical displacement (destructive interference).

This concept also applies to light waves. When sunlight (or moonlight) encounters a cloud droplet, light waves are altered and interact with one another in a similar manner as the water waves described above. If there is constructive interference, (the crests of two light waves combining), the light will appear brighter. If there is destructive interference, (the trough of one light wave meeting

the crest of another), the light will either appear darker or disappear entirely. (Retrieved from: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gl)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/diff.rxml) Historical Background of the Concept of Diffraction Diffraction was first observed by Francesco Grimaldi in 1665. He noticed that light waves spread out when made to pass through a slit. Later it was observed that diffraction not only occurs in small slits or holes but in every case where light waves bend round a corner. (Heilbron, 2002) One of the most common examples of diffraction in nature is the tiny specks or hair-like transparent structures, known as "floaters" that we can see when we look up at the sky. This illusion is produced within the eye-ball, when light passes through tiny bits in the vitreous humour. They are more prominently observed when one half-closes his eyes and peeps through them. The phenomenon of diffraction can be readily explained using Huygens' principle: When the wave front of a light ray is partially obstructed, only those wavelets which belong to the exposed parts superpose, in such a way that the resulting wave front has a different shape. This permits bending of light around the edges. Colorful fringe patterns are observed on a screen due to diffraction. In the early 1800s, most of the people who wrote and submitted papers on diffraction of light were believers of the wave-theory of light. However, their views contradicted those of Newton's supporters' and their would be regular discussions between these two sides. One such person, who believed in the wave theory was Augustin Fresnel, who in 1819, handed a paper to the French Academy of Sciences, about the phenomenon of diffraction. However, the Academy mainly consisting of Newton's supporters, tried to challenge Fresnel's point of view by saying that if light was indeed a wave, these waves, which were diffracted from the edges of a sphere, would cause a bright area to occur within the shadow of the sphere. This was indeed observed later, and the area is today known as the Fresnel Bright Spot. (Retrieved from: http://library.thinkquest.org/C006027/html-ver/op-diffract.html ) Forms of Diffraction Diffraction by a Single Slit Let us assume a slit of width d at which a parallel beam of light consisting of light rays of wavelength , is incident (refer to diagram). According to Huygens' principle each particle that is reached by the wavefronts of these waves becomes a source of secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets are made to pass through a convex lens, at whose focal point, there is a screen. The point P0 on the screen is the intersection of the bisector of the plane of the slit and the plane

of the screen, and receives waves which travel the same distance, and hence are in phase. Therefore, a constructive interference occurs at P0, and a bright spot is observed. Another point P on the screen, receives all the waves which are diffracted by an angle . (Poincar, 2002) A perpendicular from point A, the tip of the slit is dropped onto the waves which reach P to represents the wave fronts of these waves. Hence, by simple trigonometry, the optical path difference between a wave emitted by A and one emitted by the centre of the slit is (d/2) sin A particular angle is considered, for which (d/2) sin = /2 These two waves have a phase difference, which is given by = (2/)(/2) = Hence they will cancel each other out, thus producing a dark fringe. Therefore, dsin = is the condition for the first dark fringe. It can then be concluded that dark fringes are observed when dsin = n, where n is an integer. Similarly, bright fringes will be observed for the cases when dsin = (n + 1/2), where n is an integer. Intensity of brightness on the screen The amplitude EP of the electric field at P, when calculated is found to be equal to E0((sin ) / ) where, = ( / ) dsin and E0 is the amplitude at the point P0, which corresponds to =0. Since the intensity is directly proportional to the square of amplitude, I =I0 ((sin2 ) / 2) Hence a graph showing the variation of intensity as a function of sin can be plotted. (Rigden, 2006) Diffraction by Circular Aperture When a parallel beam of light is incident on an opaque surface with a pinhole (refer to diagram), the light is diffracted by the hole. When a screen is placed at a considerable distance from the surface, alternate light and dark rings of decreasing intensity are observed. As the wavefronts of the incident light rays reach the points of the hole, they emit secondary wavelets in all directions, according to Huygens' principle, which interfere to produce the light and dark rings. It can be calculated that the first dark ring is formed by the light diffracted from the hole at an angle , such that sin (1.22)/s

where is the wavlength of the incident light and s is the diameter of the pinhole, such that s << d, d being the perpendicular distance from the screen to the hole. Also, the radius of the first dark ring is given by R (1.228d)/s. If however, the diffracted light is converged with a convex lens onto a screen placed at its focal length, f, radius of the first dark ring will be R = (1.22f)/s This radius is known as the "radius of the diffraction disc". It can also be proved from the above results that it is not possible to converge the light emitted by a point source to a point on the screen with the help of a convex lens. The bright disc formed on the screen is known as the image disc. (Schneer, 2004) Diffraction due to a Straight Edge Let S be a point source of light emitting spherical wavefronts which are intercepted by an opaque object with a sharp edge A (refer to diagram). The light is then collected on a screen which is placed behind the opaque object. According to Huygens' principle, the edge on being reached by the incident light, becomes a source of secondary wavelets, which interfere with the light waves to produce a variation pattern on the screen. A point P 0 is marked, which is the intersection of the line passing through S and A, and the screen. A graph can then be plotted, showing the variation of intensity as a function of distance from the point P0. It can also be conculded from the graph that the difference between the maximum and minimum intensity areas goes on decreasing as the distance from P0 increases, till we finally get uniform illumination on the screen. One of the most useful instruments used in the study of light are the diffraction gratings. A diffraction grating has a number of close slits, known as rulings, whose thickness is of the order of wavelength of light. Light which passes through them forms narrow interference fringes. Even an opaque surface with narrow parallel grooves can be used as a diffraction grating, but light in this case, is scattered back from the grooves. As the number of slits in a diffraction grating is increased, the pattern obtained on the screen becomes more and more complicated as compared. The bright fringes narrow down and the fringe width of dark areas increases. Diffraction gratings are widely used in measuring the wavelength of light (by measuring the width of the interference fringes caused due to diffraction from the narrow slits of the diffractions grating), emitted by sources like lamps or stars. Special diffraction spectroscopes make use of diffraction gratings for this purpose.

The dispersion of a diffraction grating is expressed as D = / = m/(d cos) where is the angular separation of two lines, whose wavelengths differ by in the first expression. To achieve a high dispersion, we have to work on a small grating spacing, d, but large values of m. The resolving power of a grating can be expressed as: R = av/ = Nm where av is the mean spectrum of two close spectral lines and is the wavelength difference between them in the first expression. To achieve a high resolving power, we muct have a high number of rulings, N. (Suplee, 2000) Applications of the Concept of Diffraction Diffraction gratings The diffraction of light has been cleverly taken advantage of to produce one of science's most important toolsthe diffraction grating. Instead of just one aperture, a large number of thin slits or groovesas many as 25,000 per inch are etched into a material. In making these sensitive devices it is important that the grooves areparallel, equally spaced, and have equal widths. The diffraction grating transforms an incident beam of light into a spectrum. This happens because each groove of the grating diffracts the beam, but because all the grooves are parallel, equally spaced and have the same width, the diffracted waves mix or interfere constructively so that the different components can be viewed separately. Spectra produced by diffraction gratings are extremely useful in applications from studying the structure of atoms and molecules to investigating the composition of stars. (Toulmin and Goodfield, 2005) X-ray diffraction X rays are light waves that have very short wavelengths. When they irradiate a solid, crystal material they are diffracted by the atoms in the crystal. But since it is a characteristic of crystals to be made up of equally spaced atoms, it is possible to use the diffraction patterns that are produced to determine the locations and distances between atoms. Simple crystals made up of equally spaced planes of atoms diffract x rays according to Bragg's Law. Current research using x-ray diffraction utilizes an instrument called a diffractometer to produce diffraction patterns that can be compared with those of known crystals to determine the structure of new materials. (Retrieved from: http://science.jrank.org/pages/2063/Diffraction.html) Holography

When two laser beams mix at an angle on the surface of a photographic plate or other recording material, they produce an interference pattern of alternating dark and bright lines. Because the lines are perfectly parallel, equally spaced, and of equal width, this process is used to manufacture holographic diffraction gratings of high quality. In fact, any hologram (holoswhole: gram message) can be thought of as a complicated diffraction grating. The recording of a hologram involves the mixing of a laser beam and the unfocused diffraction pattern of some object. In order to reconstruct an image of the object (holography is also known as wavefront reconstruction) an illuminating beam is diffracted by plane surfaces within the hologram, following Bragg's Law, such that an observer can view the image with all of its three-dimensional detail. (Kitcher, 2009) METHODOLOGY Design of the Study This study utilized the descriptive research design in order to understand the concept of diffraction as a natural phenomenon of light. Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way. (Retrieved from: http://www.experiment-resources.com/descriptive-research) The use of this design facilitated in the in-depth understanding of diffraction in terms of historical background, mechanism, forms and applications. Procedure The researcher conducted preliminary data gathering on diffraction through the use of literature sources, including published works and electronic references. Consultation was made with mentors and colleagues on the validity and feasibility of the problem statement. Formative data collection and collation were done to sort out pertinent and impertinent information on the topic at hand. After much analysis and referencing, proper documentation was carried out. CONCLUSIONS Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. Diffraction is defined as the apparent spreading of waves when they meet an obstruction. It can occur with any type of wave, such as light. Diffraction also occurs when any group of waves of a finite size is propagating. It is also defined as the bending of light waves around an object. 2. The mechanism of diffraction is observed when there is a slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of bending

depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye. 3. Scientific history has it that diffraction was discovered by Francesco Grimaldi in 1665. He noticed that light waves spread out when made to pass through a slit. Later it was observed that diffraction not only occurs in small slits or holes but in every case where light waves bend round a corner. 4. There are more commonly noted forms of diffraction and these include diffraction by a single slit, intensity on screen, diffraction via circular aperture (as observed in photography) and diffraction due to a straight edge. 5. There are latest developments in X-ray diffraction, holography and the use of diffraction gratings which provide much benefit to the society at large in terms of technological outputs. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the outcomes of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. The researcher suggests that findings of this academic paper be further disseminated accordingly to enhance awareness and level of knowledge on this particular concept. 2. Physicists and prospects in this area of learning are highly encouraged to make further use of the concept as an application in vital aspects of benefiting the community such as in healthcare (as in diagnostics) and cinematography. 3. The concept of diffraction had been little known by most of the academic community. This study can be used as a supplementary learning material or teaching reference, or possibly, a basis for experimental studies. 4. This can serve as a supportive foundation on further studies to be undertaken by future researchers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Published Works Alioto, Anthony M., A History of Western Science, second edition, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2003. Bierce, Ambrose N., Science and the Modern World, New York: Free Press, 1997. Suplee, Curt, Physics in the 20th Century, New York: Abrams, 2000. Gjertsen, D., The Newton Handbook, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 2006 Buchwald, Jed Z. (editor), Scientific Practice: Theories and Stories of Doing Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Hall, A. Rupert, From Galileo to Newton, 1630-1720, New York: Dover, 2001. Heilbron, J. L., Elements of Early Modern Physics, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. Poincar, Henri, Science and Method, translated by F. Maitland, New York: Dover, 2002. Rigden, John S. (editor), Macmillan Encyclopedia of Physics, four volumes, New York: Macmillan Reference USA/Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 2006. Schneer, Cecil J., The Evolution of Physical Science, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2004. Kitcher, Philip. The Advancement of Science: Science without Legend, Objectivity without Illusions, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Toulmin, Stephen, and Goodfield, June, The Fabric of the Heavens, New York: Harper, 2005. Electronic References http://library.thinkquest.org/C006027/html-ver/op-diffract.html http://www.experiment-resources.com/descriptive-research

http://science.jrank.org/pages/2063/Diffraction.html http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gl)/guides/mtr/opt/mch/diff.rxml