b. Prove that if L > 1 then sn is unbounded. an 2.2.8 Prove that lim = 0 for all a R. n! 2.2.

.9 Prove this generalization of the Squeeze Theorem 2.2.18: Suppose that an , bn , and cn are sequences so that bn is between an and cn for all n and so that lim an = lim cn = L. Then bn also converges to L.

2.3

Accumulation Points

Denition 2.3.1. A number a R is an accumulation point of A R if every open interval containing a contains a point in A other than a. Example 2.3.2. Perhaps the simplest examples of accumulation points are endpoints of intervals. The numbers a and b are accumulation points of the intervals [a, b], (a, b), (a, b], and [a, b). Every number x with a < x < b is also an accumulation point of these intervals. See Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Any open interval around b must include points in the interval (a, b).

Example 2.3.3. Suppose that A is a bounded set, that u = sup A, and that u A. Then u is an accumulation point of A. To see this, suppose that (a, b) is any open interval containing u, Then a < u, so a is not an upper bound of A. This means that there is an element x A so that a < x. Since u = sup A, x u. Since u A, x < u. Then x is an element of A distinct from u which is in the interval (a, b). Example 2.3.4. If A is a bounded set and sup A A, then sup A might not be an accumulation point of A. For example, if A = {1, 2}, then sup A = 2, 3 5 , but 2 is not an accumulation point of A because the open interval 2 2 contains 2 but does not contain any other element of A. 39

Example 2.3.5. If A = {1/n : n N}, then 0 is an accumulation point of A. Suppose that (a, b) is any open interval containing 0. Then there is an n N so that 0 < 1/n < b. Thus, 1/n is an element of A other than 0 which is in (a, b). Example 2.3.6. It is not always the case that if a sequence an converges to L and if A = {an : n N} then L is an accumulation point of A. For example, if an is given by an = 1 then in this case A has no accumulation points. Theorem 2.3.7. The number z R is an accumulation point of A R if and only if every open interval containing z contains innitely many points of A. Proof. If every open interval around z contains innitely many points of A, then every open interval around z contains a point of A other than z and z is an accumulation point of A. Suppose now that z is an accumulation point of A, and let (a, b) be an open interval around z . We will recursively construct a sequence {xn } of distinct elements of A in (a, b) {z }. First, since z is an accumulation point of A, there is a point x1 of A which is in (a, b) {z }. Suppose that distinct points x1 , . . . , xk in A have been chosen in (a, b) {z }. Let = min(|z x1 |, . . . , |z xk |). The open interval (z , z + ) must contain an element xk+1 of A dierent from z . Since xk+1 is within of z , then xk+1 is also dierent from x1 , . . . , xk . (The point xk+1 is too close to z to be one of these. See Figure 2.10.) Thus, we have a sequence xn of distinct elements of A which are all in (a, b) {z }. This sequence gives innitely many elements of A in (a, b). Hence, every open interval containing z contains innitely many points in A. Example 2.3.8. A quick consequence of Theorem 2.3.7 is that no nite set can have a limit point. We can rene the proof technique of Theorem 2.3.7 to construct not only innitely many points in A but actually a sequence in A converging to the accumulation point z . Theorem 2.3.9. A number z R is an accumulation point of the set A R if and only if there is a sequence an in A {z } converging to z .

40

Figure 2.10: If is chosen to be the minimum of the distances |z x1 |, |z x2 |, and |z x3 |, then none of x1 , x2 , or x3 is in the interval (z , z + ).

Proof. Suppose rst that z is an accumulation point of A. For each n N there is a element of A dierent from z in the open interval (z 1/n, z + 1/n). Call this element an . This gives a sequence an in A {z } so that z 1/n < an < z + 1/n for all n. Since z 1/n and z + 1/n both converge to z , the sequence an converges to z by the Squeeze Theorem. Suppose now that there is a sequence an in A {z } converging to z . We will prove that z is an accumulation point of A. Suppose that (a, b) is any open interval containing z . There is some > 0 so that (z , z + ) (a, b). Since an converges to z , there is an N R so that if n N and n > N then |an z | < . If n > N , then an (z , z + ) (a, b). Since an A {z }, then we see that (a, b) contains an element of A other than z . Since every open interval containing z contains an element of A other than z , z is an accumulation point of A. Since every open interval contains innitely many rational numbers and innitely many irrational numbers, this theorem is not hard to prove: Theorem 2.3.10. Every rational number is an accumulation point of R, of Q, and R Q. Every irrational number is an accumulation point of R, of Q, and R Q. Now, Theorem 2.3.9 immediately gives: Theorem 2.3.11. If r is any rational number, then there is a sequence of irrational numbers which converges to r. If x is any rational number, then there is a sequence of irrational numbers which converges to x. 41

Exercises
2.3.1 Give an example of a set with exactly two accumulation points. 2.3.2 Give an example of a set with countable many accumulation points. 2.3.3 Give an example of a countable set with uncountably many accumulation points. 2.3.4 Give an example of a set that contains all of its accumulation points. 2.3.5 Give an example of a set that contains none of its accumulation points. 2.3.6 If x = y , prove that there are open intervals P and Q with x P , y Q, but P Q = . A hint for how to proceed is in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Suppose that x < y . There are open intervals containing x and y. 2.3.7 Suppose that I is an open interval and that x I . Prove that there is a > 0 so that (x , x + ) I . A hint for how to proceed is in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: If x is in the open interval I , then there is an open interval around x which is contained entirely in I . 2.3.8 Let S R be a bounded non-empty set and let x = sup S . Prove that either x S or x is an accumulation point of S . Hint: To prove a statement of the form P Q, prove P Q. 42

2.3.9 Suppose that an converges to L and that {an : n N} is innite. Prove that L is an accumulation point of {an : n N}. A hint for how to proceed is in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13: If a < L < b, then there is an > 0 so that a < L < L + < b. If xn L, then xn is eventually in the interval (L , L + ). If xn is innite, then this interval must contain an xn which is distinct from L. 2.3.10 Give an example of a sequence an that converges to a number L so that L is not an accumulation point of {an : n N}.

2.4

Monotonic Sequences

In this section we introduce monotonic sequences. These are sequences which are always going up or going down as in Figure 2.14. Monotonic se-

Figure 2.14: The sequence on the left is increasing. The sequence on the right is decreasing.

43