CHAPTER 4

INTRODUCTION TO WEAR & WEAR MECHANISMS

4.1 Introduction Wear is the surface damage or the removal of the material from the surface of a solid body as a result of mechanical action of the counter body. /sliding, rolling or impact motion/. Wear may combine effects of various physical and chemical processes proceeding during the friction between two counteracting materials:
micro-cutting micro-ploughing plastic deformation cracking fracture welding and melting

 Wear is not a material property, it is a system response. Operating conditions affect interface wear. It is some times assumed that high-friction interfaces exhibits high wear rate. This is necessarily not true.
interfaces with solid lubricants and polymers exhibit relatively low friction and relatively high wear whereas ceramics exhibit moderate friction but extremely low wear.

Wear can be either good or bad.

productive wear / writing with pencil, machining, polishing, and shaving / required controlled wear. Wear is undesirable in almost all machine applications such as /bearings, seals, gears and cams/.
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 There are five different types of wear (wear mechanisms): adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, corrosive and erosive wear. In many cases, the combinations of the adhesive, corrosive and abrasive forms of wear occur:
two-thirds of all wear encountered in industrial situations occurs because of adhesive-and abrasive wear mechanisms.

Wear by all mechanisms except by fatigue mechanism, occurs by gradual removal of material. Objective: to understand the wear mechanisms and control methods.
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4.2 Wear mechanisms Wear occurs by mechanical action and is generally accelerated by frictional heating (or thermal means). Wear includes five principal, quite distinct phenomena that have only one thing in common: the removal of solid material from rubbing surfaces. Types of wear are:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Adhesive wear Abrasive wear Fatigue wear Corrosive wear Erosive wear
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4.2.1 Adhesive wear Adhesive wear occurs when two normally flat bodies are in sliding contact . The load applied is so high that adhesion (or bonding) and deformation occurs at the asperity contacts at the interface, and these contacts are sheared by sliding. The motion of the rubbing counter bodies result in rupture of the micro-joints. Thus some of the material is transferred by its counter body.

 Strong adhesion between the asperities of wearing surfaces has two effects: a) a large component of frictional force is generated and the asperities may be removed from the surface to form wear particles. b) transfer layers. Numerous tests on a wide variety of metal combinations have shown that when there is strong adhesion, transfer of the weaker metal to the stronger occurs fig-chp4\chp4-fig1.pptx fig-chp4\chp4-fig2.pptx shows the typical appearance of scuffed gear teeth. Other examples of transfer layers fig-chp4\chp4-fig3.pptx and figchp4\chp4-fig4.pptx
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 The mechanism of shearing and cracking to form a transfer particle in the adhesive contact between asperities is illustrated schematically in figchp4\chp4-fig5.pptx. In the contacts between asperities which do not produce wear particles there may still be extensive plastic deformation as illustrated in fig-chp4\chp4fig6.pptx.

Means of Control of Adhesive Wear If adhesive wear is allowed to proceed, uncontrolled various undesirable consequences can follow. It is a relatively simple matter to reduce even eliminate adhesion between solids.
contaminant layers of surface oxides and material impurities the application of specially formulated lubricants and careful selection of sliding materials.

The factors decreasing adhesive wear:

Lower load Harder rubbing materials Anti-wear additives in oil.
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4.2.2 Abrasive wear Wear by abrasion is form of wear caused by contact between a particle (grit) and solid material (the loss of material by the passage of hard particles over a surface.) fig-chp4\chp4-fig7.pptx shows mechanisms of abrasive wear. Modes of Abrasive Wear The way the grit pass over the worn surface determines the nature of abrasive wear. There are two basic modes of abrasive wear: twobody and three-body abrasive wear. fig-chp4\chp4fig8.pptx and fig-chp4\chp4-fig9.pptx.
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a) Two- body abrasive wear:

If there are only two rubbing parts involved in the friction process. In this case the wear of the softer material is caused by the asperities on the harder surface. Example: the action of sand paper on a surface (Hard asperities or rigidly held grits passes over the surface like a cutting tool).

b) Three body abrasive wear:

If the wear is caused by a hard particle (grit) trapped between the rubbing surfaces The particle may be either free or partially embedded into one of the mating materials (the grits are free to roll as well as slide over the surface, since they are not held rigidly).
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Means of Control of Abrasive Wear The basis of abrasive wear resistance of materials is hardness and it is generally recognized that hard materials allow slower abrasive wear rates than softer materials. Since abrasive wear is the most rapid form of wear and causes the largest costs to industry (small amounts of abrasive can severely affect its overall performance, e.g. in hydraulic systems), several methods have been developed to minimize the losses incurred. The basic method of abrasive wear control is :
to raise the hardness of the worn surface. apply hard surface coatings.
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4.2.3 Fatigue wear

Fatigue wear of a material is caused by a repeated (cycling) application of loads that produce stresses in and under the contacting surfaces. Fatigue occurs if the applied load is higher than the fatigue strength of the material. Mechanisms of Fatigue Wear a) Strains caused by shearing in sliding are present some depth below the surface reaching the extreme values at the surface. The strain levels in the deformed surface layer are illustrated schematically in fig-chp4\chp4-fig10.pptx and fig-chp4\chp4-fig11.pptx.
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b) Surface and subsurface modes of crack mechanisms. The Mechanism of surface crack initiated fatigue wear is illustrated schematically in fig-chp4\chp4fig12.pptx. Fatigue wear formation:
Fatigue cracks start at the material surface and spread to the subsurface regions. The cracks may connect to each other resulting in separation of the material pieces.

Examples :
o surface and subsurface initiated spalls are shown in figchp4\chp4-fig14.pptx . o surface failure due to high surface temperature and heavy load is shown fig-chp4\chp4-fig15.pptx.
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Means of Control of Fatigue Wear The tendency for surfaces to fail in fatigue can be reduced by :
Application of high strength materials (hardness increases resistance to surface fatigue) Decreasing load and decreasing sliding Better lubrication Better surface condition

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Assignment: 1. What is the difference between pitting and spalling. 2. What is the difference between scuffing and scoring.

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4.2.4 Corrosive wear The fundamental cause of these forms of wear is a chemical reaction between the worn material and a corroding medium. If a material (metal) is corrode to produce a film on its surface while it is simultaneously subjected to a sliding contact then one of the three following processes may occur:

A durable lubricating film which inhibits both corrosion and wear may be formed a weak film which has a short life-time under sliding contact may be produced and a high rate of wear may occur. the protective films may be worn (e.g. by pitting) and may result in rapid corrosion of the worn area on the surface.
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 Models of corrosive wear are illustrated schematically in fig-chp4\chp4-fig16.pptx

The first process is dominated by the formation of durable lubricating films. If such films prevail then the worn contacts are well lubricated and corrosive wear does not occur. Unfortunately, very few corrosion product films are durable so that this category of film formation is rarely seen in practice. The second process is related to the formation of short lifetime corrosion product films consist of brittle oxides or other ionic compounds. For example, the oxides of iron are extremely brittle at all but very high temperatures. The third process relates to wear in highly corrosive media. while the fourth process is effectively limited to extremely corrosive media where the corrosion products are very weak and are probably soluble in the liquid media.
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Examples of corrosive wear Corrosive wear can be found in situations when overly reactive E.P additives are used in oil or when methanol, used as a fuel in engines, is contaminated with water and the engine experiences as rapid wear. Corrosive wear, is that of cast iron in the presence of sulphuric acid. Abrasion can accelerate corrosion by the repeated removal of passivating films and a very rapid form of material loss may result (particularly significant in the mineral processing industries) . The generally accepted model of corrosive-abrasive wear is shown in fig-chp4\chp4-fig17.pptx.
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Means of Controlling Corrosive Wear

The addition of corrosion inhibitors to the lubricating oil or process fluid can be an effective means of controlling corrosive wear. The corrosion inhibitor may, however, displace adsorbed layers of lubricants and promote adhesive wear. The severity of corrosion and wear determines the selection of an optimum corrosion inhibitor:
When corrosion is severe but wear is mild, then a corrosion inhibitor which forms a passivating film is the most suitable. When loads or wear are severe but corrosion is relatively mild, then an inhibitor which functions by adsoption to produce a lubricating layer is the most suitable. In this case, even a weak corrosion inhibitor may be effective. When both corrosion and wear are severe, an effective corrosion inhibitor which adsorbs strongly to the worn surface is essential. 21

4.2.5 Erosive wear Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles of solid or liquid against the surface of an object. Typical examples of erosive wear are:
damage to gas turbine blades when an aircraft flies through dust clouds, and the wear of pump impellers in mineral slurry processing systems.

Mechanisms of Erosive Wear The known mechanisms of erosive wear are illustrated in fig-chp4\chp4-fig18.pptx
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 Erosive wear involves several wear mechanisms which are largely controlled by the particle material, the angle of impingement, the impact velocity, and the particle size:
If the particle is hard and solid then it is possible that a process similar to abrasive wear will occur. Impingement angle can range from 0-90o as shown in figchp4\chp4-fig19.pptx . The effect of impingement angle is illustrated on fig-chp4\chp4-fig20.pptx. The speed of the erosive particle has a very strong effect on the wear process. If the speed is very low then stresses at impact are insufficient for plastic deformation to occur and wear proceeds by surface fatigue.
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Typical example of erosive wear is shown in figchp4\chp4-fig21.pptx. And Erosive wear results in:
Dimensional changes Leakage Lower efficiency Generated particles contribute more wear

Means of Controlling Erosive Wear Material characteristics exert a strong effect on erosive wear. High wear resistance can be achieved:
increase hardness of the material proper alloy content

Two contrasting erosive wear protection mechanisms are illustrated in fig-chp4\chp4-fig22.pptx

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4.3 Wear Analysis Process

Wear is a system characteristic or phenomenon; it is not a material property. It is necessary to examine and characterize a number of different parameters, not simply the worn part. A tribosystem consists of various parameters that influence the wear process. The basic elements of a tribosystem are:
Contacting materials, Geometrical parameters Relative motion Loading Type of lubrication and Environment
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 Wear analysis process includes :

Examination Characterization Modeling and Evaluation Testing

The study of wear is common in many disciplines:

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 Wear analysis process is used by engineers in industry to solve wear problems on the existing equipments or new designs. a) Existing equipments:
Improve wear life Develop prototype to investigate wear life

b) New design
Design new equipments Evaluation of the effect of design change Evaluation of the effect of new or extended application

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Wear analysis process: requires blend of theoretical and experimental techniques Focuses on all aspects of the problem not just materials: e.g. contact geometry, lubrication, motion , etc. Activities in wear analysis process are shown as follows (Fig.)

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Fig. Wear analysis process

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1. Wear examination: data gathering phase Involves consideration of the whole tribosystem not just the worn component (reason for the wear problem may be related to a different part of the machine) a) Component information Geometry Dimensions Material
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b) Contact condition Orientation Location Loading Motion c) Lubrication information Type of lubrication Lubricant Condition d) Environmental information Temperature Humidity Contamination

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e) Wear information (e.g. 2 roller contact test result) Amount of wear Usage Appearnance Location The examination of the tribosystem should include also the inspection and measurement of the wear scars.

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2. Wear characterization Provides the basis for selecting appropriate models for wear behavior for model selection Aids in the application of the models to the wear situation Basically it involves synthesising data gathered into a useful description of the wear situation. Should contain the following elements: description of motion, contact geometry, nature of the loading, description of the materials, type of lubricant.

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 The wear situation is described in terms of the contact velocity, contact area contact pressure and entry angle. The purpose of the examination and characterization is to be able to define the tribosystem at the point of contact or wear site. For some engineering situations, a very crude description might be sufficient, such as describing the tribosystem as being a lightly loaded, lubricated contact at low sliding speed in an ambient room environment.
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 The shape, morphology, and locaiton of the wear scars provide important information generally needed to characterize the tribosystem and the wear process. Quantifying the amount of wear, particularly in terms of depth, generally is useful as well. The magnitude of the wear can support the characterization of the wear behavior and aid in the identification of a solution when used in conjunction with various models and analytical relationships. Methods to examine wear scar such as visual, lowpower optical, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In many situations, magnification between 30 and a few hundred are most useful.
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 Other methods to characterize materials, measure dimensions and surface roughness's can also be applied, In general, the amount of wear or root cause that results in the failure should be identified. (A criterion for acceptable wear also should be identified). Both pieces of information generally are important in developing an economical and practical solution.

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3. Modeling and Evaluation This stage is the core of the wear analysis Involves selecting an appropriate analytical relationship to describe wear and select design parameters There are four steps in this stage
Determine relationships Develop mathematical model relating wear life to design parameters Verify the model to check accuracy Optimize parameters and establish design changes required
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4. Testing It is not an intrinsic part of the process, but may be significant

if material data is not available to evaluate materials as part of the verification process to define wear coefficients for analytical models

Testing must conform to available standards and a key elements to ensure that the wear is the same in the test as it is in the actual applications.

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Fig. 4-1 Process of metal transfer due to adhesion

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Fig. 4-2 Adhesion between gear teeth resulting in scuffing

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Fig. 4-3 Example of metallic film transfer ; a) brass film transfer on alumina, b)Al-Si alloy transfer film onto a piston 42 ring.

Fig. 4-4 Al-Si alloy surface worn by adhesive.

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Fig. 4-5 Schematic diagram of the formation of an adhesive transfer particle

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Fig. 4-6 Alternative model of deformation in adhesive asperity contact.

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Fig. 4-7 Mechanisms of abrasive wear

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Hard material

Soft material

Fig. 4-8 Two-body abrasive wear

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Hard material

Soft material

Fig. 4-9 Three-body abrasive wear

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Fig. 4-10 Strain levels in a deformed surface

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Fig. 4-11 Accumulation of material on the surface due to the passage of blunt wedge and resulting plastic deformation. 50

Fig. 4-12A Schematic illustration of the process of surface 51 crack initiation and propagation

Fig. 4-12B Fatigue wear

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Fig. 4-13 Schematic illustration of the surface and subsurface modes of contact fatigue.

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(a) Surface initiated spall

(b) Subsurface initiated spall

Fig. 4-14 Surface and subsurface initiated spalls.

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Case-Carburized Steel F n = 19.2 kN ( H 2.12 GPa ) , Ts = 470 K N 2 = 0.510

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Large-pit

1.0 mm

Fig. 4-15 Appearance of surface due to high surface temperature and 55 heavy load.

Fig. 4-16 Models of interaction between a corrosive agent 56 and a worn surface

Fig. 4-17 Cyclic removal of corrosion product films by 57 abrasion

Fig. 4-18

Possible mechanisms of erosion; a) abrasion at low impact angle, b) surface fatigue during low speed, high impingement angle impact, c) multiple plastic deformation or brittle fracture during medium speed, large impingement 58 angle impact (Contd)

Contd

Fig. 4-18 (Contd)

d) surface melting at high impact speeds, e) macroscopic erosion with secondary effects
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Fig. 4-19 Impingement angle of a particle causing erosion of surface.

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Fig. 4-20 Schematic representation of the effect of impingement angle on wear rates of ductile and brittle materials.

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Fig. 4-21 Typical erosive wear on bearing surface

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Fig. 4-22 Comparison of the high and low elastic modulus modes of erosive wear protection. 63