Who endorses whom?

Meanings transfer in celebrity endorsement

Elina Halonen-Knight
Market Research Consultant, London, UK, and

Leila Hurmerinta
Turku School of Economics, Turku, Finland
Abstract Purpose Celebrity endorsement is one of the most popular forms of marketing, and this study aims to suggest that celebrity endorsement should be considered as a brand alliance, where meanings and values can transfer from either partner to the other. This paper seeks to report on an exploratory attempt to identify the processes involved and explore whether celebrity endorsement should be considered a brand alliance. Design/methodology/approach After a review of both celebrity endorsement and brand alliance literature, a case of meaning transfer process was examined. The collaboration between Sainsburys Supermarkets Ltd and celebrity chef Jamie Oliver was studied as a case, within which a special episode of negative publicity emerged and was analysed through newspaper articles. Findings A model for a reciprocal meaning transfer process is proposed and the existence of a brand-alliance-like relationship in the case is established. Originality/value The paper is the rst qualitative study to examine meaning transfer process in a real life celebrity endorsement context. It indicates the need for managing celebrity endorsement as a brand alliance by suggesting that celebrity endorsement should be considered as an alliance of equals. A model illustrated and supported by a case study is proposed. Keywords Product endorsement, Brands, Retailing, Case studies Paper type Case study

An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article.

Introduction
Background Celebrity endorsement is one of the most popular forms of marketing used to promote a range of consumer products and services. The use of celebrities for commercial purposes is not a one-way process, however, as celebrities are becoming brands in their own right, with their own values existing in the minds of their audience in a similar way to corporate and consumer brands (Seno and Lukas, 2007). Celebrity endorsement research has traditionally focused on the source characteristics of the endorser as well as the transfer of meanings between endorser to the endorsed product or brand. Some studies (Till, 1998; Till and Shimp, 1998) have also investigated the transfer of negative meanings and associations from the celebrity endorser to the brand. Apart from this research only two studies (Seno and Lukas, 2007; White et al., 2009) have discussed the idea of meanings transferring from the brand to the celebrity and the impact of endorsement on celebrity equity. This view is at odds with the generally accepted one-way model of value transfer, where the celebrity receives nancial compensation for his goodwill
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transferring to the brand. The existence of reciprocal meanings transfer would also suggest that celebrity endorsement should be considered as a brand alliance where meanings and values can transfer from either partner to the other. If meanings can transfer both ways, selection of endorsement partners, from both the brands and celebritys perspective, as well as the management of endorsement need to be considered differently. Furthermore, current views on the importance of this issue are contradictory: while Seno and Lukas (2007) call for empirical investigation into the reciprocal effects in celebrity endorsement, the experimental study of White et al. (2009) suggests the effect of the endorsement on the celebrity is not signicant. Therefore, we argue that further research into the effects is needed to provide a more comprehensive view of the phenomena in a real life context. Research purpose and design This paper investigates the relationship between celebrity endorsement and brand alliances and suggests they have a symbiotic relationship. The purpose of this research is to identify transfer of meanings and associations to the celebrity to nd out whether celebrity endorsement can be considered a brand alliance. The research question divides into two subquestions: 1 What characteristics do celebrity endorsement and brand alliances have in common? 2 How are meanings and values transferred between brand and celebrity? The context for the study is the growth of celebrity endorsement in the UK. In particular, the phenomenon is explored in the context of a collaboration between one of the largest supermarkets in the UK, Sainsburys Supermarkets 452

Journal of Product & Brand Management 19/6 (2010) 452 460 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] [DOI 10.1108/10610421011085767]

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Ltd and celebrity chef Jamie Oliver. The research is structured in a two-tiered way, where the subsequent phase is based on the ndings from the previous one. The rst subquestion was addressed through a review of celebrity endorsement and brand alliance literature. The conclusion from the literature review provides the basis for the second research question, where a case of meaning transfer process is examined. Based on this research phase, a model for reciprocal meaning transfer process is proposed. In addition to providing a grounded theoretical framework for understanding celebrity endorsement as a brand alliance, the authors draw practical implications for managing such relationships.

Current theoretical and research perspectives

Perspectives on celebrity endorsement The traditional perspectives on celebrity endorsement have been based on either communication theory or theories of cultural meaning transfer. Communication theory describes celebrity endorsement as a one-way communication and persuasion process where factors residing within the endorser are deemed important. These factors include source (endorser), credibility (Hovland and Weiss, 1951; Tripp et al., 1994) and attractiveness (Erdogan et al., 2001; McCracken, 1989), which consists of familiarity and likeability. The theory of meaning transfer process (McCracken, 1989), on the other hand, suggests that the effectiveness of an endorser depends on the meanings and associations he brings with him to the endorsement process from other areas of his life such as lm roles in the case of an actor. In this model, the celebrity endorser gains associations from outside the endorsement and then transfers these associations to the endorsed product through the consistent co-occurrence of the endorser and the brand. This common advertising technique is known as associative learning (classical conditioning) (see Grossman, 1997). Perspectives on brand alliance Meanings and associations have also been seen to transfer from one brand to another in brand extensions and cobranding alliances (Aaker and Keller, 1990). Brand alliances can be classied by their aim as a collaborative marketing effort (Kapferer, 1997) to produce a new or perceptionally improved product offering (Cooke and Ryan, 2000) or to build awareness of the benets derived from the alliance partners complementarities (Bucklin and Sengupta, 1993). They can be dened as the process of linking the identities, brand equities and attributes of the partners to leverage the associations linked to each brand to enhance their image and reputation (Aaker, 1991; Cooke and Ryan, 2000). Brand image has been dened as the perceptions and associations held in consumer memory, and brand knowledge as consisting of a brand node in memory to which a variety of associations are linked (Keller, 1993). These denitions indicate the presence of associative learning mechanisms in developing brand equity, which in turn has been dened as consisting of clusters of attributes and associations that can include anything linked to the brand in the consumers memory (Aaker, 1991; Biel, 1993). Consumers attitudes towards a particular brand alliance are likely to be inuenced by the pre-existing attitudes toward the brands in the partnership and the perceived t of the 453

products and brands, forming a potentially virtuous circle where the alliance inuences consumers perceptions of the partners and, subsequently, leads to positive evaluation of the relationship (Simonin and Ruth, 1998). Conversely, a poor t of brand images and associations can trigger undesirable beliefs and judgements: the extent to which a brand alliance enhances or damages partner brands is dependent on the degree to which the brand alliance itself is evaluated favourably (Simonin and Ruth, 1998). Both brand extension and brand alliances rely on brand goodwill transfer (cf. Tauber, 1988), but they also include risks: if the brand values of the partners are incongruent, the alliance could foster negative associations that could prove expensive to change (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Park et al., 1996, 1991). Subsequently, this is also a concern in celebrity endorsement, even though it has not been given sufcient academic consideration. Common ground for celebrity endorsement and brand alliances Theoretical similarities for celebrity endorsement and brand alliances exist in both denitions and underlying processes. In terms of denitions, brand leverage is based on high brand equity, which in turn equals a high net sum of positive brand associations (Krishnan, 1996). These positive brand associations are potentially at risk in a brand alliance: the partners are risking their positive brand equity to provide the other partner with the credibility and therefore the leverage it is seeking (Rao et al., 1999). Furthermore, high appeal or attractiveness correlates with high brand leverage (Lane, 1998). Also, a celebrity is considered a good endorser if she or he is perceived as credible and attractive (Hovland and Weiss, 1951; OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997/1998; Till and Busler, 1998; Tripp et al., 1994). The credibility of a successful celebrity endorser can be based on expertise, which in turn is based on positive (brand) associations gained from other contexts. Credibility derives its inuencing power from the potential risk of losing those positive associations, which is similar to brand leverage. In summary, the strength of both celebrity endorsement and brand alliance is grounded in the associations linked to them; this creates their brand equity and leverage power. The linking of associations to an entity (brand or celebrity) relies on a meaning transfer process, which in turn is based on associative learning, where multiple stimuli are repeatedly paired together. In a celebrity endorsement context, repeated pairing of the brand and celebrity creates a link between them in the consumers mind (Till, 1998). Associative learning builds associative networks, where pieces of information (nodes) link together. In a marketing context, the nodes can represent a brand, product or their attributes (Krishnan, 1996). Smith (2004) proposed that similarly to sponsorship, where both celebrity endorsement and brand alliances are based on brand image transfer as both rely on associations transferring from one entity to another and result in associative networks. When a consumer thinks about the brand, the endorser node is activated and the consumers evaluation of the endorser transfers to the brand. Ideally, the activation of the links is reciprocal and equal; when a consumer thinks about a celebrity it will also activate the brand node and vice versa (Till, 1998). The underlying assumption is that the links between a celebrity and a brand are linear, pure and positive.

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However, in reality each consumer has their own associations derived from their personal experiences and therefore the associations transferring resemble a cloud of meanings fuzzy, unpredictable and difcult to control. As Smith (2004) suggests, the process through which transfer of associations (positive or negative) between two partners occurs may be a complex one: therefore, more research into both the nature and strength of the associations that transfer as well as their direction is called for. Existing brand literature (e.g. Rao and Ruekert, 1994) suggests that brand alliances can be perceived as partnerships of equals or major-minor co-branding (Lindemann, 1999). In the latter, an established brand is supported by a smaller brand to provide the specic equities (e.g. associations) it is lacking. This is also comparable to celebrity endorsement, where a corporate brand is supported by the celebrity brand. The traditional view of an endorsement is that the celebrity receives compensation in return for bringing his associations to the endorsed brand, which implies the transfer of meanings is one-way (Figure 1). However, sometimes co-branding partners are equally well established. In the case of celebrity endorsement this concerns both the celebrity and the corporate brand having brand leverage similar to each other. Therefore, if meanings could transfer not only from the endorser to the brand, but also from the brand to the celebrity, it would imply that celebrity endorsement should be considered as an alliance of equals and be treated more in terms of brand alliance. Figure 2 presents the authors hypothesis, where celebrity endorsement is likened to a brand alliance.

Methodology
Case approach and context The power of celebrity endorsement is based on the meanings the celebrity has accumulated in contexts outside the Figure 1 One-way meaning transfer in celebrity endorsement

Figure 2 Hypothesis: reciprocal meaning transfer in celebrity endorsement

endorsement, which are subsequently leveraged in the endorsement process (McCracken, 1989). As these meanings are best understood and examined in their context, this study adopted a case approach to capture the subtleties of the cultural context. A case approach also ensured the datas relevance to the research problem, and especially to the theory on which it was based (for more on theoretical sampling, see Lincoln and Guba, 1985). The collaboration of Jamie Oliver and Sainsburys Supermarkets Ltd was selected as the case of celebrity endorsement. It could be characterised as an exceptionally long running and nancially successful relationship (Mintel, 2005; Institute of Practitioners in Advertising, 2004) that also illustrates a meaning transfer process in a more pronounced way than is usually visible in the media. Jamie Oliver rose to fame through his television series The Naked Chef (Brunsdon et al., 2001) in 1999. Since then he has become a prominent brand through his numerous television series, cookery books and endorsements globally (Hollows, 2003). The case company, Sainsburys Supermarkets Ltd, is Britains longest-standing major food retailing chain (Sainsburys, 2009). Jamie Olivers association with Sainsburys began in 2000 (Mintel, 2005). Initially, Oliver was chosen to partner with Sainsburys to rebuild their brand: his informal and accessible style, combined with an emphasis on quality, fresh food and simple cooking were considered a good match with their business strategy. His association with Sainsburys has included appearing in television campaigns which often feature him either shopping in the supermarket or cooking with their products (Byrne et al., 2003). Additionally, his face and signature have appeared on several products in Sainsburys premium Taste the Difference range (Mintel, 2005). For this study, the advertising campaign in 2004 was selected as a case of episodes (a unit of analysis) within the collaboration between Sainburys Supermarkets Ltd and Jamie Oliver, thus reecting the phenomenon in focus. To understand the case context, it is important to consider the nature of the British grocery retail market, as it has become a yardstick for comparing other European retail markets (Fernie and Pierrel, 1996). A dening characteristic of the UK is the centralised management, where operational decisions have been moved to corporate level, allowing the retailers to communicate clear and consistent images and market positions to customers. This uniformity enables a coherent set of core values to be created through the retail offer. These values are then reinforced in the customers minds through above-the-line advertising emphasising quality and value instead of just a price message (Burt, 2000). In addition, it is important to understand the phenomenon of celebrity chefs in the UK: several chefs have become an established part of a celebrity world, often appearing in magazines unconnected with food. The roots of the celebrity chef phenomenon lie in the late 1990s when programmes such as Ready Steady Cook and Olivers The Naked Chef became popular (Mintel, 2005). Today, many celebrity chefs have their own product ranges in addition to endorsing other brands. Data collection and analysis Newspapers are powerful media vehicles for transferring meanings and interpretations. In addition, they can be seen as representative of the world itself: 454

Who endorses whom? Meanings transfer in celebrity endorsement Elina Halonen-Knight and Leila Hurmerinta
News is a representation of the world in language; because language is a semiotic code, it imposes a structure of values, social and economic in origin, on whatever is represented; and so inevitably news, like every discourse, constructively patterns that of which it speaks (Fowler, 1991, p. 4).

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Media texts can be seen as versions of reality where the process of producing the texts includes choices at various levels: which news stories are published, what is included or excluded, made explicit or implicit, what is emphasised and whose voices are heard in the texts (Fairclough, 1995). The objective of the study was to identify meanings and associations transferred between brand and celebrity, in this case especially from brand to celebrity. The study consisted of an analysis of newspaper articles regarding a Sainsburys advertising campaign in 2004 where Jamie Oliver endorsed farmed salmon. A Christmas-themed advertisement at the time featured Jamie visiting a salmon farm in Scotland, claiming its sh are healthy due the coldness of the loch. However, at the same time it was reported that he refused to serve farmed salmon in his own restaurant. Condemning comments from another celebrity chef, Clarissa DicksonWright, attracted the interest of British national newspapers and resulted in six articles (Table I). The campaign was soon linked with negative associations of Sainsburys. The articles were received from Sainsburys press ofce, which tracks all British mainstream media for coverage of the brand. The articles were analysed through combining content analysis with semiotics. The natural domain of content analysis is communication studies, where, for example, news is the focus of analysis (Deacon et al., 1999). Content analysis includes any technique used to make inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages (Berg, 2004). Within this big picture of the subject that quanties data (Deacon et al. , 1999) according to predetermined characteristics of messages, the method adopted in this research took one step further, which can be described as semiotics (see Berger, 1999). Semiotics concentrates on the implicit and underlying meanings of the words with which the texts are constructed. Meaning is always contextual it is based on the relationship with other words, and further, on the culture within which it is interpreted. The use of content analysis and semiotics in combination can bring analytical enrichment to the analysis (for comparison of content analysis and semiotics, see Hakala, 2003) but they also compensate the weaknesses of validity of each method. The data were analysed according to different content themes derived from linguistic theory (Reah, 2004) to explore the phenomena implicit in the texts. To render the analysis more objective, the texts were divided into smaller content classes, called elements of analysis (Table II). To further increase the validity of the results and to avoid any bias due to subjective Table I The newspaper articles analysed
Publication Date 5 December 2004 19 December 2004 20 December 2004 20 December 2004 23 December 2004 17 March 2005 Headline

interpretations, the data were analysed by two researchers separately. No discrepancies were found. Textual choices can convey interpretation, evaluation and judgement, which make them vehicles for transferring meanings. If the texts suggest a meaning transfer from brand to celebrity, they would also suggest a brand alliance like relationship and therefore the levels of analysis in this study concentrate on assessing the degree and nature of interpretation present in the texts.

Results
The objective of this research phase was to analyse a situation where associations linked with a brand transferred to a celebrity endorser. The levels of analysis for this study were how the story was communicated in the articles, ways in which the characters in the texts were described and the ways in which the articles were written. All levels assessed the degree and nature of interpretation present. The rst level was analysed through examining the content and tone of both headlines and the individual paragraphs of the articles. The majority of the headlines included Olivers name, thereby strongly associating his brand and personality to the content. Only one headline also mentioned the endorsed brand, Sainburys. This indicates that although the original evaluation and associations were linked to Sainsburys, the association in the media was made directly to the endorser. This exemplies a reversed image transfer process, where attributes are rst assigned to the product/brand, through which they transfer to the celebrity. An analysis of the tone and content of the paragraphs revealed that the majority were negative in tone and largely contained direct quotes and descriptions of the situation. The texts examined differed in framing the situation; some presented it as a celebrity charged quarrel, while others concentrated on the environmental issues behind the story. Many articles elaborated on the connection between Sainsburys and Oliver, thus further strengthening the link between them. The second level of analysis was conducted through identifying the voices in the texts and how they were presented textually. Textual process type present in the texts was formed largely from direct quotes, indicating that interpretation was formed through selecting who was quoted, and not through interpreting the verbiage, which was the case in the stances of environmentalists and campaigners:
Environmentalists have accused him [Jamie Oliver] of exploiting his celebrity to promote an unsafe product (The Times, 5 December 2004).

Interestingly, the voice of Sainburys was less heard in the articles, giving more space for Clarissa Dickinson-Wright,

The Times The Independent The Times Daily Mail Daily Mirror The Independent

Oliver under re for salmon ads One Fat Lady calls the Naked Chef a whore who has sold his soul over Sainsburys salmon Naked Chef exposed as a hypocrite over salmon The Fat Lady puts heat on Jamie over farmed salmon Clarissas reel issue Campaigners want polluted salmon farm endorsed by Oliver to be shut

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Table II The basis for analysis of the newspaper articles

Content themes What is being communicated in the texts? How are the characters described? How are the stories told? Level of analysis General tone and content Characters and their presentation Interpretation of the stories Element of analysis Headlines Paragraphs Voices heard in the discourse Grammatical choices in describing the voices Modality and expressions Linguistic patterns

Jamie Oliver through his spokespersons, environmentalists or campaigners and different activist groups. Intransitive sentence structures were also used to describe Oliver, giving the impression that he was a subject of an event he did not have control over:
Oliver, already reeling from complaints about his London restaurant, is now under assault from environmentalists (The Independent, 19 December 2004).

It is a row over whether intensive farming is ruining Britains sensitive marine environment and whether, as some campaigners claim, retailers are putting prots before safety (The Independent, 19 December 2004).

Furthermore, references were made regarding his motives for doing the endorsement:
The Naked Chef has been accused of selling his soul after a Christmas advertising campaign for Sainsburys had him promoting farmed salmon as healthy, while campaigners say that the practice is damaging the environment and killing off wild salmon stocks (The Times, 20 December 2004).

This passage portrays Jamie as a victim of the company coercing him to promote something he would not ordinarily approve. On the one hand, it presents him as slightly na ve, while, on the other hand, he also comes across as a hypocrite for appearing to say things just because he is paid to do so. The third level of analysis examined how the stories were told through describing and analysing the expressions and linguistic patterns observed in the articles to assess the degree of interpretation. Regardless of who actually makes the comments in a newspaper, the medium still exercises power in interpreting the situation through selecting whose comments are included in an article. The analysis showed that Oliver was described in two different ways: 1 neutrally aiming to position him in the mind of the reader (e.g. celebrity chef, TV chef or a rival of Clarissa Dickson-Wright); and 2 negatively judging his actions in the situation alluding to promiscuity (e.g. a culinary whore) or directly attacking his personality and morality as below:
Oliver has also been called a hypocrite for advertising something that he refuses to serve in his restaurant, Fifteen, where only the freshest wild salmon appears on the menu (The Times, 20 December 2004). I suppose it is hard to say no to 1million, but he has just swallowed the Sainsburys line after going to a salmon farm and being shown lots of nice things before going his way (Rod OSullivan, Salmon Farm Protest Group, The Times, 20 December 2004).

The ndings indicate that elements of reverse image transfer process were present in the analysed case, and they were catalysed by an episode of events in the celebrity endorsement relationship. Negative publicity originated from the actions of the brand (stocking products made from environmentally debatable farmed salmon) and only indirectly through the actions of the celebrity endorser. Thus, negative meanings were not only assigned to the brand but also the celebrity endorser. In fact, in many cases meanings were directly associated with the endorser with only implicit references to the brand. The occurrence of this reverse image transfer process suggests that, at least in this case of celebrity endorsement, the partnership could be described as a brand alliance.

Conclusions and implications

The purpose of the research was to identify transfer of meanings and associations to nd out whether celebrity endorsement can be considered a brand alliance. This was studied rst by reviewing literature of both celebrity endorsement and brand alliance, followed by the case study, and a special episode of negative publicity that emerged during an advertisement campaign. The case research showed the ways in which associations and meanings were transferred from a brand to a celebrity (Figure 3). The case chosen illustrated a situation where the actions of a brand were the original source of the negative publicity, but the actual negativity in the media was associated with the celebrity and not the brand. Meanings were indeed transferred from the brand to the celebrity; negative meanings evoked by the brand were also associated with the Figure 3 Reciprocal meaning transfer in celebrity endorsement mediated by endorsement action

Negative implications were also applied to Jamie Olivers other business pursuits like his restaurant Fifteen, thereby extending to other parts of his brand. In addition, many of the articles explicitly described him as the face of Sainsburys. Sainsburys itself was described neutrally as a supermarket giant, but also positive description as the UKs leading shmonger was discovered, although this was included in a quote from a Sainsburys spokesperson. However, some references to corporate dominance and the quality of food in the UK in general also emerged in the articles: 456

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celebrity endorser, which suggests that, at least in this case, the partnership could be described as a brand alliance. Theoretical and practical implications As celebrities become brands the original theories for explaining the persuasive process behind celebrity endorsement no longer provide a comprehensive view. Thus a new perspective is needed: celebrity endorsers need to be considered as brands and consequently celebrity endorsement as one form of brand alliance. Both are based on the same processes: a meaning transfer process and associative learning. In addition, both also produce associative networks as a result of these processes. As a brand alliance, elements of brand alliance partner selection and management should be applied to the selection and management of celebrity endorsements in terms of evaluating potential endorsers and their compatibility with the brand. The main implication is that elements beyond credibility and attractiveness need to be included in the consideration set when assessing possible endorsers. Furthermore, an endorsement created utilising brand alliance theories may create a better t between the brand and the endorser, and thereby increase the success of the endorsement as well as help avoid negative publicity from the potential actions of the celebrity. Identifying the right celebrity endorser is one of the most important decisions that can be taken for a brand. Engaging in product endorsement is also one of the most important decisions celebrities can take in managing their image. One of the dangers for a celebrity is to be seen as endorsing something for nancial reasons only: therefore, celebrities need to retain integrity and credibility in their relationships with brands and advertising campaigns. Celebrities would also benet from viewing endorsements as a means of linking their brand with a product or corporate brand and taking into consideration the potential positive and negative effects endorsement may have on their own image and brand equity. In addition, the objective of a celebrity endorsement has traditionally been one of reputation endorsement, which is only one element within the range of co-branding opportunities. As a brand alliance, the deeper end of collaborating on core competencies could prove a new way. Celebrity endorsement could become a more strategic alliance built around the linking and integration of the attributes of the two allying brands aiming to leverage the brand associations of the brands involved and enhance both brands image and reputation. Limitations of the study and further research suggestions This study attempted to discover evidence of the reverse image transfer process in a situation of negative publicity. However, it did not aim to discover the effects it might have on either of the partnering brands as ascertaining them would require a larger research project with attitudes measured both before and after the event. This approach also holds challenges: rstly, the pre-existing associations and attitudes vary by person, and secondly, the pre-existing brand images and their strength also inuence the effect any negative publicity will have on them. In addition, the generalisability of this research is limited by its case nature. Furthermore, celebrity endorsement in general is embedded in a cultural context, which limits the 457

applicability of these results in other contexts and cultures: this study relates to the specic media and retail environment of United Kingdom and should be interpreted within that context. However, this research prompts several suggestions for further investigation. Firstly, research needs to be conducted to better understand associative networks in a celebrity endorsement like brand alliance relationship where research on brand concept maps (John et al., 2006) may prove benecial. Secondly, research needs to be conducted to assess what elements of brand alliances in particular are most useful to incorporate into celebrity endorsement selection.

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About the authors

Elina Halonen-Knight is a London-based independent market research consultant and a graduate of Turku School of Economics, Finland. Her research interests include corporate and product branding, cross-cultural marketing and linguistics. Elina Halonen-Knight is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: elina.halonen@gmail.com Leila Hurmerinta is Professor of Marketing at the Turku School of Economics, Finland. Her research interests include innovativeness and entrepreneurial marketing, international entrepreneurship, time and experience in internationalization, and methodological issues. She has published in a number of international journals. She has taught courses in the areas of product and innovation management, entrepreneurial marketing, strategic marketing management and qualitative methods.

Who endorses whom? Meanings transfer in celebrity endorsement Elina Halonen-Knight and Leila Hurmerinta

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Executive summary and implications for managers and executives

This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benet of the material present. It has become increasingly common for marketers to use celebrities to promote their products and services. Such practice has conventionally involved the transfer of key characteristics from the endorser to the product or brand in question. In addition to the celebrity source, factors that include familiarity, standing, likeability and charisma are typically deemed inuential. Other theorists point out that the endorsement process can involve the transfer of meanings from other areas of the celebritys life. The movie roles of an actor or actress would be one example of this.

associations generate meanings that might be unclear, random and hard to manage. According to the literature, partners in brand alliances can be unequal or equal. The former typically involves an established brand backed by a minor brand able to meet its void with regard to certain equities or associations. But the leverage of equity can occur both ways when co-branding partners are both well established. On the premise that partnerships between brands and their celebrity endorsers are similarly structured, it is suggested that reciprocal leverage will likewise occur.

Key issues to consider Transfer has to date essentially been perceived as a one-way process, with any impact on the endorser considered insignicant. However, some analysts are beginning to embrace the idea of a reciprocal effect whereby meaning can also transfer from brand to celebrity. This being the case, it is argued that endorsement might need to be managed differently in order to protect the interests of both parties. The possibility that value can be mutually transferred between celebrity and brand or product invites comparisons with brand extensions and co-branding. Analysts have identied brand alliances as a means to generate new products or consumer perceptions of improved offerings deriving through the transfer of benets from partner brands. By synergising identities, brand equities and attributes, partners are able to exploit the positive associations connected to each brand to boost their image and reputation. It is generally assumed that the prevailing attitude towards the brands involved will shape consumer assessment of a specic brand alliance. Perceived t between products and brands has a similar impact. A favourable attitude combined with close t is likely to elicit a positive response to the relationship. However, the opposite is also true and undesirable beliefs and judgments can emerge when t is inadequate. The extent of positive or negative evaluation of the brand alliance subsequently determines whether it strengthens or damages the partner brands. Risk is an inherent part of brand alliance. A strong t between partner brands allows the transfer of positive brand associations. But forming an alliance where values are incongruent makes the transfer process far riskier, as it potentially jeopardises the brand equity of each partner in the relationship. It is similar with celebrity endorsers, whose links to a brand in the consumer mind are the result of the two being constantly paired together. Scholars point out that these links are the result of a meaning transfer process that is based on associative learning. With this process, consumer thoughts of the brand trigger information about the endorser and evaluations of the endorser automatically extend to the brand. Contrary to certain assumptions, some scholars acknowledge that the transfer process is complex because 459

Research and outcome Halonen-Knight and Hurmerinta explore how meaning is transferred in celebrity endorsement within a study of the partnership between celebrity chef Jamie Oliver and Sainsburys, a leading UK supermarket chain. With a host of television series, cookery books and global endorsements behind him, Oliver has become recognised as a prominent brand in his own right. The association began in 2000 and has proven to be one of the most enduring and nancially successful collaborations of its kind. The chefs informal style, emphasis on quality, fresh ingredients and simple cooking was deemed by Sainsburys to provide a good t with its business strategy. Television advertising campaigns have been a recurring feature of Olivers role as endorser of the food retailers products. In 2004, one Sainsburys campaign involved the chef promoting its sale of farmed salmon, despite environmentalist concerns. Since the chef allegedly refused to serve the product in his own restaurant around the same time, this campaign attracted signicant media attention and Olivers endorsement was criticised by another celebrity chef, Clarissa Dickinson-Wright. In the present study, newspaper articles relating to the campaign are analysed. Scholars have noted the power media that texts enjoy to present a version of reality through selecting what to publish and how the stories and those involved within them are featured and represented. It is accepted that textual choices are signicant with regard to meaning transfer because of the scope to convey interpretation, evaluation and judgment. The authors adopted a systematic approach combining content analysis and semiotics to identify special message characteristics and underlying meaning of the words used. Analysis of the newspaper articles revealed that: . Most were negative in tone. . Jamie Olivers name featured in the majority of headlines, with only one mentioning Sainsburys. This indicates that any associations in the media related directly to the endorser. . Many emphasised the connection between retailer and chef, thus strengthening the link between them. . Direct quotes were common. Deciding whom to quote inuenced how the text was interpreted. . The voices of Dickinson-Wright, Oliver, environmentalists, campaigners and other activists were more prevalent in the text than that of Sainsburys. . The chef was portrayed as being involved in something he had no control over by the sentence structures used in some passages. While he is arguably presented as na ve, an interpretation of him being hypocritical is also possible.

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How the stories were told resulted in Oliver being described neutrally in some instances but negatively in others. Negative comments sometimes extended to other aspects of his brand. Sainsburys was also referred to in neutral terms, although implicit remarks about corporate power were apparent.

Based on this evidence, Halonen-Knight and Hurmerinta conclude that celebrity endorsement can be perceived as a brand alliance. The decision of Sainsburys to sell a potentially unethical product triggered negative associations that were assigned more to Oliver even though his involvement was indirect. Marketing recommendations and further study The importance of selection and management of brand alliance partners should also extend to celebrity endorsements. Compatibility with the brand is crucial and the authors argue that consideration of potential suitors

should consider elements in addition to credibility and attractiveness. Such remarks apply equally to celebrities, who should for instance aim to retain their integrity and credibility to avoid any accusations of entering into collaborations purely for nancial gain. A collaboration based on shared core competencies is suggested as being an ideal way forward and one that could see celebrity endorsement become a greater strategic alliance. Halonen-Knight and Hurmerinta point out that the case nature and culturally specic nature of celebrity limits the ndings to the UK context. They suggest that future study might investigate the impact of negative publicity on each partner brand and argue that the existence and strength of pre-existing brand images might be signicant in this respect. cis of the article Who endorses whom? Meanings transfer in (A pre celebrity endorsement. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

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