RemarksanclFurther lleacling Bibliogr:aphical

Preliminaries
We try Lo indicate for. each important restilt or notion its author and the corresponding publication, and possibly also reference lo another work where the result is presetrted. Oul aim is to be as plecise as possiblel on the other hand, these lemalks are not intended to be a complete historical source and they serve only for orientation. This concerlls rnainly remarlcs on old lesults. The reader interested in deepel investigation of origins of the rnetamathematics of alithmetic is refemecl to source books: G<idel's Collecbed Works I [Godel 86], the books F\'om Fbege to Godel fvan Heijenort 87] and The Undecidable [Davis 65]. We find also fMeschkowski 81] very informative. [Smoryriski 91 - Logical] contains rather detailed historica,l information. The maberia.l covered in the Pleliminaries belongs to classics and can be found in standard monographs on mathematical logic, notably [Shoenfield 67], flvlendelson 64] , fBell'771and othersl note that the syntax of first order predicate logic is systematically Machover developed in f]Ii.tbert-Aclcerrnann 28] , largely in the style which is still in use. They forGodel presents his solution in his disseltation (1930) mulate the problem of completr-ress; published as [Godel 31 Monaisli.]. lskolem 20] contains a proof of what we now call the downward Liiwenheim-Skolem theorem, using what we call Skolemization. The above works seem to deal with validiiy and satisfiability as intuitively clear notions without tly-. ing to formalize them. Tarski's paper ([Tarski 33] in Polisl-r; a German version is [Tarski 36], for an trnglish version see f'Iarski 561) presents conditions defining the satisfaction of a compound formula from the satisfaction of its components - t,heseate our "Tatski's truths conditions" or "Tarski's satisfaction conditions" (for a detailed analysis of Tarski's approach see [Hodges 85]). Herbrand's theorem is contained in his thesis published as [Herbrand 30] ; as cotnmented in fvan lleijenort 67] p. 526, Helbrand considered his theolem to be a more precise statement of the well-known L6wenheim-Skolem theorem. FYom the above mentionecl monographs, only fShoenfielcl 67] elaborates on Herbrand's theorem. Origins of first order arithmetic wele described in the Introduction; Iet us add some details. Arithrnetical hier:archy was introduced in fltleene 43] and flvlostowslci 47] ; lLhe notaLion En, If n, 4,, is due lo [Addison 58] and [Mostowski 59] (cf. Kleene's introduct,ions in lGodel 86]). Definition of functions frorn other functions by primitive tecul'sion were known to Dedekind, Skolem, Hilbert and Ackermann. Godel intloduces in [Godel 3l MonaLsh.] a class oi functions Lhat he calls leculsivel in our present terrninology, these are just prirnitive reculsive fuuctions. For oligins of general teculsive fuuctions see [P6ber 34] , [I(leene 36] ; monographs on lecursive f'urlctions and recursion theory include fRogers 67] , fSoar:e37] . Godel introdr.rces and uses coding of finiLe sequel)cesof natulal numbels by natural numbels [Godel 31] and arilhmetizabion of syntax. lVe shall comrnent more on alithrnetizat,ion in lemarks on Chaps. I and 1II.

393

Bibliographical Rema,rlcsancl !-nlbher Reacling

Ivlatiyasevid's theorem is a final step of a long tesearch inio l{ilbert's tenth problem in r,vhichJ. Robir-rson,A{. Davis ancl I-I. Putnam played prominent roles; besiclesMatiyasevic's papers, see [Da.ris 73 Am. Niath. Vlonihly] for history ancl a cletailed proof. Finally let us note thab lhe clecidability of tire set of all sentences of the [language of arilhmeLic wil;houL multiplication] Lrue in N mentioned in 0.49 is ptoved in [Presburgcr 30] . Simila.r:ly, [S]<olear30] proved bhab lhe theory of lV in the langutrge with rnultiplication ancl equa.lity is decicla.ble;investiga.t,ionof the theory of mr-rlliplication has been conbinucd, scc []Iadc] 801,[Cegielsky81].

Chapter

(1) The theory Q was introduced by R.lvl. Robinson and is developed in [Tarski, lVlostowslci, Robinson 53] . First-older arilhmebic is mentioned in Gridel's postclipl lGoclel 32 - Ergebnisse] to his r-nain paper on incornpleteness [G6del 31]; fSkolem 23] clevelops a first order' quantifier free system lcno,,vnpresently as plimitive recursive arithmetic. llis paper is deare obtained. Corning back to voted to t'posibi're Lesults": no metamatl-rernatical resr-rlbs for all forrnulas is commonly called the cluestion why first older arithmebic with ir"rducLion Peano ariLhmetic, let us mention that tl-re first occurence of this term known to us is in [ifarski-Mosto,,vski-Robinson 53] where the authors say that the theory in question "is knor,vn as Peano aribl-rmetic". fKleene 52] studies b]re same system (or an equivalent systern); in an introducbion in fGoclel 86] I(leene says that his system "can be described as Peano arithmetic P1". Kleene stlesses the necessity of distinguishing P,4 from the original Peanots axioms that ale secot-rd-order. In developing lopun we freellr follow [Mendelson 64]; but we leave loosn lather soon. IL should be rnentioned thab thele are several papels devoted to the metamathematics of /op"n, notably [S]iepherdson 65], fWilkie 77l,lvan der Dlies 80], lAdamowicz 86, 87] and others. 1Xg and related systems of bor-rndedarithrnetics ar:esbudied extensively in Chap. V (see bibliographical remarl<s to thal chapter'). In developing IE1 we partially anticipate what will be done in Sect. 2 for: arbitlary I E" (r > 1); the main task - arithmetization - is done in a rather sbandard way, usual in presenting Godel's results on PA, and it is seen that IXr suffices bo plove all necessary things. (The auxiliary coding of o-sequences follows [Shoenfield 67].) Partial truth definitions are of great importancel they were studied by [lvlorlbague59] ([Schiitte 60] has a similar notion). [I(reisel-L6vy 6S] is an irnportant paper: dealing with par:tial truth definitions; rve shall mention it in remarks to Chap. III. (2) The main start,ing point for the study of theories I En and B En*r is the paper [ParisKilby 78] ; tl-riswas preceded by fParsons 70, 72] where sorrreimportant partial results were obtainecl. The paper by Paris-Itilby contains among ot,hel things the equivalence of f En, I I f n , L D n , L i l n ( T h . 2 . 4 ) a n d t h e i r n p l i c a L i o n s l D n - 7 1+ B E r o + t + I E n , B E n a t e BIIn ( T h . 2 . 5 ) . T h e f a c t ( 2 . , 1 ) t h a t I E n + I E o ( E * ) a . p p e a r si n f C l o t e 8 5 - C a r a c a s ] ( w i t h a remarl< lhat Paris and l{ossak independently proved the same result); the paper also c o n t a i r - r sa p l o o f o f t h e i m p l i c a l i o n B E t , * r * L A n 4 - 1 * I z \ n - , r y ( 2 . 5 ) . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n LAn-Ft 4 BEn41 was proved by R,O. Gandy (unpublished). Note that li. Fbiedman circulaied a preprint (on fla,gments of Peano arithmebic, before 1985) in which he claimed B.Dn*r and -I4,r.'-1 to be equivalent; but it still seems to be open whether It\n-;t proves BE,r+r (or, equivalently, LAn)-r) . The fact that in BX"-pi,.!,, aud,I/," forrnulas are closed undel bounded cluantification is due to [Parsons 70]. The nobion "piecewise cocled" is studied in fCloie 85 - Caracas] and was introduced by I(ossak. Theorern 2.7 appears in the sarne paper. Concerning Lheorern2.23: The equivalence SEn-lt Q Stn e IEn isin [Clote B5 -Caracas], properbiesof PHP in [Dimiti'acopoulosParis 86.1,properties of the axioms of regularity in [fuIills-Ptr.r'is 84]. 2.24(I) seems to be a partial (? and P) appear in [H6.jek-Paris follclore, properties of local and approximations 8 6 ] . T h e o l e m 2 . 2 5 i s d u e t o V . S v e j c l a r( u n p u b l i s t r e d ) .

Bibliographical Remarks aud f'\rlthel lleading

399

Finite axiomatizability of IEn, BDr-F1 (n > 1) is an easy consequenceof the existence of partial satisfactions; iL is difficult to say rvho first observed iL' Relativized satisfaction (for Xi(X)-formnlas, X being a set) is introduced ancl invesligated in [Hzi.jek-I(udera89]. lClote 85 - Oberrvolfach] works with X,"(X)-definable subsets of a model fuI of I Et, X being a subset of M; but he does not formalize relativized satisfaction insicle .IXr . The development ol a theory of low 4rr-1-1sels a,ndsets of tl"reorder type of tlre trniver:se(2.63-2.71) follows Clote's work but is macle i,nside thc thcories 8J,r-1-1, not from oulsicle using models. The strengthening Lo IEn and replacement of (low) z\'11 by is due to [[Iijek-I(unera 89]. We shall comment more on low sets in remalks (low) Xj(X") to Sect. (3). Finally, arithmetic with a top is studied in [Dimitracopoulos-Paris 82] and fCegielsl<yfuIcAloon-Wihners 32] . In I.2 we have presenLed only rathel elementary facts on this arithmetic. (3) The limit theorem is a classical lesult of reculsive theory clue to [Putnam 65] . [Clote Caracas] proves the limit theolem fot Az sets in -I-Dt and lor Az functions in BDz. 85 The Lirnit theorem for Az functions in BXr was proved by Svejdar (3.2 unpublished). K<inig's lemma ceiebrated The low basis theorem is a recursion-theoretic velsion of the language, recursion-theoretic In the TAMS]. [I(<inig 27) and is due to [Jockusch-Soare 72 degree Turing that the = to sholv is easy (see 87]). It e.g. lsoare a degree a is low if a,t 0/ low The ottr meaning. lol 42 in is low iff X is that dg(X) of a set X is 0/ iff X A2 and low an infininite tree then 7 has infinite a dyadic basis theorem says that if ? is reculsive ploof, working his we follow tr BEz; that this is true in each fuI branclr. [Clote 85] shows insicle BXz. The improvernent to -IXt and low EI(Er) is in [I{6jek-Kucela BB]. 3.24 was proved by Paris (unpublished). lGaifman 70] was the first to realise that lvlatiyasevid's in,[Js(u*p); theorem is provable in Pzl; Dimitracopoulos proved IvlaLiyasevid's blr.eorern cf, [Gaifman-Dimitracopoulos B2]. (a) As we already said in comrnents to the Prelirninaries, the arithmetization ol'logic goes back to Godel. The first systematic elaboration of logic inside fir'st oldel atithmetic (arithmetization of syntax as wel.l as setnantics including the r\rithmetized Cornpletness Theorem) is contained in []Iilbert-Bernays 34, 39]. (Clearly, they do not have the Low Ar.ithmetized Completness Theorem.) Checking that (some) usual proofs of logical facts formalize in fXr is more or less irrrmediate (disregalding sorne difficulties as sholvn in the proof of 4.10). The Arithrnetized Completness Theorem can be stated as follows. PA proves bhat each consistent d1 theory has a full z\2 model. Partial itnprovements were obtained by fParis 81] and [McAloon 78 - TAMS]; our Low Arithmetized Completness Theorem is more general, Theorem 4.33 as well as Colollaly ,f .34 is rather irnportant; it is closely related to tire r e s u l L so f [ L e i v a n t B 1 ] . N o t e t h a t 4 . 3 4 ( 1 ) ( I t ] - F 1 t s C o n o ( I E p ) ) c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y p r o o f theoretical methods, see [Takeuti 75] . (!Ve shall comment on proof theory in remalks to Chap. III). Finally, Theolem 4.37 is extracted flom fParis B0] and will be used in Chap. II where resulLs of Paris's paper will be presented in detail.

Chapter'

trI

As mentioned in tl-re introduction to the present chapter, the inberest in developing 6nil;e combinatorics in PA and its fi'agments arose from metamathematical investigai;ions by Palis and his school. Paris's pioneering contlibution is bwofolcl:he produced a n-rat'hernal,ically well-unclerstood combinatolial .l-lz-theorem r,vhichis ttue but unprovable in PA, and he showecl the unprovability by model-theoletic rrleans,not by self-reference (as Goclel did when consideling his unprovable tlue sentences), The original fo'rmulation of the plinciple now knorvn as the Paris-llallington plinciple was different from that preserrted here and clicl not use the notion of a large seL. It circulated in pt'eplinl,s and may be four-icl in

,100

Bibliographical Remalks and trbrthel Reacling

conbributed by leformulahing tl-re principle into ils [paris 78], [McAloon ?9]. [Ialrington elegant form using the noiion of a (relalively) large finite set zrnd showing tl-re principle ( . f . [ P a r i s - I - I a l r i n g t r o n 7 7 . ] ) ;t h e I a s L e q u i v a i e n c e bo Le equivalent to Con'(PA*Tr(II1)) was ilclepenclently p.ov".i by [fuIcr\loon 80 - rappolbs] . InvesLigation of instances of the Paris-Harrington principle ancl their relation to fragments of P:l (as well as of instances of the pr.inciple of ordinal-large intervals, see below) is tl-re main conlent of Paris's Papefs fragmenl,s contained ir-rthese two papers form tl'r': [Paris eO], lfalis 81] . Positive results on main Lopic of the plesenL chapler. (1) Theorem 1.g in particular is clue to Paris. But we do not preseut it following Palis . V/e (sinc" he obtained the provabilities in cluestion by inclilect, moclel-theoretical means) In Theoren-r. Basis Low lhe on basecl Oberwolfach] 85 of follow and elaborate proofs fClote m o d e l t h e o r e i i c a l iy r e a s o n s a l s o c l o t e c l o t e . t o d u e a r e 1 . 7 parbicular, Theorems 1.5, 1,6, CIole's improve we Fulthelmofe) fragments. proofs in tut, his argurnents easily yielcl clirect resulbs by using our stronger version of Low Basic Theorem. 1.10 is follclore' (2) HLre we elaborale the proof of fParis 81];the subsection(b) on combinatorics relies on IHarrington-Pacis77]. the Schwichtenberg-Wainer hierarchy or fasb growing ily 1.fr" hisioly of what rve call the hieLai.chy is as foliows (see [Buchholz-trVainer 87]): [I(reisel 52 non fin.] showed that well ordelings oll certain ftrnctions pr.ovably recursivsin PA can all be defined by recu'sions of type ( eo. Later [Schwichtenberg 71] and [lVainer 70,72] inclependently generalizecl uorll* resultl of [Glzegorczyk 53] and [Robbin 65] to show that l(reisel's functions can be reference characterized by means of the present fast glor,ving hierarchy below e6. As further 841' we mention [Liib-wainer 70], lschwichtenberg 77], fRose 84], fBuc]rholz this hierarchy to the Paris-I-Iarlington principle ancl fl{etonen ancl Solovay Bi] relatecl to the established, using ptr.iy combinat'orial means, sharp uPper and lower bounds {unction "(n) - rnin{o -' (n * 1)ll]; I [0,"]

from this, they reproved Paris and Flallington's result. In their paper' I(etonen ancl Solovay cv iptroduced and studied the notion of an cr-large finite set (due originally to I(eLonen), principle the that investigations their being an orclinal. It follows flom

(w)

(V" I e,)(Vc)(3y)([t, y] is a-large)

is (meaningful ancl) unprova,ble in Pzl . fParis 80, B1] introduced and investigated instances (Vf; anJrelatecl ihem to flagments of Ptl. We freely follow Paris's papels using fKetonen"f Soioury 81]. Theorem 3.18 cloes not occur: explicitely in [Paris 81]; it can be found e.g. in [Takeuti 75], see also [Kurattl B6]. There are va.riousother importanl combinatorial principles bhat can be analyzed r'vibh parespect to fragments, notably: a plinciple proposed independently by Pudlik (original per unp,-rblished,see [Hdjek-Paris B6]), I(anamori-lvlcAloon's plinciple iI(anamori-NcAloon 87], principles due to [Clote-McAloon B3] and possibly others'

Chapter

IIX

(1) The informal lotion of an interpletation of a theory in anolhel one appeal's to be la'thel' dealing with olcl; but lve dicl noL attempl to identify particular references. The first work interprebations in connection with systerns of firsb order arithmetic is fTarski-lvlostowski60] Robiirson 53];an old paper is fivlontague 57]' Feferman's fundaru'ental paper fFeferman deals also with interpreiability; [Monia.gue 63] coniains a model-theoretic characterization of interpletability (cf. also []Iei,jek66])' partial col-iserSimiiar.ly, we pr.esent no information about the origins o['the notion of shorving thirt 62] is conser-vativity partial [I(reisel vativiLy; but the-first resr:lt concerning

Bibliographica.l Rema,rks and f{rlther

Rear,cling

40I

-Cono (Ptl) is I11-conselva.tive over PA. We shall give detailed references to later wollcs belor,v (point (,1)). Sequential bheocieswere introdr,rced by [Pucll6k 85]; a similal notion was investigahed by [Vaught 67]. F\.iedman also had a similal notion but clicl not present an exacL definition, cf. [Smolyriski 85 - Ft'ieclman's researchi. tlCtlo is one of var.ious intelesl,ing subsystems of second order arithrneticl we t'eler to S i m p s o n ' s f o r : t h c o m i n g b o o l r o n t h i s t o p i c [ S i m p s o n 8 6 - 9 0 ], T h e m o c l e l - t h e o r e t i c p r o o I o f conservativity of ACrlo over PA (1.16) is a, folklore; bhe proof of finite axiomatizability is a variant of Goclel's proof of the fact ilnat GB p'r-ovesthe schetna of complehension [Godel 40] . See also belo.,v. The notions of a binumelation and numeration go back to [Godel 31] and ale studied in debail in fFefelman 60] . G<idel introduced also the notion of of an cr-consistent theory; tl-ris is wlrab we called a sound theory (1.2I). l-consistent, theories were introduced in [FefermanI(reisel-Oley 62]. Rosser invented witness comparison [Rosser'36]; theorem 1.24 appears in [Tarski, Ivlostowski, Robinson 53]. (2) Giidel was fir'st to construcb a particular- self-referenbial formula [Godel 31 Monatsh.]. The non-parametric version of the fixecl-point theorems 2.1 occurs in [Carnap 34] ; Caaut acknowledges Carnap's prioriby in fGodel 34 - Plinceton] . A palametric version occurs first in [Montague 62] , where also existence of a self-referential pairs is - fifty]. provecl (2.6). For a historical survey containing self-reference see fsmoryriski B1 Cor.ollary 2.3 is tlee celebrated lesult on the undefinability of truth, due to Tarski [Tarski 33,35]. Tarski refers to lGodel 31 - iVlonatsh.] fol the method of diagonalization. Resull.s of subsection (e) are classical: G<idel's main paper [Godel 3l - Monatsh.] conta.ins his firsb incompleteness theorem (as lvell as the statement of his second incompleteness theorem) for a system r.elated to Whitehead-Russell's Principia IVlathematica (1913); this papel was preceded by a sholt announcement [G6del 30 - Anzeiger] and complemented by a short paper lGodel 32 - Ergebnisse]; the last paper formulates G<idel's theorems for first order systems lilce oul Pll. Rosser's improvernent (replacing ({r-consisiencyby mere collsistency) is in [Rosser 36]. Flexible formulas were invented by flvlostowski 61]; our ptoof follows particular system [I(ripke 62]. Godel formulated his second incompletness theorem for a and a particular proof preclicate and did not need to forrnulate exciplit provability conditior-rs. Provability conditions are folmulated in fHilberi-Bernays 39]. The fact thai PA is not finitely axiomatizable (2.a) is due to [Ryll-Nardzewski 52]. For Ltib's theorem and its motivation see [L6b 54] , [I-Ienkin 52] . A paper showing that PA cannot be a.xiomatized by folrnulas of limitecl arilhmetical complexity is fRabin 61]; this is a predecessor of 2.27.For Craig's theolem see [Craig 72] . Essential reflexivity of P,A (2.35) ,,vas proved in fFeferman 60]. Our 2.37 is a slight improvernent of a theorern of [Feferman 60]. Theorems charactelizing interpretability in pure extensions of PA (2.34-2.40) are based on [Orey 59, 61], the equivalence 2.39 (i) e (ii) bein6 often called Orey's compactness theorem (cf. [[Li,jek 72] , fGuaspari ?6]). The mel,hod of shortening definable cuts was discovered by Solovay; but he has never published the result. See []Izijelc B1 - Int. II] and fPalis-Dimitracopoulos 83]; ihe Iatter paper proves Lhat there are definable cuts having no shortening to a cub closed under exponentiation (see also lDimibracopoulos B0]). The rest of Sect. 3 (subsections (b)-(d)) is an elaboration of (parts of) [Pudl6k 85]; olly Theorem 3.20(2) is clue to Fl6.jek. The idea of simultaneous use of two provability p l e d i c a t e s ( 3 . 6 ) , e s s e n t i a lf o r 3 . 9 , i s d u e L o M y c i e l s k i ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) . (4) Section .l pr.esentsresulbs on interpretability and partial conservabivity for theolies coniaining,[)-1; many of them were fit'st obtained for P/. We shall refer to the oligiual results even if they are less general than the bheolem presented. An extended abstracL of this secl,ion appeared as [Hzijek 87 - CMUC]. ;t:.1.5(1) ya; [Svejdar 7B). (2) [I(reisel 68] for T ) PA; lSmorvriski lFeierman 60] foL 'f B0]. (3) [I(reisel 68] tbr 2 PA; Svejclar (r.urpublished)'

Bibliographical

Remarks ancl Ftrrther Reading

4.2b is clue to Guaspari and Solovay(for' ? f PA): see [Guaspari 6'l] (their examples are rnorecomplicatedthan ours), - I11 [ll6jek 4.26(1) is classical(cf. fRogersoz]); (z) f]Injek B7l; (r) for ? = zF, | for T 84] (a) in implicit 8a], 2 PA. by for T 2 PA 71], generalizecl flindstrom [Lindsbrom = and Consu I/r PA, I (unpublishecl) for = IIt Solovay [fl6jel< 4.2'l For T ==ZF,V t b 1P t l . , f = E n a 1 , c l C o n s u f Q u i n s e y B . L ] ; i n t u l l g e n e l a l i t y f o r T ' 2 P A f l i n d s t r < i m B 4 l . T9 ] ; "Fixed 60], fSmoryriski81 - Fifty]. Theorem 4..35(t1 poinb theorem 4.29 [Shlpherclson 60]. numerabiliby)was firsL obtained by [Shepherdson 4.bE The firsL example of a X2 formula 9 such LhaI (Z F -F ja) is intelpretable in Z It btri (GB -F (/)) is not in GB is in lFlijek ?1] under Lhe assumption of soundness;l.his assumptionwas removed in []kijek, FI6jkovi 721.A Xi formula of the desired properbies was construcledby SolovaY' 87]; 4.50 is from flindstrom 84]' in [Hri.jek 4.57 first appearecl

We shall now comment on some important topics relatecl to the contents of Chapter 11I but lot covered. We shall ildicate only basic t'eferences,not full literature on the subject. (a) RefLection Ttrinc,iples. Roughly, a reflection principle says "if a for:mula is provable then it is true" (or "if all iustances of a formula are provable then the forrnulais true"). We met an exarnple of a provable reflection plinciple in L4.34; an example of an unprovable prirrciple is tlre schemo * v "rrpnpil for. all g(Prrpnbeing given by a Xr-definition of (PA)) since its particular case (for tp being 0 : 1) cle"rly implies Con'oo. On the other hand, the last schema is clearly true in /V and may be usecl ." u. nu.t.,i'rfstrengtheningof. Ptl. This has been studied systematically; the reader ma,ny consult [Kreisel-L6vy 68], fschmerl 79,80, 82] ; early results on leflection prilciples oru riuo discussecl in detail in Smoryfiski's survey Paper [Smolydski 77] in the Flandbook of Mathematical logic. '[ransfinite ,progressions of theories. One can itelatively add unprovable true sen(b) PA -l' tences to a souncl theory, e.g. investigate the sequence Ptl, PA * Con"(PA"), p r i n c iples' F r e f l e c t , i o n or iteratively add some Con'(PAc + Con1ftt"y,... Cono(PA,) to charactelize try Usir1g ordinal notations fl(leene 44.] one can itelate transfinitely and whic[ part of the truth (fh(N)) can be grasped. See [Feferman 62], fFefennan-Speclor 62], [Fenstad 68], lMcAloon 80, 82]. Arith,metic ond laltices: Lindstlom and Svejdar independently intloduced and studiecl the lattice of intenpretability types over theories T containing some arithmetic ([Lindstrrim T9 - Aalborg, 84 - Nobre Dame], [Svejdar 78]). Put g < $ if (T+ 9) is interpretable in -f $); this is a cluasiolder and the collespouding factors ale intelprel,ability iypes; they Q Ibr:m a distlibutive lattice. iVIany deep results about this lattice are known, in palticula,r' for T = PA. slatemenbs: e.g. l.alie ftlrijkovi 71] ancl [Pahich 79] investigated latbices of consistency binumeration a let such eacl-r P:t. For PA in of binumerations Jr P:t anci investigate aLI p t coni -"+ confu. if PA a PuL staternent. consistency cono be the corresponding S This again gives an extremely lich latbice. Investigation of boih lat,tices uses extremely tricky self-referential constlucLions. Note that [fuIycielski, Pudl6.k ancl Stern 90] ir-rvestigate a iattice of interprelability types of all first order theories (not necessarily dr axiomatizable and not necessarily containing arithrnetic); lheil Iatlice differs drastically from Lindstrom-Svejdar's iattice. if for- each (d) Fuithful inter.prelations. An interpletation .r of T in 5 is f-faithful q ( f ,T t q is ecyuivalenbto S ts g*. See [Feferrntrn-I(reisel-Orey 62], fGuaspari 79] (rnodel theoretic character:ization), [Lindstr'6m S4]' (e) Arithmelic and inocl,allogi,c. This is an exl,rernely rich and fruilful domain: one considers formulas of the moclal ploposil,ional calculus (i.e. fol each fortlula .rl, we have

Bibliogr:aphical Remalks and f,\rbher Reacling a folrnula nA-necessarily A) and investigates theil arithmetical intelpretaLious. Such an interpretation 'r assigns a sentence of arithmetic bo each propositional variable, comtntttes with connectives and interprets n as provability: (trA)- is Pr"(,,i-) (for a fixecl plovabiliby axiomatic sysbem I (or G) satisfying preclicale for a fixed arithmelic ?). There is a naLr-rral (fot reasonable 7 and Pr') arithn-rebical cornplel,eness:G I tl iff for ea.cir ariLhrnet,ical interpretation {,, ? l-- A*. A pioneering paper is lsolovay 761 ; an extensive monograph is - Self]. 85 [Smoryfiski Fur-bherirnportani names (see biblioglaphy): Boolos, Sambin, de Jongh, Magari, Montagna, Artemov and others. One can introduce a fultl,er moclality > of inlerpretabiliLy ancl investigate moclal interpr-etability logics and logics of partial conset''rativity (Svejdar, Visser, de Jongh, Veltman, Belarducci, Savrukov, H6jek - Montagna). (f) In this book we pay vely little attention to advanced methods of. proof llveory; in palt,icular, cut elimination is used only in Chap. V, Secb, 5, Proof theoly is an extlemely Iarge domain and we shall not tly to sketch its aims in a few lvords; insteacl, we refer bo basic monographs; [Schiitte 60], [Takeuti 71], lPohlels 89]. See also [Schwichtenbelg 77]. An application of prool th.eory Io fragments of arithrnetic is fSieg 85]; we obtain some of the results presented by him using model theoretical ra.ther than proof theoretical methods (in Chap, IV.)

Chapter

fV

(1) The construction of a. non-standard model of PA using definable ultrapower goes bacl< to fSkolem 33] (Th. 1.7). For Lo6's lemma 1.9 see [Lo6 55]. Another early paper on models of arithmebic is llvlirlier 61]. Lemma 1.20 (whicli is the only place in this chaptet explicitly using Matiyasevii's 'l2l (tor P/). Lemma 1.22 is due to l{irby and Theorern 1.24 theorem) is due to lGaifman elaborates a theqrem of [Gaifman 72], cf.1.25(2). Theotem 1.29 (1) is due to [Paris-I{irby 771, (2)-(3) to Ffti.jek,see [H6jek-Palis 86], The method of proof of Theorem 1.33 goes back to fPalis-Kilby 78] (cf. also [Lessan '/8]), but they did not deal with PX1,;results in 1.33 not concerning P-Dp aredueto [Palis and l(irby 78], for the rest see [Fli,jek and Paris 86] . As we mentioued elsewhele, the fact that PA is not fir'ritely a:<iomabizable(Corol. 1.34 (3)) was first proved by [Ryll-Nardzewski

521.
We are unable to creclit anauthor for 1.51 and 1.52; but both theorems follow rather easily from tl're precedir-rg. Theolem 1.53 is due to fParis-I(irby 78).Theorem 1.59 is the famous Paris-F\'iedman conservation theoreml Fl'iedman has never published his proof, Paris's proof is in [Paris B0] ancl in [Paris B1]. lVe presenL I(aye's proof (1.60, not published as a paper, see [I(aye 91 Ivlodels]) and a modification of a Paris's proof (1.61) suitable for formalization in Sect. 4. (2) We commented on the arithmetic with a top above (remark to Chap. II Sect. 2(")), Theorern 2.2 appears in [Cegielsky-McAloon-trVilmers 82] and is aLi;ributed to Ptrris. Subsections (b) and (c) presenL ancl elaborate part of fParis 80, 81] . (See mole on cuts ancl standard systerns below.) Theolern 2.40 is due io [Ressayle 83, 86] ; note that an aualogous result for models of Ptl was firsL pt'oved by iFriedman 73]. (3) Section 3 is central to Chap. IV: we present results of lParis 80, B1]. In par'licular', Paris inventecl the notion of an indicator of a family of cuts, The telm "envelope" (3'3) is borrowed flom [ivlcAloon 86]. Paris's ma,in theorerlls al'e 3.5 and 3.7; the corolla.ry 3.6 (charact,erizing 1.!1 provably recursive functions as plirnibive recttrsive) is due inclependently to lfuIinc'/6], [Takeuti 75] and Parsons (unpublishecl). A rela.ted papel is [Ratajczyk BB] Section 4 plesents r:estrlts on model theory fornralized irr fragrnents; t,he restllb 4.8 is clue l,o Cloie ar-rd (plovzr,bility of the Paris-F\'iedrnail conservatiou theorem in /!t)

.t04

and Further Reading Biblioglaphical Remarl<s

IJd.jek inclependently, cf. [Clote, I{rijek, Paris 90]. The last paper contaius a stt'onger resr-tlt obiained by ploof-theot'etical rnethocls.
t:

Chapter IV presents only some importanb selected topics of model theory and its fi'agments. Fo1 a1 overview of the development of model theoly of arithmebic Lhe leadel 84 - LCB2] and, wiLh specia] emphasis on the work of Friedmar-r, rta! "o.ruult [Smor.yrlski - Models] is a monograph devoted to moclels oi fSmolyriski A-S nieclman]. fl{aye 91 aliihmelic. We mentionecl otir main omission in the intloduction to Chap. IV; now lel, us off'el some references, N, 5S1y(&f) (or just ss(M) is a set of subseLs . ee 2,13;for.I: (a) standarcl systernsS of N callecl the standarcl system of &1 (also: Lhe set of reals of IuI).It is easy bo sho',v that if IvI tr PA ihep 55(M) is just the sel of all X fl N, whele X is a parametrically definable subset of fu|. Similarly introduce Sso(ful) = {.X n rY I X nonparametricallv definable i1 &1], [Scott 62] was the first to investigate SSo(M) for M tr PA (S^9s(&1) is tlre set of all subsets of N tinumerable in the complete theoly :f h(M)) and chalacterized algeblas of subsets of lV obtainable as SSy(NI) (often called Scotb algebras)' lFYiedman Z3] intlodtrced, SS(lu|) I it turns out that all SS(M) coincide with all Scott, algebras (fol - alg]). a parl,ictrlar tu|, SS(itI) and SSo(M) may or may nol differ, cf. e.g. fHrijek 81 ol1 dependence models in f,\ieclman obiained beautiful theorems on the embeddability of their sbandarcl systems. fKaye 91 lvlodels] conbains a detailed exposition. (b) Recursiaely satuialed models. A very fruitful domain. A, lype a in IVI consists of a set'r(o,y) of formulas,p(o,y) and a parameter b e IUI interpreting y. The type is z\1 is a 41 set of formulas, The type cris fi.nitely sutisf'able in M if for each finiLe iffr(c,y) 6 ( r , v) of 'r(x,v), subset NI tr (aa)A 6(o,6) . Thetype.l3issatisf,ableinMifthereisanaelV/suchtlnatNIFP(o,b)foreachPe'r. fuI is ricursi,uely salura,ted if each finitely satisfiable 41 type is satisfiable. Each rnodel &1 has a recur.sively saturalecl elementary extension. For an older overview of the theoly of recursively saturated models of arithmetic see lsrnoryfski B1 rec-sat]; see also lI(aye 91 - Niodels]. (c) Cits in models of arith,metic. This is another very fruitful domain; we have presenteclonly a fractiop of k6own results. The pioneering papel is [I(irby-Palis 77] (and Kirby's d.issertation [I(ilby 77]). T]rere are lots of papers on various sorts of cuts, indicators etc.; - cut's] further, see e.g. [McAloon 78 - (LC77)], for an older survey lPillay 81 ""u ".g. [Iiotlalski 81, 83, 84]. (.1) Note also a very interesting topic - systetrrs of Ptl wibh parametet-flee induction, i.e.'Ig for gl having just one fi'ee valiable. It is custorna.r'yfor a fragment ? of arithmetic, to denote, by T- the corresponding subbheory having bhe same axiom schema(s) as T but wiblrout parameters. It is easily seen that PtI- is ecluivalenhLo PA and I-Do is ecluivalent to I Eo; but for. n ] 7, I E; is weakel than 1-D,, and diffelent from 1I1; . The basic papel is 8?]); see aiso fAdamowicz [Kaye, Paris, Dimitracopulos B8.l(ancl Kaye's dissertation lI{aye

8Bl.

The above is only a selection of rnajor lopics not covered; one could couLinue trrettlioning the theoly of satisfaction classes, uncountable moclels, indiscernibles and olher developrnents.

Bibliographical Remarks and Further Reading

405

Chapter

Boulded A.rithmetic rvas intloduced by Parikh [Parikh 71]. IIe introduced the system which is nowadays clenotecl by /Xo or .[z\0. Sorne weak fragmenl,s hacl been consider.ecl befor.e. Shephelcison [S]rep]reldson 64, 65, 67] considered Iopun . Goodstein [Gooclstein 541 and Cleave and Rose [Cleave-Rose 67] studied so-calleclEt-arilhmetics. These systetns are F', [Glzegolczyk 53] . Anol.her ecluational systems corresponding to Gt'zegorczyk clarsses ecluational sysiem was introcluced by Cook [Coolc ?5]. tlis system PI/ is closely relatecl lo 521 (this rela.tionship is described in [Buss 86 - Bounded Arith.]). After Par:ikh, most of and fXo * J-lr rvas done by Paris and trVilkie. The most important the research on llo papers are [Paris-Wilkie 81- As Sets]and flVilkie-Paris 87]. Let us note thai [lVilkie-Paris SZ1*m publishecl several years afbel the resulbs of the paper were obtained. LaLer Buss this areawith his book [Buss 86 - Bounded AriLh.] . Several other rnabhemaLicians "rrler.d conlribuled to this field and tl-reresearch is going on. (f) .1ne result on /op"n is due to Shepherdson lShepherdson 64]. For further indepenclence results on f6pqn see ffuIacintyre-Ivlarker 89], [Adamowicz 86] . Theolems 1.1 and 1.2 are due to lvlcAloon [NIcAloon 82] (we present Kaye's proof of 1.1). Paris improved Theorem 1.2 to cover -od"lr of IEt fParis 84] . Theorem 1.4 (only for.IX6) was proved in lXs ! Superexp appears [Parikh 71]. The hierarchy of theories IDo * Q;, IEg t Erp and in tl-re papers of Pa.ris and lVilkie. A systern ecluivalent to IEs * Exp is ment,ioned also in [Fr.iedrnan B0]. The Lheory -[-Er and related systems were investigated in [Wilmers 85] and fKaye 92 - Open] . PIND and LIND axioms were introduced in lBuss 86 Bounded

Arith.l.

We mention only very briefly EsPlIP, a very intelesting subject with several nice results and open problems. lVoods showed ihat IsP.FIP proves Beltrand's Posbulate, l-rencethat there are infinitely many primes. (Note that by Parilch's theorern any ptoof of the infiniLude of primes in Bounded Aritl-rmetic must give a piece of information about the distlibution of primes.) Wilkie proved a weaker version of EoPIIP in /Xo * J-2t which is sufficient for Woods'proof. The resulls are presented in [Paris-Wilkie-Woods 88] . A weak form of independence of PHP was shown by Ajtai fAjtai 83]. FIe proved that if we extencl f-Ds witlr a new lelation symbol R(n,y) (and do not add any special axioms about .R except for' is not provable in such a tl'reory the inducbion for the new formulae), then PIlP(R(r,y)) Ile proved a similar result for the parity principle which (which is denoted by lXs(n)). says that an interval lO,2n-F t) cannoi be partitioned into two-element blocks [Ajtai 90]. (Z) Computational complexity is a very broad subjeci. In Secl. 2 we have mentioned There are several books about this subject; we recommend the following only a few resr-rlts. ones [Aho-Hopcroft-Ulman 7,1], [Garey-Johnson 79], [savage 76], fWagner-Wechsung 86], [Balcazztr-Diaz-Gabarr6 BB, 90]. The vely recent llandbook of Theoretical Computer Science fvan Leeuwen 90] is also a very good source. lVe have quite neglected an irnporLant part of complexity theory which is the complexity of boolean functionl the best reference is lWegener 871. IIere we shall only state the authols of the theorems of Sect. 2. Theorems 2.2(a) ancl (b) are due to llartmanis and Stearns [Hartmanis-Stearns 65] and ]Iartmanis, Lewis and Sbearns []Iartrnanis-Lewis-Stearns 65], r'espectively.Theorem 2.4 is due to ]Iopcloft, Paul and Valiant fFlopcloft-Paul-Valiant 75] . Theolem 2.5 r,vasproved by Savitch [Savitch'/0] . Tlreorern 2.6 was ploved independently by hnmerman and Szelepcz'6nyi fhnrnerman BB] and lszelepcz6nyi 87]. Theorem 2.6 is due to Cook [Cook 71]; in this farnous paper he in L956 Goclel hacl formulatecl the P L ntp problem. Let us note in passing thaL alretr,cly asl<eda cluesLion r.elated to the P = NP problem in a letter to von Neumaun. lle asked whether one can decicle bhe provabiliby of a fonnula by a proof of lengt;h n in bime linear or quadratic in n. Now we know that tl'ris problem is /VP-complete, The next influenlial papel was [I(arp 72]; it conlains also bhe prools of t]re iVP-completeness of CLIQUE ancl + by : IIAIVIILIONIAN GRAPIIS. The /VP-completenessof the solvable ecluatious clxr2 " is cltie 2.S Theorem was plo.zed by ivlanclers and Aclleman, see [lvlandels 80] for a survey.

406

Biblioglaphical

Rematlcs ancl F\rthel

Reading

bo Laclner [Ladner 7b] . Theolern 2.9 is due to Ba]ter, Gill and Solovay [Baker-Gill-Solovay Time Tb]. The polynomial Time llierarchy was intlocluced in fstockmeyer 76]' The Lineal 2'14 Theolem NepomnjaSiij's for reference The 78]. Flierarchy was studiecl in [Wrathall seLs of rudimenla,ry the class to is eclual Linl-t proved that, is fNepomnjabiij Z0]. Wrathall just are sets luclirnentary that show to cliffi.cult is not i'trocluced"in firnullyan 61]. It 2'16 fbllows 4o definable sets (,-,uitg the natural cocling of secluences).Thus Theorem ptou"d in (ii) *"ru (i) and 2.17 fFlaltmanis-Lewis-Stearns 65] frrn her resuh;. Theorerlr-rs Theorem to. ZaU 17,eU is clue 2.18 fh"or.rn -eS]. and [Hartmanis-Stearns 65] respectively. meLhocl' z6'k's of application a typical it is but statecl, 2.19 was possibly ,,"u", "*plicitly in lbund be puatat. cau hieralc}ries time on lPalis' f{irther r.esu}ts Tlreorem 2.2I is clue to

Wilkie B1l.

cluestion An interesting area, which we clo not cover, is count'ing problems. A typical (F(u) is a functions? is the following: .1o fo definable sets have -Do definable counting 1'his is c.) than counting funcblon for A, if lr(o) is the number of elements of A smaller functions counting closely ielated to the questions about PHP in IEo.If Xo sets had Xo The relation of prove PHP. x6 would .Ixo then in.Ixo, prouuble *e.u ancl their properties wele studies in counting to Bounded Aritirmetic and approximations of counting functions the set's Bb a.nd BZ]. Recently Toda proved a result from which it follows that [earis-filkie collapse fToda in PH do not hu,v" .ounting functions in PH, provided t'hat PH does not g9] . llence, assuming that FH does not collapse, the answer to the above question is also negative. = E! fBennett 621' (3) Bennett was the first to show a !o formula for the telation z 80] ver:ified that Paris found another such for.,mulaand Dimitracopoulos [Dimit|acopoulos A diffelent the inductive clauses ((c.1) and (c.2)) are provable in f.Do for Paris's fotmula' is in [Pudli,k 83 A definition]. In Sect. 3 we use the idea of xo definition of "*ponlrtiation form of coding of sequences (based on bina'ry expansions) [N.t*n 86] : first to build a weak he works in and then to define exponentiation. Flowever Nelson does not worlc in -ft0, instead numbel theories interpretable in Q. (Also he uses base four expansion of a single is considered lxo in of the binar-y expansions of t*o numbels.) A folmalization of syntax around for some here fol the first tirne, though the icleas on which it is based have been Theolem 3'37 87]. time. A for:malization of uyniax in /xo l- J-2rwas made in [wilkie--Paris the result from also follows to xfl is new. The corollary that context-free languages belong of[!Vrathall7B]thatconLext-fr'eelangtragesarerudimentary. (.t) The definition of the theories ,Sr, i, and their fragments Si,:f; is-d]e to Buss [Buss g6 - Bouncled Ariih.] . The theorems aboul the relationship between different axioms of induction and related principles are provecl in that book or in fBuss 90 Axiomatizations]; w itnessing theorems t o a p p r o a c h ( T h e o r e m s 4 . b , 4 , ' ( , + . S , + . 1 0 ,4 . 1 3 ) , O u r m o d e l - t h e o l e t i c a l was proved by 4.29 Theorern L inspired by Wilkie's'proof of Buss's theorem fWilkie 85]. in [Buss appeared first 4.32 I(rajiiek anj Takeuti, the proof here is due to Pucllik. Theolem Bounded 86, from g0 - Axiomatizations], it is a strengthening of Buss's theolem fBuss about models r:esult The strengl,heuing. ploof to this Wilkie's u.lrit"d We have A'ith.]. might be of 4.31) of fr.airnents of 52 wirich we have extracted from his proof (Theorem Takeuti [I(ra'jicek, a., inJepunclent interest. Theorem 4.38 is clue to l(rajicel<, Pudld,k and F]agrnents] 91 also See Pudld,k and Takeuti 91]. [I(r'ajicek the conjecture A proof that Sz is not finitely axiomatizable would strongly support seems statemenL former the proving However', proper. is Flierarchy that tire Polynornial Pudlrtk 89 to be also very har.d. A possible way of ptoving it is ptoposed in [Krajidelc, p.olf systims ale relaLed to the frargments Sl 1". !1" eua'iified]. euantified propositionul ir r"lutu.l to PV (hence to s21)in [coo]< 75] (thie system same way as the Extended Fbege sl, we need was done inclependently also u| n.*a fDowd B5]). To separate t]re fragmenis cluantified tl-re of hierarchy tire fol to prove a speed-up theorern atout the iength oi'proofs plopositional calculi. complexity function Versions of Buss,s theorern for different fragraents and clifferenb classes were ploved in fClote-Takeuti 86; 92] '

Biblioglapliical

Rernarks ancl Furthel Reading

40'7

The spectmm of the fragments of Bounded Alithmetic is much richer, nrore and more bheories ale being defined. A loL of research is being done or: second otcler systems of Bouncled Aribhmetic. Such systems rvere intloduced in fBuss 86 - Bouncled r\ribh.] ; for mofe recent resurlts see fTakeuLi 90 - Si; 91 - A second], [Clote-Takeuti 921, [I(rajieek 90 - Exponentiation] . (5) The tluLh definibions for .fs were first considelecl in llesan 78] and lPa.r'is'Ihe finite a;<iomatizabiliby of IJo -'l..Ocp (Theorem 5.6) was shown Dimitracopoulos 82]. in [Gaifman-Dirnibracopouios 82]. Tireolem 5.7 is due to Wilkie (unpublished). For related resu-lLson interpretability see [Szemielew-Tarslci52] , [Nlelson 86], (lVelson consicters only local inLerprebabions), and references to Chap. III. Theolein 5.12 is in [Wilkie-Palis 87]. is fTakeuti 80] . The lVe formalize some classical results of proof theory, the best refer-ence imporbant concepL of restricted provability and restricbed consistency is due to Paris and Willcie fWilkie-Paris 8'/]. Theorem 5.26 is due to trVilkie [Wilkie 86 - On sentences]. flis original proof of this bheorem is diffelent, he uses a model-theoretical construction. Theorem 5.27, in a slighbly stronger form, is in fWilkie-Paris 87]. Theorem 5.28 is due to Pudlj.k give [Pudld.k 85]. Corollary 5.29 and Theorem 5.31 were ploved in [Wilkie-Par-is 87] (we and 5.33 On senbences]. Theorem 86 different proofs). Corollary 5.32 is flom lWilkie is new. theorem 87] . The last of lesults of Colollary 5.34 are sLrengthenings flVilkie-Paris There are more results about incompleteness and truth definitions in Bounded Ariihmetic. Their. rnain motivation is the ploblem of finite axiomatizability of Bounded Arithmetic. We cannot use ordinary consistency statements bo separate fragments of Bounded Arithmebic, since even -IXo -l Eap does not prove Confi. In [Buss 86 - Bounded Arith.] Buss pr.oposed to use valious kinds of bounded consislency, which ale consisbencieswith respect to proofs containing only bounded formulae. It has turned out that a sirnilar incompleteness extends also to such consistency statements. For instance 52 does not prove bounded consistency of 5| [Pudl6k 90 - A note], [Takeuti BB - Some relations]. For fulther results see [Takeuti BB - Bounded], [Krajinek-Takeuti to appear].

Bibliography

This bibliography grew out of or-rrworking database of papers related to our research in foundabions of ariLhmetic. Several papers have been adcled when references to some papers and working on the booic, in par:bicular we aclclecl of items has been considera.blybiasecl books on complexity theory. The choi.ce by our interests and the sorlrces available to tts. Still we belie.'rethat it can be a valuable source lbr mabhematicians working in this fi.elcl. Our sources have been the following: First of all, we used the excellenl, logic. This is the main source unbil.1984. of muth,ema'ticnl Omegu-bibtiography It was impossible to copy any section from the bibliograplry as a wholel each item has been selected (for criteria see below). In particula::, section F30 in th.e Omega bibliography contains many papers not included here. Our further soLrrceswere: r\ bibliograplry by Srnoryrislci, circulated some years ago, our o'wn works and their lists of references, most impor:tant journals and proceeding volumes of relevant conferences,our collections of preprinLs ancl reprints and some f'ew in:formation rebrieval sessionswith mabhemabical daLabases.Finally, some colleagueswere sent listings of their papers contained in Lhe bibliography and asked,to send completions. Our criteria for inclr.rsionof a work into the bibliography have been, unfortunately, rather vague: we included papers about which we were sure or at relevanLfor topics elaborabeclin the thai they'were someho,,v least suspecbecl to the metarnathfuture research. Since the boolc is clevobed book ancl for or-rr emabics of first-order arithrneLic wibh special emphasis on fragments of Pea.no ariLhmetic, incluiling wealcfragments and, on the other hand, to interpretability, parbial conservaiivity and some parts of model theory of lragments, these topics are ernphzrsizedalso in the bibliography. Little attenbion is paicl to thab some proof theory or seconclorder systems. The fz'Lct topics as aclvancecl particular paper is not inclucleclcloesnot mean t,hat we hold ilbfor ilrelevant: lh" ,"rroon lrray be ihzrt the paper has been unknown to us or at ieasi; r'vehzrve its content. not lcnor,vn

410

Bil>liograplry

Vol' 11'l, 1940 Acxnniue.i'rN W.: Zur Wiclerspluchsfreiheit der Zahlentheorie, Ivlath. Ann. pp. 162-194 result. In: Niodel Theoly and A|iLhmet'ic Acznt p.: Tlvo notes on the Paris inclepenclence ( L e c i , . | l o t e s N I a t h . 8 9 0 ) , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g ,1 9 8 1 p p ' 2 1 - 3 1 289, Poli:;h Aonl,totvIcZ 2... Ope-ainj,.,ct1oi'r" a,nd Lhe brue lheory of ra,tionals, Preplint A c e r c lS . ci,,1984 to PA, f'\u'rcl' Aorrntowtcz Z.: A;riomatization of tl-ie forcing lelation.,vii'h an a.pplicabion .16'f-186 NIath. Vol. 120, 1984 PP. Easbel A.oavtovrtcz Z,: .Nlgebraic opproach bo lr-incluction. In: Proceeclings of the tl-rird pp' 5-'l-5 1985 confelepce oir rnoclel i;heory (Gloss I(olis,'1985), I-Iumboldl Univ. Berlin, ' 1 9 B 5p , p ' 260 5 0 , V o l . L o g . S y m b . J o u l n . ( a b s t r a c t ) , i n c l u c L i o n O p e n Z . ' . Ao.q.rurowlcz Anrrlrloi,vtcz Z.'.lome results on open and cliophanbine incluction. In: .Logic Colloqttiuil '84, blorbh llolland, 1986 PP. 1-20 ancl true theoly of lationals, Jottrn. Symb' Log' Vol' 52, inch-rctior-r Open Z.: AOAptOWtCZ 1 . 9 8 7p p . 7 9 3 - 8 0 1 moclels of IAo + enp+ BEr, preplini; 431, lnsl' lrlath' Aorrl,towrcz Z.: Encl-e;ctencling P o l i s l ' rA c a d . S c i . , 1 9 8 8 , P . 3 8 provable in ADAMoWICz Z.: A rec.,rsior, theoretic characterization of insLances o{ BEn II^11QY), Fund. Nlath. Vol. 129, 1938 pp' 237-236 Logic ADAMo\,vIcz Z.'. Patarneter free inducl,ion, the lviat'iyasevicTheolem and B-f1 . In: '86, North Holland, 1-988 p p ' 1 B Colloquium 132, Aoa.ltowtcz 2., BT11HAJSI(r\T,: ffunctions provably total in -Is, Fund. Ivlail'r', Vol. 1 9 8 9 ,p p . 1 8 9 - 1 9 4 2., I{ossl,I( R.: Irlote on au intermecliate induction scheme. In: SeminarAolrurowliz berichte 2L, Proceedings of the Fourth Easter Conference on Ilodel Theory, Gross-I(ciris, 1986 pp. 1-5 2,, I{ossa,tc }1.: A note on BEn ancl an intelmediate induction schemzr, Annttowlcz Zeitschr. IVIath. Log. Gluncll. Ivlabh. Vol. 34, 1988 pp' 261-264 A reculsive rnodel for arithrnetic with weak inducAo6rvlowrcz 2., Nlonl,LES-LuNA G.: '1985 pp' 49-54 tion, Journ. Symb. Log. Vol. 50, descriptive Aontsolt J. W.: Supu,ru.ttn principles in hierarchies of classical and effective seb theory, Fund. Math. Vol. 46, 1958 pp' L23-135 A.: Extensions of non-standard models of number bheory, Zeitschr' Math. Log' Aolrn Clrundl. Math. Vol. 15, 1969 pp. 289-290 f\Ho A. V., FIoecnoFT J. E., Ulr.ivrr\l\ J. I.: The Design and Analysis of Computer r\lgorithms, Addison- \r\bsleY,1974 -forrnulae on finite structures, Annals Pure Appl. Logic, Vol. 2 4 , 1 9 8 3 p p . r\.lr*1i M.: Xr1 1-48 'Ihe complexibY of the pigeonhole principle, 29-th Symp. on For-rndations of A:r^lt M.: C o m p . S c i . , 1 9 B Bp p ' 3 4 6 - 3 5 5 Buss, ScotL eds., .AJTAI M.: Pariiy and the pigeonhole principle. In: Feasible IVIat,hematics, pp. 1-24 Birlchiiuser 1990 modal AR.rnMorr S. N,: Arif'metiieski polnye modal'nye teorii. (r\rithmeticaliy c o m p l e t e V s e sojuz. S S S R , Nauk Alcad. fio. 1.1, science, and infor.rnation theor.ies) In: semiotics T r a n s l. (2) S o c . M a t h . i n A m e r . ( t r a n s l a t i o n p p . 1 1 5 1 3 3 Iirs. Naut. i Tehn. Inf., 1980

Vol. 135, 1987pp. 39-54) (Applications of moda'l logiki v teorii dolcazatelsLv. Anrntrov S. N.: PriloZenia'modal'noj Akad' Nauk sssR, 1982 iogic in ploof theoly) In: Nekl. logiki i ich prilozenia,Moslcva, arithmetic, C. R' Ivlath' Peano of of extensious Anreuov S. N.: On moclalrepreseniations Vol. 6, 1984pp. 129-132 Acad. Sci, Soc.Roy. Cana.da (|lonarAnrolrov S. N.: IVearifmeliclost' istinostnyh preclikalnyhlogik dokazaLelnosii, Vol' SSSR Irlauk ithmeticity of tmth pledicaLelogics of provability.) Doklady Akad. pp. 403-405) in soviet. NIath. Dokl. Vol. 32, 19E5 284, 1935 pp.2'.(0-2't1(translation

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42, Ig77 pP. 372-386 of arithrnetic, Arcl]' Math' Log' Vol' 20' of moclels BtISS A, R.: Conse|vativeexbensions 1980pp. 85-9'1 P. c. 1989,'rx -F 592 pP' Boncnn-E.: Computability,complexity,Logic, North-Holllnd Vol' 21,7973 pp' 1-2 Boor,os G.: A note o' B"iir'u theorem,Bull. Acacl.Polon. Sci. of the notion of omegageireralization a proof ancl Boot os G.: Or1 Kalmar''sconsistency pp' 3-7 Arch. IVIath.Log. Vol' 1'7,tgl5 consistency, consisl'ency, Boor,os G.: O'decidipgthetruthof certa.instatementsinvolvingtirenotionof pp' "l'19-781' Jouln. Symb. Log. Vol' 41, 1"976 of certain fixed point statatnents,Journ' Symb' the'provability a"Jiaing Booi.os G.: On Log. Vol. 42, tg77 PP. 191-193 Jouln. Symb' Log' plinciples and iterabedconsislencyasserliot-is, Boolos G.: Reflect,ion pP.33-35 Vol.44,1979 An essayin modal logic, Carnbridge Univ Booi,oS Cl.: I'he unplovability of consistenc;r GB, 1979,P. 184 Press;Carnbridge F\nd' Niath' Vol' 106' Boot oS G.: Provability in arithmet'icand a schemaof Gi-zegorczyl<, 1980pp. 'll-45 StucliaLogica Vol' 39, 1980 pp' 237-243 ancl the cliarnoncl, Boolos G.: c,.,-consistency 1980pP'1-7 Boor.os G.: provability,iruth anclmodal logic,Jou'.n.Phil. Logic Vol. 9, Theoria (Luncl) BoOIOS G.: On syslemsof moclallogic witli provabilityinterpretations, V o l . 4 6 , 1 9 8 0p p . 7 - 1 8 Log. Vol' 47,tgBZ p' 19t Jouln. Syn-ib. Boor-os Cl.: Extremally undecidablesenbences, logic of provability,Jortrn' the in forms normal of cerlain the none,ristence Boolos G..: On -Vol. 47,1982 pp' 638-640 Symb. Log. fuIon.vol. 91, 1984pp' 470-480 Amer. lvlar.th. Boor,os G.: The logicof prol/ubility,

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B o o r , o s G . : l - c o n s i s b e n c ya n c l t h e d i a m o r - r d , Notre Dame Jouln. Folmal Log. Vol. 26, 1985 PP, 341-3'17 B o o l o s G . , J c n r n R n YR . : C o m p u t a b i l i t y a n c l L o g i c , 2 - n d e d i t , i o n ,C a m b r i d g e U n i v . P r e s s , 1 9 8 0 ,p . 2 6 2 B o o r , o s G . , N i c G n n V . : T h e d e g r e e o f i h e s e t o f s e n t e n c e so f p r e d i c a t , ep l o v a b i l i t y l o g i c that are tlue under every interpretation, Journ. Syrnb. Log. Vol. 52, Ig87 pp. 165-171 B o u c i u . q . r r a s S . ; L ' a r i t h m 6 t i q u e o u v e r t c e t s e s m o c l b l e sn o n - s t a n d a l d s , T h e s c d e 3 e c y c l e , Universit6 Paris VII, Palis, 1987 Bouclta'r1|As S.: L'induction pour les formules ollvertes n'est pas finiment axiomatisable, C o m p t e s R e n c l u sd e l ' A c a d 6 m i e d e s S c i e n c e s de Paris, Vol. 308 S6rieI, 1989pp. 297-300 Buunr U.: Index sets in the arithmetical hielardry,.Annals Pure Appl.Logic Vol.37, 1 9 B Bp p . 1 0 1 - 1 1 0 Bntr:roru J. L.: Integel solutions of systems of quadrabic ecluations. In: lvlath. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. Vol. 86, 19'/9 pp. 385-389 BRoww D. I{., Stvlpsott S. G.: Which set existence axioms are needed to prove the separableHahn-Banach theorem?, Annals Pure Appl. Logic Vol. 31, 1986 pp. 123-144 Bucsnor,z W.: An independence lesults for Ilri-CA -l- BI, Annals Pure Appl. Logic Vol. 33, 1987pp. 131-155 Bucuuot z W., FnTnRIvIAN S., PoslnRs W., Stnc W.: Iterated Inductive Definitions and Subsysterrs of Analysis: Recent Proof-Theoretical Studies. (Lect. Notes Math. 897), S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g ,1 9 8 1 , p . 3 8 3 BucHHotz W., PouroRS W.: Provable well orderings of formal theories for transfinitely iterated inductive definitions, Journ. Symb. Log. Vol. 43,1978 pp. 118-125 Bucuuor,z !V., WirtNnR S.: Provably cornputable functions and bhe fast growing hielarchy. In: Logic and Combinatolics, Amer. Math. Soc.: Arcata, 1987 pp. 179-198 Buss S. R.; The polynomial hierarchy and flagments of bounded arithmetic. In: 17-th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, 1985 pp. 285-290 Buss S. R.: Bounded arit,hmetic (revised version of Ph. D. t,hesis), Bibliopolis, 1986 Buss S. R.: Tl're polynomial hierarchy and intuitionisiic bounded arithmetic. In: Slructure in Complexity Theory (Leci. Notes Comp. Sci.223), Springer-Verlag, 1986 pp.77-103 Buss S. R.: Polynomial size proofs of the propositional pigeonhole principle, Journ. Symb. Log. Vol. 52,798T pp. 916-927 Buss S. R.: A conservation lesult concerningbounded theories and the collection axiorr, Proc. Amer. Maih. Soc. Vol. 100, 1987 pp, 109-116 Buss S. R.: ifhe Boolean formula value problem is in ALOGTIMtr. In: 19-th Annual ACM Symp. on Theoly of Computing, 1987 pp. 123-131 Buss S. R.: Axiomatizations and conservation results for fragments of bounded arithmetic, In: Logic and Computation, Conterlporary Nlathematics 106, Amer. Math. Soc., 1990 pp. 57-84 Buss S. R.: A note on bootstrapping Intuitionistic Bounded Arithmetic, proc. Proof Theoly Conference, Leeds, England, 1990, Lo appear Buss S. R,: The undecidability of A-provabiliiy, Annalsof Pure and Appl. Logic 53, 1991 pp. 75-102 Buss S. R.: A conservation lesull concelning bounded theories and the collection a:<iom, Ptoc. Amer. fuIath. Soc.'Vol. 100, 1987, pp. 916-927 B u s s S . R . : P l o p o s i t i o n a r .c l onsistency proofs, Annals of Pure and Appl. Logic 52, 1991 pp. 3-29 Buss S. R.: On model theory fol intuibionistic bouncled arilhmetic with applications to independe results. In: !'easible lviathematics, Buss, Scott eds., Bilkhauser 1990, pp. 27-48 Buss S. R.: The witness function rnethod and provably recursive fi'agments of Peano arith,meti,r. In: Logic ivlethodology ancl Philosophy of Science '91, to appear Buss S. R. nr.q.L.: Weak folmal systernsand connections lo comput,ational complexity, '"vrilten lecture notes for a course at UC Berkelev. 19BB St,r-rdenL

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Index of Terms

Absolute ecluality 1'19 Accepted - in space 277 Accepted - in time 277 Acceptor 2'(7 Alithn-retical hierarchy 13 Arithmetization of metamathematics 20 Axiomatic theory 7 Axioms, special 7 Axioms, logical 7 Bertrand's postulate 50 Binary search 339 Bounded aribhmetic 271 Bounded collection axiom 328 Bounded prenex normal form 76 Bqunded recursion 335 Buss's witnessing theorem 3tl9 Cardinality 42 Closure 337 Coding finile seLs and sequences 37 Coding of finite sequences 17 Collection 44 Collection axiom given 61 Comprehension 45 Computation of a T\rling machine 330 Concatenabion 19 Connectives 6 Conservative extension 148 Consistency of a theory 376 Consistency statement 163 Consisteucy, bounded'111 Consister-rcy,cut,-free 3-/6 Consisiency, Flerbrand 376 Consistency, r'estricted 376 Consistent 8 Consistent 99 Constants 6 Contain a l,I'reoly 150

Counterexample 355 Counting problem'109 Craig's theorem 166 Cut 215, 278, 367, 407 Cut (definable) I72 Cut, extendable 23'l Cut, proper' 218 Cut, Ramsey 237 Cr.rt, serniregular 235 Cut, short 23'l Cut, unbounded 236 Cut-rank 373 Decidable 23 Decidable 99 Deduction rules 7 Deductively equivalent 166 Definable 7 Definable elernent 222 Definable subset of a model 215 Definable ultrapower 216 Defines a total function 47 Designated variables 125 Diagonal lemma 158 Divide 33 Dot notation 14 Doubly conservative 197 Elementary substructure 219 End-e,stension 215 Envelope 246

trqualiry 6
Equality absolute 6 Essentially reflexive 168
Evaluation 6 Evaluation of variables 103 Even 34 Exponential birne 2'l8 Exponentiation 18, l)G

456

Inclex o[ Terms Least number axiom 61 Least number PrinciPle 5, 35 Length 325 Lengtl'r of ploof 373 Length optimal solul,ion355 Lirnit theorem 90 Lindstlom's fixed point tl'reorem 198 Lindstrom's second fixed point theol'em 208 Lineal space 278 Lineal time 278 Linear time l-rierarchY283 Loeb's theorem 165 Logarithmic sPace 278 Lo'gical axioms 7 Los's lemma 217 Low arithmetized completeness theoretn

Feasible soluLion 353 Finite axiom of choice 67 Finibe axiomabizabilitY 350 Fir"rite RarnseY theorem 112 l.58 Fixed-poinL theorer-r'r Flexible formula 162 Formula 6 Fbrmula, atomic 6 Formula,, cuL forinula 3'l3 Formula, incluctive 367 Fbrmula, middle 377 Formttla, provzuble 7 Formula, r'udimentarY 372 Folmula, side formula 373 Formula, true 7 F\'ee algebra 21 Function symbols 6 Godel sentence 160 Gijdel's second incompleteness theorem 16'l Goclel-Rosser incornpleteness theorem 161 Glammat 315 Grammar', context-free 315 Glea.Lest common divisor 35 H-Rosser formula 190 Fleight of an ordinal 133 llerbland ploof 179 Flerbrand variant 9 Flerbrand's theorem 10 Herbrand's theorem 101 llerediiat'ily conservative 197 tlereditarily minirnal Prehomogeneous 115 Hilbert-Acliermann's theorem 101 Flomogeneous 112 Indicator 247 Incluction PlinciPle 5 Induction, parameLer'-free'107 Infinite RarnseY theorem 112 Instance 62 Interpretation 1'18 lnlerpleLation, faithful 150' 405 IuterpreLa,tion, global 367 Interpretation, local 36'/ Intelprebation, paramebrical 149 t'it's snowing"-ib's snolving 59 Language 6, 98, 315 Langua,ge of a.r-ithmebic12 seb 139 La.r-ge Laliice of interpretability Lypes 404

r04
Low basis theorem 92 Mabiyasevic's theorem 97 Middle sequent theorem 377 Ivlinimal prehomogeneous 115 Modal logic 405 Model 6, 8, 102 Ivlodel, stanciarcl 12 Multi-exponentiallY bounded 175 Narrorvly branching 115 IrlepomnjaSdij's theorem 285 Nondeterminisiic polynomial time 279 NIP-complebe 280 Number', even 34 Nlunrber, odd 34 Number, prime 33 Numeral, dyadic 318 odd 34 Operation, suitable 2'19 Optimization Problem 353 Ordel induction a.xiom 61 Orcler-type of the universe 81 Oldinal isolated 134 Ordinal limit 134 Overspill 219 Pairing 34 Parikh's theorem 272 Paris sequence 126' 249 Paris sequences o[ t'he fir'st kind 250 Paris sequences of the second kind 253 Paris-I'Ialrington Principle [12 Palbial satisfaction 56, 79

Inclex of ilerms
Peano arithmetic 28 Piecewise coclecl63, 78 Pigeon-hole prirrciple 42, 67 Polynomial (time) hierarchy 283 Polynomial advice 354 Polynomiar.i advice 356 Polynomial space 2"lB Polynomia.l time 2'l8 Polynomially reducible 280 '133 Pre-orclinar' Predicates 6 Prehornogeneous 115 Plehomogeneous 116 Prenex normal form 8 Prime 33 Prime clecomposition 50 Plimibive reculsive functions 10 Principle of alfa-large invervals 133 Prcof 372 Proof line 372 Proof, regular 377 Provability conditions 163 Provability in theory 375 Provability, cut-free 375 Provabiliiy, flerbrand 3'l5 Provability, restricted 375 Provable 7 Provably recursive 246 Provably lecursive 'tr8 Provably total 245 Provably total '18 Pure extension 168 Quanbifier 6 Quantifier, sharplY bounded 322 Recursive functions 10 Recursively saturated model 407 Reflection princiPle 404 Reflexive 168 Regular tree 133 Regularity 67 Relalively large 112 Replacemer* axiom 328 Robinson arit'hrnetic 28 Rosser sentence 161 Sabisfacbion relation 7 Schwichbenberg-lVainer hierarchy Seconcl orcler ariihrnetic 151 Seconcl order syslerns 410 Self-plover 211 Sell'-teference 158 Self-refelential pairs 160 Secluence325 SecluenLial151 Set, definable 7 Sheperdson-smorynski's fi;<ed point theolem l9B Skolem axiom B Skol.em function 33'Z Sou.nd 27 Space 277 Space constructible 2BB Special axiom 181 Special axioms 7 Speed up 211 '12, 2I4, 234 Standald model 407 system Standat'd Strong collection 67 Strong indiscernibles 125 Str:ong leplacement 329 Strong Skolem ProPertY 231 Subcut 367 Srrbstitution 314 Subtheory 148 Successor induction axiorn 61

'trS'l

Tarski's conditious for satisfaction 6 Terms 6 Theorem, G<iclelincompleteness 386 Theorem, llerbrandts 10 Theorem, MatiyaseviE(-Robinson- D avisPutman) 1"9 Theory 99 Theoly, decidable 23 Tlreory, sound 27, 155 Tirne 277 Time conslructible 2BB Time hieratchY 292 T\'ansducer 2'l7 T\'ansfinibe progression of theolies'104 TYue 7 'I\'uth definition 361 Tuling rnacbine 2'('[ T\rring rnachine - noudeterministic 279 T\rring machine - olacle 282 'Unboundecl 81 Underspill 219 Verlue of a term 6 Variables 6 lVitness 320 Wilness comParison J-55

1 3 2 ,1 4 0

Inclexof Symbols

S u , b s t ( < p , x6 ,t) IUItr ,plel 6

s , k ( @ )B

F : [ X ] ' - - +c t ! 7 2 w---+ (c,t)! I12

[r,,v]? (q)! ttz

PH(u,z) 112 co- (r)!(fl, -12)113 Arrow(n,t,j) 119 Arrowo (n,i.,j) 71,9 PH(u,z) I2I (PH)" 127 (Prr) 121 q1125 -J,34 () ",y <- ", 734 a ---+B 735 L(rT, t'?1) 138 [r, y)] 1a1 (w)" 743 SEQQ,U) 151 ACAo 157 @l 772, 327 2i 172 uo@) I72 IIProof l, IIPTS, IIConi Q6-formulas 180 6q#V196 IntpT 206 Interp2, 206 tuI tr <p2'15 lV[ t,p I{ ZIg AI 9e I{ 2'r9 tluI <,e,xK 219 Rams(n,nt) 236

IIe(o) s
Add LI Mult 7I Etp lt,2'12 ?'h(r\i) 13 Dn 73 IIn 73 an t3 OP 14 Seq 17, +3, 296 l h 1 7 , 4 3 ,3 1 0 ,3 2 5 '17, 4 3 , 3 0 9 ,3 2 5 t = (*), ^ 310 t 1 9 , 4 3 , s Q28 Ptl 28 Iop"n,I Es, I D1 29, 268, 269 I Es(exp) 37 bit 38, 305, 324 Sctto 56 Sctr - 53 S o.t J1 ,n 58 IEn 62
LEn 62

L79,376

BE, Bnn

62 62

[ /Sn 62 LLn 85 Tern'to 99, 312, 313 ProoJ?y, Prl, 376 Con2t 99, 163, 373, 375,

:;f z+z
P- 268 xfo zlt

lxl" 111

460

h'rclex of SYmbols rluonl 306 l/(c) 306 u+to 316

LoU) 27r
o. r'7, 272 Su,peree:p /Xo * 9r 2"12 I Eo * Erp 272 lXo * SuperenP272 En 274 IE;275 Eo-PHP 276 Time(f(n)) 278 Space(f(n)) 278 278 LinT-ime P 278 E 278 Exp 278 278 LogSpace 278 LinSpace PSpace2'lB 12. zls NP 279 co 280 ]LIQUE 281 H A ]VIILTO N IA N GRA P TIS 287

+ 316
.v#u raL
,, ool

L2 327 BA,SIC 32I

zb, zzz

n! nz

a! 323

z!1;|1zzt
PIND 323 LIND 323 LMIN 323

sL 323

r1 nt
Sz 323 Tz 323 max 325 bound 325 msp 325 IA! 326 BB 328 Lz 329

xli" zas
Linl-l283 al 283 El 283 PH 283 oT 283
llin 293 ylin 293 =p 283 VP 283

i! zzs ir! szs

329 stricti! Co'mp 330 pr; 336 v; 336

an! 343 A! lpoly 356

Value 363 Var 363 ual 364 | ( u ,z ,u ) a 0 +

rfl zs+
n u o n 2 8 4 , 3 0 4 '3 0 6 p ace(J @), g(n)) 286 Tim eS
2;

rJ

coc

Q+ sst
(A) 372 (w) 372 (v) 372
(=) 372 (Cut) 372 ro'nk 373 RPr 3'15 CFPr 375 RCon 3"(6 CFCon 3"16 n'umeral(u) 3B'L

TH$(n)) zsz
Pota 295, 324 lp'ul(o) 296 c (u, u) 296 Eup(a,Y, z) 299 E x s e q ( u, s ) 2 0 9

E x p ( u , Y , z3 ) 01 303 t-,,(c) E u p r ( w , y , z3 )0 3 sgrn305 305 Nuonseq