mmD

MILITARY
SERIES
A IE OF T E
OT 0 A U
1300-1774
q!tlleOttol//flll Titrl'\'1joO-1774
Th angel S"I1111II11""" in lat 13th century manu cripl from
Anatolia. Though written in Per ian and made for a Seljuk
Turkish ruler thL illumination has many EurQp an d tail .
Tbe word, barne s, and tirrup sbow the mixed equipm nt
us d in Turkish-Byzantine frontier regions, (Ms. Pers. 174
f.8,3, Bib. at., Pari I
"
the local towns, one orwhich ma h been led b
h ikh Ed -bali.
u h n aJlian nabl d m n to r t a tin
state ar und the a de or Karacahisar. The ar 'a
w full r Turki h warrio and rligiou lead I'
A ein rrom th p an ongol in the asl. H Ip
aLo came rrom hri tian akriloi 1'1' mi r warrinrs
lik K6 . Mikhal, who fclt b tra cd by a B zantine
The binh of th lloman Late i shrouded in
I nd butthi: I' ,n t m 'int I' sting fa t ab lit
th rigin of < n Empire \ hi halma t brought
hri li n uI' P til" kn ..
It i' 'aid that a . ung warrior nam d 0 man fell
in 10 e Malkhatun, dt ug-htcr 0 the aiml
hikh 'debali, B in poor, hi. only hope I in
\ inninK militar r me, In so ing- 'man ap-
tur'd the Grcck lord of Khirmcncik castle, Kose
likhal, and the 1\ 0 men he ame friend. Jt w
only wh n Q'man told Edebali about a .tran
dr am that hc' w 1I1 hi b I v d', hand. In Ihi.
dr am .man, a\ a m n ( mb Ii in Malk-
haltinl riY fi'om the hcikh" hest nd ,'ct in
man' wn, In mediate! a gr attrc (an ancient
T Irki. h creel. yrnl I) sprang from :man's he t
and prcad aero."th 'k \ hil from it roots flow'd
fi ur might)' rivcrs ( igri" Euphrat . ill.' and
Danul ). uddenl \ inel made it ,word- hap d
I \' all point t the ity r I,tanbul (Con-
tan inopl). h ikh cI bali int rpr I'd thi a. a
pI' phe r \ rId d minalion and promptl
marri d hi daught I' to the up-and-comin on-
qu r r.
tll 1'1 g- nd 'ay that )'m<ln" tri , th
Ad we I b' ore the Mongols earl in th r th
entur ' that . LilC'yman it hi r dr wned in th
Euphntt's. and Ih I hi on Ertugrullcd pan oflhe
ayi 011 into r Ik nal lia, here the w'r
gi\' nthe border viII g r, "g-ul. Tt now ' m
m rc likely lh'u tllj 'm II band nomad aniv d
in eh 11th cntur. man wru probabl
'nu-rul' . n. ut I k comr I r. fr -I
go I (I' liKiou volul1l r) arm r Tur man
nom d. and l\lu lim pea ant whj h dominal a
I'U d' tret h of no-man'. -land on the Byzantine
frontier. This r had I s links with Muslim alii
I' ups (part f(uild part r 'Iigi u I' lh rh d) in
whi h n 'uce :s S were seLf-perpctuaLin , ov T
Byzantine arm at K unhi I' in
fam and a i andttl-r
rfit ry, Thi I am
insLl'um nt fad', reli i n,
whi h xi t'd for aI', and in whi d
on boot, to pa, hi: follower',
tl man uccc: W I I be and this, h w 'v r.
whil th other gn:;.i 'mirat or .. s 'rn Turkey
with red away, Pcrh ps th- trcngth or Byzantin'
and other rcsi tan e t u h ned th LLoman arm
and dmini Lrau n while ala ivin it po ulation
time to .c tl 0\ n. n th ther Turkish
miral had I' a b d lh eoa l. the tt man fa I
lhe anI remaining B ZaI1lill I nd-fronti r, c Cpt
lor th t around Trabz n and a aLLra t d most or
thos' wh war l d t be gazi', YCl th (taman
were aJ 0 allied to B zantiull1 on occa ion protect-
ing it li"om other Turkish or Mon.!!;ol foe..
11 0 Q('I: rtrrWJr 1f1 12
'h._ 0 ",on lnlter, In 171J
lr"ntlll!f nO) cpg"ge
l
lottr don only 15 mQrlcIl:O)
Ouomon
OllOml"ln
. ....
... .
'-'r
f::
FEZZAN
Ilr't, or In 1362
frr. ory ,n J481
N
s
'EVA
Momba\a'
Tbe birth of lb Ottoman state, .280 ']26.
nis d. Th ir arli t u ce ere a ainsl i olat d
Byzanline garri on., rar Jy again t a Ii Id arm.
Land was a quiI'd ith r b defealin I cal
B zantin n bl m n, b bu illT both Muslim and
'hri tian a t1's,byab' rbing i tinglanclh Ider'
inl Ott man. i ly, r by m rria alii n
Even in the cond half of the 14th c mury an
Olloman army ansi ted larg 1 of urcoman
avalry 'upp rt d by a fi w infanlry' bUl by the
mid-15th nllry fos air ad r og:I.isd lh
Ollomans' up rior di iplin heir skill at am-
bushes in w d d I rrain and lh trength ofth ir
amps whil in II my t rril ry. T tak a fortifi d
town th a tomans w uld ra age th ounlryside
al d imp a bl kad, h r nary b build-
ing small fort" Once in po session, they revived the
town's lrade and in reased it population.
a lam' ns who served B z ntium as allie oon
saw the Empire's weaknes in Europe. Oth r a.lal
ga;;;i had long raid d b a man' n Orhan
iz d an opp rtunit t upy th mirat of
Karesi and its Dardanelles fleel (134 ). h
tt man ' uld now h Id th lib lu p nin uJ
(1353) wilh their new standing arm . Expan ion
into Europ was ar fully plann d and de-
mon.lrated a thorough knowledge of geograph ,
Expeditions w re n longer ponlan ou, Th
western fronticr was divided in a thre Uf or
mar he und r gad mmand r, as it had b n in
The culLUrc of thi Ii"ontier march was a'
compli 'at -d a. il' politics. lIs law were those of
Turki h I ril al ustom, the)'o 'a, not of lh M usJim
Koran. [,'cn it. r ligion "'a. a tcn a 'trange mixtur
f nh dox 11< m, an i 'nt Turkish shamani I
b Ii rand pr(1sant .hristianity. H 'retieal d I' ish s
a ompani d carly ltoman armies n their am-
pai m of the (' mystics, 1 iming lhat
hri tianil and Islam were the same reli ion 'ven
had hristiall 1(:llIm rs.
ffi ial tt m n allitud t Chri tian and
Jews were similarly s. rnpalhetic. Pre IOU Iy per-
,t' uted minoritie. like lh B gomil of B ,nla
LUrned Mu.lin inlargc I umb r ,whil I wh r in
th Balkan, nh 'hri Ii an often w I am d
til II man librral r' rmrn 'atholi dom-
inati n. ('nainl the' urk' demanded fewer du s
than had previous rulers. Their in. ist 'n 'C on rigidl
dividing people into militar and civilian cla s s
I nabl th .hri:ti n w rri r ri to ra y LO
pI' crv i I. stal I wi th L11 'onvcr i n, though su h
famili S u, uall be am Muslim aft I' ('veral gcn-
ration. III natalia re ks lik - Ki::ise MikhaJ and
zi E renos rt uncle I pI werrul II man clan'
""hi h r main d pr ud of lh ir Byzanlin origin,
In Rumelia (the Balkans) man of the old feudal
pro/win fi f \ CIT simpl ch ng d inl Ott rn n
limar fi G-, Olllt''' 'nl t Irki h war iors, others to
hristians ho now foughl for a 11 w master
During lheir period 01' xpansion lhe OUoman
relaind th -ir ga;;.i oull ok, ing' urop , Illuch a
lh m'rieans woul I lat r s h'ir e lern
frontier-a' alai d f deliny. 1e c nque"t I'
J tanbul in 14 . I the se I on hi pro ess b
unitin Muslim nal lia nd 'hri lian Rum Ii
und r h ultan' prol clion. But aUitudes
han ed as the llOl11 ns w nt on to lhe defensive
in th 17 h ntur, and I I hri tian wer n
Inger alwa 'loyal.' h dang r b arne dear in the
18th I1tury wh n tt m n d fi b w r rt n
follow d b the mas laughter of Muslim
minoriti s, fir tI in oldavia (176 -7 ) and then
in IT ( I 77 I ). Th mas re whi h
char leri. d \' al" I t\ n hri tian and . urk in
th I th nlury ar , of curs, well known.
II man ta ti "re a fir' th I' ll'ibal
Tur mans: haras ing th r with hor. -,ar h ry
but nl, closing whell h wa. omplelel di rg'
SEA OF MAPM"P"
.... 'rof't\lc:Jl
E.,. "l:I!4'"ul.l
OIlO"''IOn Irrilor J C 1300
I

l':C1r(lC:IJ.P'lluH
..
"
OUoman mail-and_plal" wi,h It oon' ",d I.,.n;an
h....m.,' ......Iy ,6,h c.,nlury. (Tow.... Armuuri., London)
Anatolia. After thc capture of Edil'1lc (1361) the
eastern march, undcr the ruler himself: aimed
across Thracc 1O\\'ards lhe Black Sea to isolate
Istanbul. The western march advanced along the
Aegean, thrcalcl1ing rvlaccdonia, Thessaly and
Albania, whilc the c('ntral march faced the
Vardar and Nicava valleys through Bulgaria to
menace Serbia and Bosnia.
Ottoman thrusts into Turkish Ana-
tolia provided a firmer power-base. Many were
undertaken by Christian vassal troops and wcrc
very restrailH:d, being little Tllore than political
dcmonstrations. Far more drastic were the pop-
ulation mows that the Ollomans copied from
Byzantium. "alkan Christians were sellt to de-
populatcd Thnlce and "natolia, while Turcoman
nomads werc settled along strattgically sensitive
routcs. new "illages were formcd around
(hospin'sl set up by dervishes who accom-
panied the Ottoman army.
r..lurh planning prcceded a campaign. Old
soldiers and records of previous wars were carefully
consulted. Transpon, fO(X1 and munitions were
assembled, and villages along roads were
encouragcd to grow supplies for an army on the
march. Oxen, buffaloes, mules and horses were the
main draft animals, though camels were used on
difficult secondary roads. Bridges were repaired,
and scouts sct up stakes or cairns as route-markers.
Ottoman strategy relied on mobility and
oflcnsivc tactics during their cra of expansion, but
from Ihe second halfof the 17th century, as they losl
the tactical initiative, the Turks wcre increasingly
obliged to rely on elaborate field fonifications.
R('cent research into administrativc archives also
sho\\'s that the Ollomans hardly cver enjoyed the
numerical superiority with which they wcrc in-
variably credited.
Mobilisatioll orders went out in December, the
campaigning season normally being from April to
October. Two tugs (horse-tails) were set up in the
Palace courtyard if the Sultan was 10 lead the army,
onc if the Grand Vizier was ill charge. Six weeks
later tbe army set out behind a scn:cn ofnkillris and
df/i.\, Turcoman and Tartar light cavalry.
cavalry skirmishers under the (orlwciba[i forllled a
vanguard. Provincial filmhi cavalry protected the
flanks and lhe bnggage-train to lhe rcaI', while a
mail! force included the Janissarics, headquarters,
armomcd cavalry of the Palace rqpmcllts,
artillerymen and engineers. On the march disci-
plinc was fierce. Training had been equally stricI,
though games like the en'/-javelin-throwing from
horscback-and archery werc ;"Iso popular pas
limes. COllcern for smartness was such that it even
hindered the adoption of untidy weapons like
firearms. European observers were struck by Ihe
frugal diet of their enemies, the of their
camps, their well-ordcred latrines and their lack of
drunkenness, all of which accoullIed for the absence
of disease among Ottoman armies. They were also
amaz(:d by the quiell1cs.r; of Turkish encampments.
The establishment or a rcgular army early in the
14th century saw the emergence of Byzantine and
Classical Islamic clements in the Ottoman bailie
army. Byzantine innuence was strong because of
the imponant role played hy Christian vassals.
p<lIticularly in siege \\'arlare. War in the Balkans
soon brought the Ottomans up against the HUIl-
garians, from whom Ihey :ldop\t:d Ihe /ahUf field
fortification of men with hand-guns in waggons
chained together [0 protect primitive artillery.
By lhe 16th cenlury OtlOmall tactics had reached
their classic form. Within a formidable system of
entrenchments, lOp IImhalflli gun-waggons and artil-
lery stood the Sultan, his personal guard of solaks,
and Ihe Janissarirs arllled with ::.rqucbuscs. On
their immediate flanks wcrc the armoured alii biiliik
household e<-lvnlry. tl:;.ap infantry assembled in front
of the artilkry and 10 the rear. where they and the
mfiltjmika guarded the baggage train. On their
nanks stood the provincial sipahi cavalry. Ahead of
them all ranged akillci light cavalry. whose task was
to draw an cncmy towards Ihe a<:.o/)s. They in turn
would absorb his charge, thcn move aside 10 allo\v
the artillery ilndJanissaries to open fire. Finally the
flanking sipahis would attack and, whcre possible.
surround Ihe foc. Although the highly disciplinl.-d
Janissaries most impresscd the Europeans. their
importance was far less Ihan Ihat of tlw jipohi
cavalry, Ihe offensivc c1emClll in a
classic Ottoman army. The Janissaries were, or
course, also trained to attack, but they did so at a
rush in large closely-packed formations which
rendered their gunfire largely ineficctivc.
Kitidiillnhir casdr O\'rrIOOMS l.hr D;ardanrllrs from lhr
Grlibolu peninsuta. It was firsl buill by Ihr Onomans in thr
laIr 'Slh cenlury.
TI/(, 0//0///(///
/4//1/0/6//1 Cm//(rit,\
Although the sizt: of the Ouoman army was
constantl), exaggeratcd by its enemies it was, <ltlcaSI
until the mid-14th tCI1IUIY, big in comparison to the
size of the Ottoman stale. Large 1lumbers of vassals
and volunttTI-:i would Ju110w the horse-tail
ensigns orthe Emir and his subordinate beys. Only
later, whell the Otloman ruler claimed the title of
Sultan, did any leader have more than one horse-
tail. Thereaner the Sultan had lour, his viziers
three, hr,)'lrrbl')'is twO and or-dinar}' brys one.
1'h" Turkish iIlu,;lnnionli in the 'fa.ih Alhums' .. roe still ..
mylft"..,.. Sun., b.llev," l.hi" picture wali in C"ntnol
Alii., Dlhen Ihal i. comelf from lale ... Ih cenlury ",.Slt,rn
AnaIO!;,. Or """"ern I.... n.lf"o, Ih.." it might shed light On early
Otto.... n ...... i.. "'.,nt. (J\.h. F.']8V, Topi<api, Lih.,
blanbul)
Turcoman nomads, the first element in the
O\Loman army, were generally known as (lki1/ciJ if
the)' served for one campaign as \'o!Lmteers r{'T('i\,-
ing booty instead of pay. and as)'iirtikJ iftlwy formed
a tribal contingellt, Such lroOps were hurse-archtI'S.
rarely owning more than leather lamellar armour
and still using the ancient Centnd Asian lassoo as a
weapUll, Turcomans could rarely capture castles or
evcn occupy territory, howcver, so the ('mil' Orhan
relegated them to the frontiers as raiders.
Ex-Byzantine troops included cavalry and in-
fantry. Though many used the bow. thC'y did 1I0t
employ Tllrcoman taclics, j\lost of tbe ,t;o<.is also
seem to havc fought in traditional Islamic stylc as
mix('d cavalry and infantry (sec i\IAA 125, Til,
:lrmi/\ IJf ISlrll1l 71h I JIl, Cr,,'urirs). Such religious
volunteers followed a ('(xle called Ihe fllll/ll'lI'lI,
which mapped out a virtuous life and formed a
bond betw('cn a rltler, his ga<.is, and tbe Caliph or
spi ril ual kader of Islam. Though less clear-Cll t t ban
lhe hund of European knighthood. il did haw
compara blc e('l"('morrie$ and inspi red t he same Sense
of comradeship. From Ihe laiC [3th l.:Cl1\ury
Anatolian also wore a distinctive white felt
cap.:-imilar to that lalcr adoptcd by theJanissarics.
Nevenhdcss, Emir Orban soon ftlt the nced for
a disciplined profi'ssional army. A regularly paid
force of i\ and ChriHi'lll cavalry a ncl infantry
was crealed hy his vizier, Allah al Dill. The
horsemen wcre known as /l1I;'stlltIllS (tax-free men)
and were under the overall cOlllmand of"
5(lI/coJ. il1\o L1nckr I/Ib{I"i}, and
thousands. undn' The loot-soldiers, or}'{I}{/.
\\'Crl' comparably divided intu tens. hundreds and
thollsands. These inlalllry archers occasionally
fought for BY.lantiulll, where Ihey w('re known as
mQrn/II/O;. tllihd/nllS and were a[ first paid
wagl's,but by tlu'tinwofi\luratI tlwywfTe
normally g-iwll nr (ids in I'('tllm for military
scntil:e, tIll' also having special respollsibifity
for thc protn;tiolJ of roads and bridges.
Being li'c(' Turkish !:trmers, the were not
casy to control and thdr loyalty was oft ell to rllIir
immcdiate kadel'S rather than to the ruler'. Hnth
thcy and the mii}t'l/rll/l were gradually relcgated to
second-lint duties latc in tilt' ft'IlIUl")', and 11)
1600 unilS had dther been abolished or
reduced to rloll-militar") l"unClions.
The Kapikulu Corps
According to kgend the Kapikulu Corps was set up
by Kara I-Ialil Gandarli, brother-in-law of Sheikh
Edcbali. Its infantry units or Janissarics 0,t'1Ii fi!ri,
'new II'00pS') \\(,I'C supposedly foundt'd ill 1326
when tilt' r{.'(TuiIS werc blessed by Hacci
from whose broad upraised ske\"C they adopled Ill('
flap that felllX'hind lIlt'ir white fdt caps. In reality
the tirstJanissaries seem to have been prisoncrs-of-
war. following thl" ,apture of Edirne a generation
latcr.
Yet lhe dervishes, loundcd hy Hacci
did maintain c1use links with theJaniss:lries.
Their shei kh beeame colonel of t he 99th Regi lllent
in the tGlh centul-y. lived in the barracks,
acted as chaplains and participated in parades.
Janissaries wert rel:rlliLCd almost exdusivdy from
ex-Christian converts, and so it is int('resting that
the have adopted 50 many Christian
and rituals. Their founder lind their
patron saint both bccame idcntified with Greek
Turkish ..... il_.. nd.pl .. I'" cui";,;,,, lind gr",",'''', '5Ih6Ih e"n... ry.
(Tower A.nnour;u, London)
Orthodox saints. while many Janissaries also car-
ried quotations from thc Gospel as lucky ch<\rms.
Prison(TS captured during ga<.i raids provided
pknty of 111:111I>o\\'cr during lhe qth {.'elltllry, and
1l0t lint iJ 1438 was the drvprme instiga ted. This W:1S a
kind of"hull1an kvy; although against !vluslimlaw,
it proved unavoidable. By their tolerancc in Il0t
trying to convert their Christian subjects the
DUQmans soon ran shon of military and adminis-
trative recnllls.
The drvJirme was ('VCIl I>opular in some areas.
Bosnian Muslims arranged to he included, though
.\Illslims were normally exempt, while in poor
regions parents sometimes bribed officials to take
lheir SOilS and so give them better prospecls in life.
In its classic [6th-century form lhe
conscripted 1,000 or more boys per year li'om a
selecled province. Back in the capital the mosl
intelligent were chosen for trai ning as i( og/flni, pages
in the TOpkapll Palace, while the rCSI went to work
on farms where they learned Turkish and the
\luslim failh before becoming Janissaries. The if
og/am were trained lor up to sewn y(.'ars in palace
schools which concentrated on character-building,
leadership, military and athletic prowess, lan-
guages, religion, science, and a creative an of the
pupil's choosing. Three further cxaminations selec-
ted mCTl for the Kapiklliu cavall'y, to be Kapikulu
ollkers and. at the top of' the trcc, 10 become
military or administrative leaders. All remained
bachelors until lhcir training ended. whell most
married wOlllen who had been through a parallel
schooling in the Palacc harem.
Janissary orta.f (regim{,llts) mirrored the ga;;;,i
fratcrnities that first inspil'cd them. Evcntually
t1Wf(' were (lIlC hundrcd and onc orlOJ whosc
strengths varied from 100 to 3,000 men, Thirty-four
malilii .. forlificalionli of Bidi" in "oulh...... "u'rn
were begun by lhe By:r.anlinell before being 10 hy every
palllling conqueror, including Ollom.. n Turks.
special seg/lll!/l units provided the Sultan's infantry
guard and were also a source of officers. Selim I
added ncw aga bQliik l'egirncllts as guards for senior
Janissary cOIllInal1(lers. J'\'lany ranks had culinary
tilles, a colonel being a (orbaji (chief soup-maker)
and a quartcrmastcr an (ljfi baji {chief cook). Each
orla had its emblem placed on flab'S and tents and
tnttoocd on hands, arms or legs. Paid a mOTlIhly
salary, the men lived as in large barracks.
Promotion was by length of service. and old or
disabled Janissaries were givcll a pcnsion as lTlelll-
bers of the oturak (\'elerans' unit),
Janissary regiments lraincd regularly, alld in the
early days their weapOIlS induded bows. slings.
crossbows alld ja\'Clins. Some hand-gUllS wcre
adopted during wars againsl Ihe Hungarians
(1440 43). and more Janissaries were given fire-
arms alicr defeats by the Mamluks in Cilicia
(1485 9t), hllillot ulltilthc cnd orthe 16th century
did the majority ha\'l' IIi'ftk matchlocks. In general
Jani sar gun, \ ('I' long 'I' and lired h avi r bull t
lhan did lh r Eur pc.
h Kapikulu . rp . teadily gr w b tw n tbe
141h and the 18lh c("nll! . Rul I' wanted them t
counter-balance the turbulent provincial for e .
hm t II (1..1-51-81 pia d them uncleI' th
omm nd rmen wh had them 'c!ve' ris n throu h
the AI that lim' \h Jani.. ari numbered
ab Lit 1'2, )0 and pro in ial limar fi fi w r
in rea in, I gi en [ Kapikulu avalrymen.
ill man I (152 ) rai: d the orps to 48 00
in luding2o,o Jani'salle ,and nr II dhjm el as
a member of their 1'[ Regiment. Th mid-16th
ntur 'aw C Ilomi cri c and pro in ial IT olts
that I d the 'ullar t disp I" his Jani. ari ,
previou I n around I tanbul, a roo S
the Empire garris n tr ps. riginall s rving
nly nin -m nth t un; r dut . the on stan d
pUlljn do n r 0 sand d v lapin 10 al10 alLic .
Th ir military 0' tiv n s I elin d, th ugh th ir
nllmb rs in rca. 'd dram ticall as Ie" privile ed
p vin i I in alllry innltr t d th ir rank. From
1"82 non-dl'li)li/lllt' recruit., the ons 0 J ani 'saries
and fr Mu.lims of mall cthni ba kgrounels
\ CIT ohciall. rrrmiued t join.
Th Kapikulu avalr' w llIilitaril m I'
i'mp nant and ha I hi her pI' tjg than th
Jani I' inf: ntr . It. meml I' ar' ,am lime-,
coufu d with feudal, provin J, fi r-h Idin
ca al both w r' known' ipahis. Th Kapi-
kulu aval al gradualJ I ok 0 r mueh of th
pro\ .nciallimar fl f 'l m. ft n thi \-va re ard
for individu I SCI' i '(' but il al 0 balan cd the
p w I' 0 Ih ru lal ipahij. Kn wn as siLvarileri or
biiliik halki (I' giment men) th Kapikulu avalry
formed six unit. he L ft nel Ri ht IlI11Jeci)'{ln
(alari 1m n) W'IT ound din th I th emur
Kara and mirMur t J ut flh ir
own tr pl'. The Left and Right gureba (poor
fI r'ign r ) \ ere almot ld, h ing fi 't b n
r ruit d lunt rs.Th 'itahtar(w ap n
bearer) was an 'arly b d gu I'd but thi un lion
\ a' taken I' b th 'lite ipafti oglan (ipahi
hildrcn) ere t d behmet I arl in Ih I th
c nlury. 'he e Kapikulu av Irym n numb r eI
m , 0 b the 1 e I 'Ih ntur. E h unit" as
ommanded b a kellui'da 'cri nel indud d the son
of livarileri r b, P r ian and Kurdish Muslims
and -J ni sari '. wh had di tin ui heel them-
...;
U
I" -,'
..r .' ' ....
., .' .; "
. (. f'.. . kj '\
,..
c
,\ ronI of a Turkish cavalry armour, 16th century. (Met.
Museum ew York) IJ Rear of the same. L: Turkisb infantry
armour with -;,/1 AIIM" belmet 15th century. (Met, Mu eUD1
ew York) I) Turki-h 1.,,11111. vambrace 17l.h,8IlJ cenlUry. ( el.
Museum New York) I" Turkish bouJder protection, J6Lh-J7lh
century. (Met. u eum New York)
c1v in balll.
Th Ka ikulu . rp a1 0 in luded ar[jJIcr nd
engln r unit, whi'h will be drib d. par 1 I)',
The Cavalry
mil Lh mid-18th ntur pro in 'ial ipahi a Ir
r rmccl Ih majorit ormosl ltoman armie . They
numb I' d around 4 ,0 men in the 15th and 16th
cClllutie, 0 er half 01' " h m am Ii'om the
European pI' vin (Run Lia). Ordinary limar fiefs
'upp ned one hoI'S man whil th h ld r oflarger
-eamelj \ T al. 'pe ted to equip mounted
retain r or ceb iii . Larg I' till w re Ihe has fl fi f
the 'uiLan' famil vizi rs and fav uril mini t'r .
Though 0 t n omparcd to m di 'val Europ an
fief th timar \ I' n 1 th pI' P rt f a ipahi.
Th \ r h Id in tru, I and av th sipahi only
limit d right, I' th I I inhabit nt . n
rdinar si/;ahi liv d in a village, workt'd his wn
land, had 1 p Y Lh p a ant fI I' mo t I' th ir
rvl . and r IV alar .
1n nat lia th llom n normall 1Il-
1'1 orated 'xi ting ipahi an their timar. t first
the proces, was imilar in hri ti n Rumclia. Man
Balk n prol/oia Ii fi w r n crt dint timaTJ. h ir
Ont' of ,ho: urH"Ii' .. rvi,'in!l Analnli:.n ill"SIr.ued Turkish
...... nuscripls is Ihi .. by Ahmedi., ..... d.,;n Am....ya
in ,.,6. h.. archaic s'yl" and ",o"lu",,,,, a .... ,,In,ost idr.n';",,)to
!he "o-callHi 'RNi.Ground' \/mhJ/ll",,,h, fron. soulho:-rn Iran ..
" .......ry .... rliu. (r.h. Turo: 3091 f"30V, Rib. Nat., p,,",,)
,'xlslmg O\\'I1Clll keeping the land but losing their
dominatioll U\i:r the peasants. Some became i\lus-
lim bill otl\{rs remained Christian jill" gClln:ltions.
Even nner cOllversion many such Mpahis retained
their old f;lInily names. Among tbe
Christian Ji/Hlltij were members of the Slav aris)(.'-
racy likt- COnSl:Llllinc Dcjanovic.lord of Kjuslcndil
in castcrIl i\laccdonia, who fought f()l"t!Lc Sultan at
Kosu"" (1389); and Kraljt'vii a leading
nobleman who later became the great folk-hcro of
Scrbian legend. BOIh died lighting for the 01-
in t:l95. In tht'mid-15th century Ihe Vidill
area of northwcsHTn Bulgaria sent l\'lchmct II
Christian .Iipaltij with thdr 1'O)'IIik infantry
followers. A lew Cbrislian'sipahis arc still recorded
cvcn at the end of the 15th century.
'rhe quality of a si/m!li's weaponry refleclcd the
size of his fief. werl' lightly equipped com
pared to the r;.apikulu cavall'y, and a si/mhi was onl y
expected to have armour if his limar above a
certain valuc. Nevcrtheless, evel1 in the late 161h
century Europeans, while considering lheir
superior 10 that of the Ottomans, conceded that tht'
Turkish si/)(J1Ii was the better cavalryman. All
European l<lctical developments which arose out or
war' with lhc Ollomans reflect(.x! the si/)(Jhi threat.
not that of the Janissarics.
On mobilisalion, one of every tCllfipahiJ n:-
Illain('d al homl' to maintain law and order. The
rest formed illlo (lin)' regiments under their fuiha;i,
sl/ha;i and ahl)' hf)' officers. These lcd them to till'
Im'al two-horse-tail standard. Thc mell
of each J-allCak then assembled around a provincial
gm'crnor or hqffrhf)'i hefore riding to the Sultan's
camp. On the bauleficld either the sipahis of
Rumc1ia or those ofAnatoIi a were given the place of
honour on the right Oank, depending on whether
the war was in Europe or Asia.
After '533 a nl'W typ(' of timor was established
along thl' Hungarian fl'olllier. Instead ofliving on
Iheir fiefs, these sl/mhis stayed in stratebric 10WI1S like
Budapest, Belgrade and Eszh:rgom
where lhey supported lhe garrisolls. In g('m:ral,
howcver. the 16tll eelltury was a period ofdeeline in
si/m!li lort ulles. Till' I)' of fiefs were now held
hy Kapikulll cavalrymen. Some WC!'l' even sold to
lion-military men for cash. Stagnation and retreat
reduccd the l1umber of limars but not thosc who
needed thelll. :\lcanwhilc mcn who did hold ficfs
often paid second-rate soldiers to serve ill their
place.
Th(; sip(l!,; also found himself unable to cope with
increasingly disciplined European infantry armed
wilh ever more elfeclive muskets. The Ottoman
govcrnment tried to arm their horsemen with
pistols, but only after 1600 did mallY sipaltis accepl
such unchivalrous weapons.
Duaman auxiliary cavalry made a deep im-
pression in Europe. They were fa'll-moving. far-
ranging and ruthless, appearing as ifti'om nowhere.
During the t4th and 151h cCllturies most auxiliaries
wcre of nomad Tureomail origin. "Vith the creation
of a profc5.'lional army. Ihese warriors had been
,

, ,
: ;l...,.>';;; Y!!i:
,
Ml><ed Mamh.k and GlIoma.. armo.. r .. ..cl hard, .6d. ""'.ll'ry.
(M....... Slibbr.rt, .'0....... .,")
Vassals
a als pI ed a more important part in Turki. h
vi lOrie than i nerally r ali d pani ularl
during lh 'ccuncl haU' of lhe 14th nd al'l y 15lh
enturie when lh maye n hav rllled the bulk
of man ttoman arrru . Mo t ar as a pt d
[taman. uzcrainl n I' lh Turks aptur d th ir
k town. Direct rul was ubsequentl imp s d n
h ouLh rn Balk n ad in th I th entur after
hri li n prince had prov d UIII' Ii bJ in th fa '
I' wetm ru. d . The ultan al tri d l
impo e further uniformit aft r th aptur or
[ lanbul.
The ons or man prince er cd a miififerrika
avalry in the noman api a1. Thi rcgim nt,
which aloin ludcd the on' 0 urki h nobl men
formed pan of th Kapikulu orp.. Mliliferrika
w're paid uniform d and celu at d b th
w r paid alaric b their bey but m I er
uppo d to live b plund r. Fe Homan rronti r
weI' I' gul r1y arri.on d durin lh I th Illllr.
n exc pLi n was the re-organi cd Hungari n
march wh raft r I 33, akil1ri were maintain d
by limar fiefs. During the 15lh ccnlllr hrislian
erbia al 0 provided auxiliary h r m n as w IJ s
-ipnlLis and a ai, whil man rI 16th-
Balkan akinci were new converts probabl rr
hri cian JljJahi ramili ' .
f d ats in 15 5 1 d lo the ffi ial
di. banding or the akincis. Howev r, th deli' r -
main d.1'h ir nam ma h v h n a orrupti n I'
delil, m anin pp aring lal in th 15th
ntury, m I first u h deli w r r nl
nv n. fr m :r alia rl i and B ,nia. DeliJ
w re re orded d h r in Rumelia and nalOlia
in Lh I th ntur, but nl pp I' d in
the 17th b whi h lime they also included 'urks
and Kurds.
The most important auxiliary ca air in the
rab pI' vince' were bedouin lri esmen.
pia d a role in lhe 'rt a. t I' lhe
r nt s Litani and Jordan valle s. rmd \ itb
gun ,'W rd., dag r5, bow and ling, lh p v rt -
trickcll b douin unrortunat I, tend d La raid the
a tom n ide I' the b rd r ac well. rab bed uin
al. serv d a uxiliari' in E T. pt Libya and
Tunisia whil' in AJ eria B rb r Il mads I la 'e1 a
ml arabI r I .
8 A
00
00
0
o
r Ie ated to rrontier reglOll III Rumclia where
in,t d I' being called ga i lh. w rc now knO\ n
akinci (raidns). In natuli. the Turcoman
pro d harder to control. h had formed th
armi' f lho. > emir lc. ab rl d I y th
It man Empire. Then, carl in the I lh 'nlUl,
the ur'umalls rose a ain Linder the influence of
. hii do trine from rran. Thi' \. th Kizilba.'j
("R d H ad') rebellion. hich h ok the tt man
Empire t it foundations.
Th r I f akillcu durin a major ampaign was
to pre 'd th' rmy, raid deep int n mit rrilor.
t rr ri lh foe and disrupt his communication .At
lh sam tim th g thcrcd inforlllali 11, and
cized contr I r r ad: and pa e before th main
arm niv d. t ther tim . akincis defended
Turkish Ii- nti r' rio munter-raids. Th
ill 0 entto onqu r dim Lilt mountain u r a r
if (hi pr v d impo. ibll?, l nlain an thr at by
c n lalll gu rill w rfar' again tth s who rei l d
Itom n rule.
h r ani. arion f akinci r . \ a impl but
rre ti'. ntil th mid-15th cenlUr mo t fr n i .r
region \ rc a Imini ter d b h r dit ry lif bi!)'
(rr nti rgovcrnor.). h Illr lied lh akinci and
w r aunt rw ight to th Turki h n ilit h
ntr lied most sipnhis. . 'om akincis held land or
\ Bound ClUl bield, '7th century. City Historical
Museum, ienna) II Bound cane I.nll.m' shield, .6th century.
!
Real Arm ria Madrid) c Iron I.all.al/ 'dd, J8th entury(?)
Army Mu eUln, I tanbul) l) D oraLive bra.ss parade-
hiehl, ,8th c ntury(?) (Anny Museutn, Istanbul)
Onomans while al the samc time being hostages,
Bulgaria ami Albania WtTI' c'>;l1'ly vassal areas
which provided dlccti,'c cavalry. Shonly before
direct rule was imposed in Serbia, Olle liO)"lik
infantryman had to come from cvcry fivc Christian
households in the Belgradc region. Guns werc also
manufactured in late 14th-century Serbia, and
these were Sooll available 10 the OHomans, At
Ankara (14,02) some Serbia!l infantry in their 'black
steel' armour used firearms, while Serbian c<lvalry
fought '\lilh spt.'ar and sword. In 15th-century
Bosnia vassal !agll/or cavalry worc heavy bti'rti'/1/e
cuirasses, while their squires had cebelii mail
hauberks, Hungary had vassal status for almost a
generation and, after 1541, evcn the governors of
Austria's frontier acknowledged Ottoman
suzerainty.
\\'allachia, Transylvania and ;vloldavia were,
however, the most imponant Christian vassals,
Vlach nomads from Wallachia fought for practi-
cally evcry Balkan stalc, including the Ottomans, as
Th., Anadolu Hisar waS huilt 00 th., A ~ i a o sho.... of th.,
Bospborus b}' Bayn.;1 1 as the first Slag" "' the Ouornao
slrllngulalioo of By;r.aolin., Istanbul.
well as providing vassal contingents ofe<1valry ami
l'f!.rllik infant I)' formations,
East of :'\'Ioldavia stretched the Khanate of the
Crimea. For 300 yean; th....se Tartars provided the
Ottomans \\ith unnrmouJ'cd hOI':.e-archel's righting
in the ancient Cetltrill Asiall tradition. The Khan-
atc was poor, however, and many of its tribesmen
had to right all 1001. Full-time warriors, o,glfll/s,
lormed the rukr's guard II'bile a tribal militia under
its OWI1 mir,tI aristocracy provided the bulk of any
Tartar a r m ~ . The "hall also had '20 small
companies of mounted infantrymen anned with
firearms, raised fi'om lhe farming villagcs of the
royal domain. Tartar bows could otherwise
otllrange llluskeLS utltil the t8th ccntury, and
This pan,"1 fron. a ""onulic:ripl "f<:"500 is probably th," old,"SI
rXiSlinJll Muslim .... l.r'""'"nl"lion "rOIIOman warriors. Mad," in
B......... ror Bayexi, II,;' show" """hi Ir........ rs w_ring hrlmC:ls,
tnaila"entails, and in "orne ".s"", apparent arn'Our ,,"er thtir
fe-et. ('Nloflr""'Mmnh, Ms. ,,00, F. I V, CheSler B"ally Lib., Dublin)
remained vcry cflcctive agaillst close-packed
infamry.
011 the open su."ppes Tanars used light tll'O-
wheeled carts. Their nomadic Ilcighbouni and
occasional fellow-vassals, the Cossacks, used heav)'
fOllr-wheeled waggOllS which could be tied lOgetber
lO form tabtll".f defended by light artillery and
infantry arquebusiers. The Cossacks also dom-
inated th(' rivers of the Ukraine in their war-canoes.
Eastern Anatolia, though a vassal area, was more
closely tied to the Empire. Its Kurdish chiefs had
transferred their alkgianec to the Ottomans after
the battlc or Galdil'an (t514). Thcrea/ier they
COlllinued La govern as the hereditary beys ofJlli'kli"mn
Ml1Icaks.Janissaries garrisoned their main towns and
the Kurds answ(Tcd the Sultan's call when SUlll-
muned. Cavalry from Diyarbakir, for example.
formed Lhe vanguard of an Ottoman <lrmy in
Europe in 1596.
Otlwr Middle Eastern vassals rardy served as far
A Herzegovinian war-a><e. B Turki b ceremonial halla. .
Turki b IIrpall. D Janis ary llacaJ.. E Turkisb flllfir. F Turkisb
G Albanian dagger. Turki b bifak. I Cauca ian kllldjal.
uch \ ere the au tonomou
f L b n n, th
force \ ent b a onfu ing
alllllg f whi h auld
the fi t \ ere the
th ClltUry th rapid pr ad of
n n-military r reaya I w'
Turk.ilih malthlocklO and mUlike!lO, '1Ih'81.h unlurie,;. (Army
M""eun I"tanb"l)
Akljllabal CII..!ille on Ihe Black s.,a coa61 was built hy lh.. h&61
B)'UInline ' .......... ror,;' orTrab:o:on a ..d was later by Ihe
Ouom...".
The Ottomans also enlisted men solely for local
dlofcllcc. oneil on a pan-lime basis. The Creek
martolos were sllch warrior:-. Many had heen
mUUlltain bandits 01' kleph/J until commissioned by
lilt' Turks 10 control Iheir erstwhile comrades.
;\Iurat II first them on a regular basis al
Agrapha. Fighting with accurate small-bore mus
kets, swords, pistols and daggers. thesc were
skilled in mountain gucrilla warfare and WlTe lcd by
htreditary l.{/pi/rlllOJ. On rart' occasions they also
fought in distant rcKions; for example thc 12,000
Epirot who marched against Iran in 1635.
TIlt' kapo; wcrc another group of Creek warriors
II ho protectcd Orthodox religiolls Icaders. mostly in
the i\ Iol'ca. I.otal ilu:l:iliarics j n Syria wert known as
'(l.Slllr. They were rccruiled from towns, villages and
bedouin nomads in timcs of emergency to follow
local tribal, religious or government leaders without
payment.
The derhenlfis (guardians of the passes) were a
further form of local militia. Although probably
originating in pre-Ouoman times, they were nOI
fully organised UTIlil the mid-15th century. There
after the derhenlfis were recruited from local vil-
lagers, l'vluslim or Christian, to keep the roads free
from bandits or raiders wherever the Ottoman writ
ran, even among the Crimean Tartars. Twenty-rive
to 30 men would form a derbenlp 'battalion', though
only five would serve alone time, they and their
families being maintained by the rest.
Artillery and Engineering
The question of when the Ottomans rirst used
firearms isstill unanswered. The /iiftk, in ils Persian
form of llifenk, is mentioncd in a mid-14th century
Turkish epic in the hands ofChristians. By that date
it seems unlikely to havl.' meant a Creek Fire syphon
(see MAA 89, IJ}'l..antill' Armies 886-1 I /8) and
probably referred to a primitive handgun as ll!\('d
in Italy (set' MAA 136, Itolion Mel/itVIII Am,;ts
lJOO /5(0). These Italian schiopell;, like thearbollani
blow-pipes, suund similar to the PCI'"Sian l..{/hllllloh
blow-pipe, a term which, by the 15th century, had
become synonymous with liifek!
Cuns were adopted by the Mamluks of
and the Moors of Spain in the mid-14th century,
before being accepted by the Turks; yet it was the
Ottomans who, of all i\'l uslims, uSt:d them with the
greatest success. Cannon may have been used
against Karamania in 1388 and ilt the battles of
Kosova (13U9) and Nikopol (1396). They wert:
almost certainly IIsed in sieges during the '4205,
whik ricld artillery grew in importance from the
t44os.
The Balkans were an obvious source ofOuoman
artillery. Venetian sclol); guns had beel} used in
Dalmatia since 1351. while the Serbians imported
medium-sized bombards from Venice or Dubrov-
nik in the 1380s before making their own in the
I ::1905. Skilled Balkan gun-makers, not all of whom
became Muslim, were subsequently given timar
by the Ottoman conquerors. Experts also came
from further afield, including Urballus ofTransyl-
vania whose huge t<lnllon scaled tllC fall.' of Istanbul
" Anatolian Turki h helmet, early 14th century. (Topkapi
Mu eum, lstanbuJ) U Cavalry CI(oA, early 16th century,
(Waffensammlung, Vienna) c Turki h -1Ii1 Ai/tail, 15th-16th
century. (MCI. Museum, New York) I) Parade heltnet of a 1"'.11.
guardsman, 16th century. (National Mu eum, Munich) I'
enior officer' fl(0). mid-16th century, (Kunsthislori ches
Mu eum, Vienna) r Turkisb lurban helm t', 15th century.
(Private CoU.)
recl fr J11 I hind an arth 11 t:mbank- rai d r I
ment.
man artillerym n I' r th
rp fI rming a 'Cparat /OP(II oeagi
r gim nt reated b Murat II out of the Id )1q)ra
inlimtr . 1 hey both made and p rat d cann n.
ftcr th aplllr f I tallbul Ichm't IJ add d a
'p ciaI tran-port rcgim nl. the lop arabaciiari h
made and op rated gun- ardagc., agg n' ancl a
sp ci I fie I r Aal-b tt m d b at on the anube
and Euphrates riYl'rs. he gunners, or lopfular, weI'
Ihen great! in reas d b Bayezil [I. umbering.
lillie over I () in 1575, th 10/1(II/or increas d t
5,000 men in Ihe 17th ccnwr .
"1 he IllImbara(ilar m rtar b mbardi r, grcnadi 1',
mining and inc ndiar regiment, and th lagimfilar
apper. and engin er. wcr aI . lablished b 'fore
148 I. Both \\ cr' alii d to lhe artiller ' and fI I'm d
part of lhc K pikulu . rp'. Th IIwnbarofllar u cd
hm'a,Yi mortar. Ill/mbara bomb of gla ' or ir n nel
Iwmborai grenad s [gl . or bronze.
The lloman inherited Inc hi hi phi.tie
I lam.ic iege-en inc ring lradi Ii n ( ee M \ 125,
The Am/ie\ '?! "'am 7111-11/11 .enll/rit') and their
in 1+ . In the al'l 161h ntur man J \ .,
fl eing the pani h I nqui. ilion brought the late t
gun-making. kills to th Ottoman. \n earl ille aI
ann tr d ri' m I tal nd Hun ry \Va' laler
oVl'nakl'n oy PI' testant Engli h and Dutch, who
be ame the Turk. ' major forci n uppli'rs.
he It man Empire w , hO\ cv 1', ri h in raw
mal rial. and Ih> 'urk. n c m' l p iali ,in
. III C nn n Ihal ,er lar er than an thin 'en in
u h w' pon cr n rmall a'l n Lh
il fa i'g', as it prov d easi 1'10 Iran p rt m tal
Ihan huge un-barrel, \'\ ilh a range fab ut a mil
and firin balls fwell \er I,D Ib lhee real
151h- ntLIr' i g - un achie ed a orin rate often
hot p I' da, urac wa a hie\'cd b u in
wadded hoi wrapp d in heepskin \ ith read -
m asur d s ks or p \ d r. II man gunp wder
wa , in fact, beller than European produ ing white
rather Ihan bla k sm kc. :r s fir, qu ntial
h oting [rom. paced ball ri 5, unain barrages I
pre de an assaull, illuminated ran e-markers fI I'
night bombarclm'IlI, movabl' manll'I-lik d I'
I prOle I arlillC'rym.n whjle rei adin pre-
fabricaled batter ddc'n e:, and Ihe us or m dium
ann n 10' eak n enem fortifkati n. b for heav
guns d liv I' d Ih fin I bl W,' I' all I hniqu.
kilfull u.cd by It man gunnc .
E ('n hen n I a lon- it ttoman gun-barrel
w rc n rmall' II' n. p 1'1 d spar t I fr m th ir
cumbersome carriagt '. hi, originall rae reat I'
111 bilil I ut wa: an t uldal d t chnique b th 181h
e nlur . The names to ItOman annl n
refle I \'t1rinu' innlll'ncl's. The I. q{C bl1(nlu"ha was
likt: a Eul' p 'an 'ba ili k'. Th \ as a
medium-weight, long-r ng weapon pI' babl
from the Jerman 'f; uk J11ClZ . The Iwlollboma wa a
eulv 'lin, Ii'om I he Iialian' IUl1brina'. Th '
wa' a light g-un, from Ihl' lungarian 'zak'lla.',
whil thl' li'om Ih Hungarian 'sajka', 'ould
b r n .iz but 111 u d n riv r- 0 ts. In
Ih' I th and 17th 'cllturie theI' t I'm app ar d a'
Ihe It man foil wed developmenls in Europe.
he in Iud d Ja(1110 loplar (gl' p - h t) nd top
(p t I'd). 'miG d rtS pulk b two mlll
carried a m'diumb r ann n v h. ammunition
\\'a. st r I l1'n (th Ih wagg n, hi h uld it If
be hain 'd t it n ur t m k /abur (, Id-
f! ni fi ti n. F I' i t \ arl' r Ih 110m 111-
v nled a \ t odcn I'm whi h uld I
Tbj f n ifuJ I te ,6u. century Turki b rnmjature of warrior
deOect.iA arro, s with th ir word b the arm on the ri bl
wring p ak d (/(IIA, of Olloman form. (/";'''1'; I'(lnllii/l', M .
Or'32g8, F.203r, Brit. Lib., London)
ap In and mlnlllg te hniqu' had more in
mm n iththo.eofth 1(14--18 arthanwith
th eometric siege-work of r 5th- I 171h- cnlury
Europ ,Tit Ingimfilar design d the works and
'lip I' is d unskilled lab urer, ns r'ipted min rs
and any a ailabl tro p. Th y w'[ als re-
p wi bl r rth I yin and firing of lagim e 'plosi
min . , ps nd parallel w rc pu, hed ~ rward
b hind mound of 'anh which protected the men as
th '\ rke I. r.1l he. w r d per and broader
than th . (' r ,ur p . with fir - t ps nd andbag I'
turf mbra me. niJl I' empl m nt w r> Tl
up I hind th 01 't I' ond parall I, ften n
nifici I hill k'. hil mu k t b tt ri d ~ nd d
th nd f a h parall'l. Th length of planned
mill - haft w I' au d urfa - trin I id at
night whil andl su p nd d fr m lh ilin k pt
the LUnn I traight. The 10 working chamber III
hich urki h miner dug itting cr ss-Ie d
mad their xplosive min et mol' effectiv
The Sfl ugglefor
fili/Ill] RejorJll
/7/11/0/8/17 Cell/llrie. ~
Th It man defi at that began art in the 17 h
ntury w I' n t au d by la k 0 del rminati n,
nor by ignorance 0 militar d ve10pm nl III
Europ . Th Turk. wanted in fa t to a quire lip
laIC. t w ap n. and to c lh lat 5t rc rti fi ati n .
What th lacked was the e 'perien c to make full
u of. u h ad ane s. !toman willin nss to learn
IS ' en in th page' of Ibrahim-i P t; vi. lh 17th
l1lur hi. torian who, far in ad ancc of hi
Eur p an nt mp rarics ompar d urki h < nd
enem a oun !J fi re wain hi own narrauv'.
um rou foreign mili ary p rt. weI' al hired
in luding Dut h nd < n Ii h n in r and Italian
cannon-mak r. h layJa-i ifrl!l1ciye or .orp: of
Europ an n b arne a r ni d part f lh
Oltoman arm ; but whil lh urk. manag d l
cop lheir n mi lh alwa . I' main'd b hind
th lim ",
Declining mililar di 'iplin was v n marc
.erious. The Kapikulu rps g l hop I ssl 111-
volv d in politic; e on mi ri s undcrmin 'd the
limor 5 l m, and the ipohi could n longer
mainlain lhems I es. All sorts of non-militar),
peopl bought th ir ay into III privil ged
Janis ary regim nt whi h, aft I' 1648, no longer
re ruited via th dev inne 'yst m. ariou. ult n'
att mpt d t ru h rrupli n r m in apal I
leaders nd we d oUl untrained troop., The e
effort l I' turn t an carli r purit orten nabled
tip It man' l dfi nd lhemsel e u s full . but
lh all p ler d out on e an imm dime dang I' had
pa cd.
B th 181h . ntul , ho\ ev r. man urk
realised lhat rea tionar I' form I' inad qual.
Cavalry
Guard
Pte 01 ,,..10ntr,
Art,II"y
chernacic layout ofan Ottoman encampment while in enemy
territory, ba ed on Mar igli s drawin of Kara Mu tara
camp at Brandkirken ,683-
A -
B- J"u.C(" It"'
C - COITlrT'Ondtf
C;J Gvn-.ogg n.
Apart fr m eapturin I lam', Arab h anJand,
th Byzantin Empir' and hu qu nuti, f war-
g ar from both Iranian and ur pean th
lloman, al en ag d in a Ii Iy arms trade.
Mat rial A wed fre ly a r s th Bla k a and
aI ng th gr at ri fat rn Europ _R rd,
Ottoman lala;>anJ ,8th-J9th centuri . (Tower Armouries,
lA>ndon) -
r
e
d
mod rni. ation t k r I
11 Empir ,th .0- ailed
pe', I ur i\ for an th r
-1rlll,- -11 '1110l/r
FOl1!1irfllio/l [fllf!Il, Fleel
tt m n rm
min t ,th'r f
ur ifiecl ,t rand, .
t n
l' at
for example. show thaI bctwecil '484 and 1502
alone wcapons and armour were bought from and
sold 10 Transylvania. Hungary and Wallachia,
swords and sabres came from both Poland and
Hungary, and :\Iuslim horse-harness was senl to
Poland while Russian harness went to Turkey.
Ottoman trade wilh western Europe was more
circunlspect. but remained flourishing enough lor
Clement Villa lry ;wd bait it with a Papal Bull in
ryl]. In latcr ycars Protestant countries took over
this trade. The English in particular sold firearms,
lances, cuirasses. plus broken Catholic staltles and
lx:lls to Ix melted down for cannon. In 160S one
English mcrchalll \cssd was interccpted by Cath.
olic warships olr:\lclos and was found to bc carrying
10 Istanbul 1.000 arquebus barrels, 500 completed
arquebuses, 2.000 s\vord-blades, 700 barrds of
:Ind various other ilems.
Nt'venhcless, the Ottomans slill manufaCllIred
the bulk of their own cquipmcnt. Supreme crafts-
men like Oswd Sinan, i\'lcbmct Sunqur, Aga
The \'e.u K..le (New Ciladel) re;nrorcinS Ih.. Gold..n Gal .. or
ISlanb.. I'. Byo:antin.. wall ... II wa.. b..ill in ...sa and;lI on.. orlh..
.... rli .... 1 k.no_ "Ia...... haped o:a.. I1....
Oglu, Hayruldin ibn Hasan and Had Ali Sunqur
wcre now making swords thaI were admired
througholll the ;vluslim world. Four main types
were used by Turkish warriors: the ktlif sabre,
which wa'i broader, shoncr and less curved than
the Iranian form; lhe pa/;'O/, a still shaner and less
cuncd sabre which was sorll(:times double-edged;
the ,Iilll},;r, a rcgularly tapering Iranian sabre: and
the )"alagol/ short-sword. This last WilS a vcry
characteristic Turkish weapon which had i\ shon
reverse-curved blade and no quillons,
One of the earliest Tllrkisb sourccs from Anatalia
is the mid-14th-century epic' Danifm{lIIdllame'. This
lisls a warrior's weapons as kiiliink war-hammer,
giir;:. fomak, bozdogoll and tlTlllld maccs, bilik quiver,
fork )o)'i infantry crossbow. gijlld,r javelin. IWI/ftf
shan-sword, IlOrb, pike, kilif sabre, fliz.t light spear,
siinii lance, I/'I'kt/ qui\'cl", /ig sword-blade. ok <lrrO\",
)'o)"il/ bow, kirb{1II bow-case, nowk war-axe and k'1/I('1//
lassou. By the carly 171h cetllury normal weaponry
had been reduced to the lIIi;:.rak cavalry spear
(originally a javelin). the hiil inhl.lltry javelin, the
ciri( cavalry javelin. thc 101m;:. mace and the lirfJ{/II
infalHry glaivc.
l h---'"
d
lak ZO
1 n lOW
I' to
;\ M Two horsehair I/I,e with boars' teeth ere ts. (Ar eoal,
Vienna) ( B.... tlUldard. (Army Mil. eu.m, J tanbuJ) IJ Bronze
battle- tandard, (Topkapi Museunl, Istanbul) I' N Standard,
Oag and p nnons. (Ar eoal Rathau.s and Kun lhislorische
Museums Vieon.a, Afler R. Nou.r, 'LHistoire du roi ant'
R(!'IIr dr T 1/1933)
'al'l in th' 14lh enLUr a Eur p an obser r
drib d nalUlian Turk as having only I alh I'
lamellar armour, wh I' a a urkish po l, I' fI rring
10 a tribal h ro p s e .in the besl available
wap nr b a. led I' hi ir n armour helm land
parale arm and Ie d fenc' . B lhe mid-I th
cnLUI 1I hequipm nli Ii t d bud/uk ui abe
haub rk. p rhap padd d lam liar uirass.
ub ret'$eTl \ hieh wa' p rhap an ad {orm of mail-
and- plint 'uira . kalkan 'hi Id fukal lamellar or
ale arm Ul', and luglilka ( rc t d) hel mel
ko/luk ambra , pil'Ohen ahenill ale-armour l'
full-I ngth lam 'lIar uira" ;::irh mail haub rk < nd
irll kliMh mai I oi r.
Th - ailed turban helm t whi h ma have
b ri \ orn v I' a 'l'parale padd d arming ap,
rea hed il full cleve! pm nl in the 15lh entur .Iv
ruB mail aVClllail pI' l' tin th fa as \ II a, th
n k w .. I pical of an arm in which ar her
prcdominat d. ther small h 1m t with integral
linin . I llclcd to b' similar! tall and it wa fr m
th e thalthc tt man p:fak dip d. It \ a in
turn. fr m this that crman ischdgge and En r1i h
'10 st T-tail II I' h 1m t 01 ed in the I th and
17th e nturie,'. The iI''' kiil6.1t n w in rp ral d a
mall hallo t' I I 0\ I to pI' te t I he I p the
h ad. and a: normall \ orn under s m I'm of
turban.
The lloman. m de great I' u. 0 mail-and-
plate arm ur than did th Eg ptian Mamluk or
th Iranian". 1 his fI I'm of n"trll tion probabl
d' I p'd 01.11 or laccd lamellar arm Uf. I'
djlfer nt hape, 0 mail-and-plale pI' L ction v I'
mad r I' inhntr and a all' . Durin th 1 h
c ntur h w('vcr infantr armour was vinuall
abandon d, 'Iilar ex pti n wa' th' ka;::argand
a fabric-covered and lined mail shirt which con-
tinu d in u until th lat 17th . ntur . 1L wa
light om!orlablc and inc n"pi u U', Th kora in
wa I lh- 'ntur .ripahi armour whos name
tron Iy 'uggcsl ur p an rigin. 'hi kora<.i1l
wa how'\' I' a distin tiv I Homan prote lion
larg I I plates nn (d b mail t
r. rrn n 'pti nail)', upple arm ur.Th ::.irh mail
hin, kolluk mbra and kalkan hi ld were. till
u ed b 171h- nlur a alry. a' \ hoI' -armour.
Th II m n habit r razin th walls f m L
ciue' lhe caplulTd in Europe during the 14th and
15th c nturic I 11 a wid pI' ad impr . i n that
garrison. The difliculty of transpaning large armies
to the Iranian frontier encouraged the Ouomans to
build large fortresses in that area during the late
t6th century at Kars, E!'ivan (which had a double
wall and St towers) and Tabliz. In the Balkans and
along the Anatolian coast the Ottomans inherited
many castles recently repaired in the hope of halting
the Turkish advance. All were in Byzantine or
Italian style and many, like Argos in the Morea,
wcrc immediately strengthened by their new can
querors. The Ottomans generally continucd to
build in a Byzantine tradition. though adding
stronger towers in the Arab-Islamic style. A
maritime threal from Venice led to the building of
coastal defenccs: but along the Danube and
Carpathian frontiers the Turks did little except
maintain the superb fortifications that had been
built by the Hungarians at Esztcrgom, Budapest.
Beograd (Belgrade) and T i m i ~ o a r a .
When the Ottomans were forccd onto the
defensivc in the late 16th and 17th centuries, they
introducl...d simple, speedily assembled but vcry
effcctive wooden fortifications called palo/lkos. These
could range fmrn simple wooden watc!Howers to
citadels with curtain-walls, all of timber. The most
impressive /lttlal/kos had a double-stockade filled
with earth. the twO walls tied together by timber
transverse beams. Similarly earthfilled corner
tOwers each carried IWO cannon. Some towns were
defended in this manTler, but most palollkos were
sited in open country. Mi\ior improvements in
artillery and siege-engineering forced the Ottomans
to copy their enemies' fortifications in the late 17th
and 18th centuries. Those of Beograd, for example,
were now virtually identical to comparable Euro
pcan defences.
European influence on the Ouoman navy was of
longer standing, but this is hardly surprising as the
Ottomans were a mi\ior European sea-power. They
inherited castcm Mediterranean By"J:antinc and
Saracenic naval traditions which had, for centuries,
been almost identical to those of Italy and the
western Mediterranean. The fleet's primary role
was to transport land forces and support them,
where possible, by coastal bombardment. It also
defended the vast Ottoman coastline and controlled
those numerous offshore islands which had been
havens for Christian piratcs.
The capture of Imrali island in the Sea of
Marmara (1308) may have been the Ottomans'
first scabome venture, but the occupation of the
Karasi emirate on the Dardanelles made them into
a minor naval power. They took over a small fleet
buill and crewcd by ex-Byzantine sailors and
mallned by ga-<.i warriors. Yet the Ottomans' lack of
a substantial navy left their Balkan conquests
vulnerable throughout the I,ph ccntury, and lIot
until the mid-Isth celllllry did Turkish ships
confront llle Venetians, whose coastal possessions
still dotted the eastern Mediterranean.
Murat II then built a Aeet which, in 1430, helped
capture Venetian.held Thessaloniki. In 14S6 Geno-
ese piracy led the a-<.op marines, Christian rowers
and crossbowmen and 60 ships of the new navy to
seize Ene,.; and the islands of the northern Aegean.
By 1470 the Turkish war-Aeet had riscn to 92
galleys, which now dominated the Black Sea also.
Within a few years the whole fleet, galleys and
transports. numbered around SOO ships, and during
lhe 1499-IS02 war with Venice Ottoman yards
launched twOgreat ships of I,800 10llilalo, the largest
ret seen. The Turks had also been llsing guns at sea
since 1421 01' 1430.
Il was firearms that ellabled the outnumbered
Ottomans to mailllain Muslim control of the Red
Sea, parts oft he Arabian Culfand Indian Ocean, as
well as to comain the threat of a l"lonuguese-
Ethiopian alliance. Portuguese penetration of these
waters had forced the Egyptian Mamluks to requcst
Ottoman technical help in modernising their own
Red Sea fleet in lSI!. This was inherited by tbe
Turks in '517. In 152Slhey also rebuilt the naval
base at Suez, and five years later the Ottomans
added a dockyard and naval squadron at Basra in
the Arabian Gulf.
After Bayezit II's victorics over Venice in the
eastern Mediterranean, the Ottomans attemptcd to
challenge French and Spanish domination in the
west. A developing alliance with, and ultimate
annexation of, Algeria and Tunisia greally streng-
thened the Ottoman navy. Meanwhile, Turkish
shipwrights, though still following European
moclels, began adding improvements of their own.
Ottoman map-makers like admiral Piri Reis could
also stand comparison with the best in Europe.
The fleet was financed by the maritime sfl1l(lIksof
AI-Cezayir (the Aegean islands and Celibolu),
Galata, Izmit and Algiers. Galle}' sailors. called
( BallI J de.lmbed il/ til I xl aft' ill i/nlir.I)
D ath oC'rtugrul (.). m nIb c -
m _ B y ( mmander) <f na ent t-
loman province 'ub: quenll, ass rt
aut nomya mil' (go rn 1').
Viclmy at KOYllllhi 'GT (Baril all).
Capture cif Bur a. Orhan azi b am
mil'. tl man capital m vcd
Bur a.
aplur or kudar.
ccupation rEmirat .
upaLi n r Imp
first Ltoman p
ural 1 be mes
nk ra.
. nqu t I' dirnt'.
J';rlory on River A1arica.
lloman apilal mo ed to dirne.
, n luest of we tern Thra 'e and -
donia.
BIll aria bce me: vassal.
brllja be me' vassal.
llom' n vi I' 0 er rbian'
Kosova. Ba zit 1 b come Emir. "ub-
qu I1lly a rt. iod pendenl sov-
er ignt 1IILan., rbia and B sni
b c me vassal .
nnqu I of Emirat'. r arah n,
ydin, M 'nt Hamil, Germi . n
Teke, and pan of Karam n.
\\ all -hia b' mes a I.
nqueH f Emirat of K n a, i a
and Ka lam nu. 'onqu t ofTh s al ,
D t r Uf' p" n rusad at ik-
up I.
B zal1lin ' mplr of 1 I nbul ; n-
t ntinopl ) b orne assaI.
Timurl nk (Tam rlan ) in ad ur-
k , OUoman defeal at Jllkara. :\10st
Turki h miralC' regain inde-
p nd n . B,lkan sLate abandon
Idom. Fragm 'ntation OrOllOman
s at: ijl< man ruin in dirn I 'a in
Bursa, M hmt'l in rna' a.
C/IIYJIIO/O/!,)' oj-OttOI1/flll
GO/If/lief/'\ flllt! (), .se\
8
9
,I 8
I' 9
13 7
133
8
1 45
1 53-54-
In: nl , w r' I' cruil d rr m oa'ial Turk, r ks
, Ibanian' almatian' an I 1 rlh t\rri an', whil
Ih UirrkrilfT ( arsm n) in Iud d rimin I and
pri n('I:- -war. .'ail r p iali ing in all- ail, hips
WI' al first ailed o)llok(ilt'r and lat I'
galleon men).
Little hang-cd in Ihe 17th nlUr, he Mediter-
ranean neci n w consislc I rthreesquadr n b ed
in orlh rli a, lld lhe gcall. Bm a
ri u: d clin did 'Ct in itll Irnn i Ie rrupli II
in the I'lanbul n val 'ards and the I ordir I
contI' I 0\"1' 1geria and Tu Ii ia. The onh
Arican ors irs I' m in d a ormidable (orce. rv n
n Ih ir \ n. Th y \' nlured rar beyon I lh
nel n raided I land in I 27.
Their reputation \ a' Iso in Ihe rasl where, in
Ti su'h II/n,l?,ltaribah ( e'l 'rill' ) WI" fir I
I' ruited a marine ill the 17th entur.
TI railur I' their n3v . t WI' I Olllr I r the
:\1 dit'rrCll1(an ri' m til' ml in d maritim might
r hr' uan rope \ : the llom n . lir't and
m I ru ial militar, tba k. B th lale 18lh
rrntur the Uomans l'V n had to I uy warships
fr m orcign "lrds. N venhcles: within m I'
limit d h< riwn. till' II man A 1 continu d i
rnj , ornt' succe'ses, The nav wa' re-organi cd
iot small r:q mdrons und I'd 1)'(/ be)I.. \ proper
h inorcommand,pa m'lll IIdpn.ioll tru ture'
\\fT institut I and the fI t'l got it \ n gunner
rp'separ tt' r m the apikulu artill r 11 hi h
it had pI' 'vi u.!), I' 'Ii I. Th II man navy
certainl ' 'howed it-elf to be in bellef' hape thall the
arm " ACler I'll, hing clef! at by th Ru 'ians t
me in 1770, II ' fleel. under .Jazi P 'a,
came back wid in a 'ear to ['eco er the island I'
Limnos and I I'ru tr te n 'fTl) all mpt. to eizc lhe
i.1 r Rod nd E\'\'oia.
ntury, (Topk pi Mu eum, l!itan-
Algiers seeks st?-IUS of vassal.
S(ilcyman I becomes Sultan.
Occupation of Zaila.
Conquest of Barqa.
Capture of Rodos.
Hungary becomes vassal.
First Ottoman siege of Vienna.
Conquest of Armenia and nonhern
Iraq. Algeria becomes vassal.
Conqucst of Tunis.
Loss of Tunis.
Conqucst of somhern Bcssarabia. Con-
quest of Yemen coast and Adcll.
Southcrn Il"aq becomes vassal. Fleet
sent to help Indian Muslims against
Portuguese.
Conquest of Venetian possessions in
'The OHoman ....my in Georgi..', painl"" 15S",. On Ihe le(1 arc
d,fu, A'I("bl" "a""lry and "'/>'Jhu. (. \'U ."llIn",r, MI'. Add 2'ZO' " r"99",
8ri . Lib., London)
15
t
9
1520
C.15
20
-4
15
21
1522
15'26
15
2
9
1533
Rc-unifiCiltion under Mchmet I
Sultan.
Byzantine Istanbul, Serbia, Wallachia
and Bosnia again vassals.
:VI urat II becomes Sultan.
Rt'-occupation of Turkish Emirates.
Dubrovnik becomes vassal.
Occupation of Epirus and southern
Albania.
Defeal of European Crusade at Varna.
B)'zanline 'Despotates' of Morea
become vassals. Bulgarian plincts de-
posed, Ottoman direct rule imposed.
Defeat of European Crusade at
Kosova.
Conquest of Byzantine islands in north-
easlern Aegean.
tvlehmct II becomes Sultan.
CO/IlUff oj Istanbul (Constantinople).
Conquest ofsouthefll Strbia.
Conquest of northern Aegean islands.
Conquest of Morea.
Conquest of By.alliline 'Empire' of
TrabzOIl.
Bogomil rising helps conquest of Bosnia
and HerLegovina.
Conquest of northern Albania.
Conquest of most SOlllhern Aegean
islands.
Conquest of Emirate of Karaman.
Khanate of Crimea becomes vassal.
Bayezil 11 becomes Sultan.
Capture ojKili)'o fil/{l Btlgorod-DlItStrovskiy
(Akkmmlll). rvloldavia becomes vassal.
Capture of Venetian ports in Albania
and ivlorca.
Defeal of Iranian-inspired Kizilba-1 ris-
ing in Turkey.
ScJim I becomes Sultan.
Invasion of Iran. Azerbaijan occupied.
Conquest of Malatya. Kurdish Emirs
of eastern Turkey become vassals.
Conquest of t\'!amluk Sultanate: occu-
pation of Cilicia, Mosul, Syria, Lcb-
anon, l'alcstinc,Jordan. Vic/ory at RaJ'd-
aui)'nl/: occupation ofF.!.'Ypt and Nubia.
Al Wahat and HUaz become vassals.
of t\lceca and recognise
Ottoman sllzeraimy.
151 r
15
12
lSI
ISIS
1.')16
'7
1499 1501
147
2
1475
14
81
14
8
4
14
21
14
2
6-59
143

145
1
1453
1454-55
145
6
1458- 60
14
61
'1'-
hi .
t
uIh 'rn
nd
zerbaijan and
nqu t of zo.
ultan.
I' a and Ih n I
rbia and oUlhern
hia and Tran ylvania
alia hia
om ullan.
"a .1\2 rbaij n
fDalmalia
Mahmut I b
L f
o
4
5
16
9
6
\ Turki b matcb.lock smooth-bore. u auca ian rifled mu keto
( Turkish rifted musket. 0 Turki h flintlock pi tol. t. Albanian
blunderbuss. F Caucasian primer-8ask. I. Kurdish powder-
fLo. k. II Turkish powder-fla k.
17
'73 -35
17
1754
'757
'774
f
b-
outhem Hungar and rbia.
R - 1
83
Difeat at Vie7lna.
84
6 Lo of northern and c nlral Hun ar
{t m- alia hia nd Tran lvania (0 us-
assaI.
m.
al
ultan.
a aJ defeat at
orgia and
rn Iran. I 8
ulh rn omaLi and
become
fTunisia.
b m
f we l rn
lria.
tile man II b m, ull n. L
cupad n
or
poraril ).
onqu '1
khazeli.
t'vlurC'a. ni e b> omes vass 1 r r
I nd pru .
upati n of Hungary. ran I ania
b m al.
onque I of cmen interior. Oc u-
pation of ou th rn Iraq.
o cup lion r Bahr n.
'onq u '1 of T ri poli lania.
P rtugue e dri n fr m Mu at.
upaLi n [Eritrean port.
lim II becomes ultan. onq u t 0
I I en e e i land in g an.
Loss of m n.
Re- onquesl of men. I, I nl to
h Ip Mu lim of Ind n(' ia again. t
P I'lugu
: nq u t f
L P mo.
Mural III
7
1- 1
1-4-7
155
15 I
1
1557
I 6
15 7
'5 8
157
1
'57
157
157
7
!57
8
-
8
7
158G-8g
159
1
1595
1
3
r/llf! Rrlfl/es
Bursa, 1301 1326
011 27July 130l,Ihl: BY"l.<ll1linc heter.teh i"luzalon
amhushed an Ottoman raiding party in a steep
valley ncar KOYllllhisar \... ith a force of 2.000 men,
Alan mcrccnarits who fought as heavy
cavalry. Uncharacteristically, the Ottomans
charged the B}"l.antinc line, which suggests they
were trappt.-d on their way home. i\luzalon's force
crumbled and was only saved from disaster by the
arrival of some Slav InHmtry. Thcrcartcr the
Byzantines were largely confined within Izmil.
The following ycar Byzantium's Slav inf.lIltry
returned 10 the Balkans, having not blXIl paid.
N("\'(:nhckss, the Ottomans made no dlort to follow
up their advarllagf" lllllil 130ft An amhitious
campaign then captured Akhisar. and lhn'atened
n ..... U.. ng.rian fort,fiu!ion" of Sibi .. in R"lnania
dat .. froln 'Slh nl .. rynnlh.. )' "rn'ed Ihr Onoman" ",rll
for a f.. rthrr Iwo h.. nnr.... )'ran.
Byzantine communications by seizing I mrali island
and cutting the road between Iznik and Izmit.
Other advances down the Sakarya valley also cut
the Byzantine-held Black Sea coast. BUI an auack
on Bursa failed,
A second effort was directed against Bursa in
t317. The Ottomans wcre not strong' elloug-h to
take the city, but forts were built or repaired near
the Gckirge hOHprings and on the foothills of
Uludag (l\'!t. Olympus) severing Bursa's links with
other Byzantine territory. In T321 the city's
isolation was completed by the capturc of l\lud-
anya. The garrison held out for five years more
before surrrndering to Orhan who, it is said, was
accompanied by Hacci While the Byzantine
governor returned to Istanbul, his military com-
mander entered Ottoman service as Gazi Evrenos.
Sirpsindigi, 1364
The Oltoman foothold in Europe was still vulner-
able, but lheir conquest of Edime in 1362 cut lhe
strategic road from Europe to Istanbul. This, plus
tht: I'lIpid colonisation ofThraee hy Turkish settler'S.
stirred Christendom into action. A Crusade of
perhaps 20,000 men was assembled by King Louis
of Hungary, Kral Urosh V of Serbia, Vukasin of
Bulgaria, the Byzalllinc DespOT or Ugljdil and the
princes of Wallaehia and Bosnia. lIS leaders were
advised by the Byzantine governor of 1>lovdi\', who
had just lost his city to the Turks.
Ottoman in Europc under Lala
nUmh(TI'd Ix'rhaps 12,000 m(n. 'I'he Emir Murat
orellrec! to slo\\' the cnemy advance. while ht
subdued the descendants of the Catalan
Company who still held Biga ncar the Sea of
Marmara. Lala could gather only 10.000 of
his troops, and these he i>Cnt Linder Bacci Ilbeki to
stOp lhe Crusaders crossing till: river.
The Crusaders advanced more quickly than
expected, however, and lorded the rivcr at Svilen-
grad. Less than tWO days' easy march from Edime.
they made camp on the hills overlooking the river
and road. Confident that Edirnc now lay at their
mercy, tbe Crusaders lCasted. Despite his numcrieal
inferiority, Ilbcki led his predominately light
cavalry arlllY in a sudden night aHack on the enemy
camp. He achieved total surprise and lhe Christians
Oed down towards the road. There mallY tried to
swim the broad Mariea, bll1this seems 10 have IX'cn
in fk)(xl. Thousands drowncd, including King
VUkaSill of Bulgaria. According to legend he was
rtSCucd by a Turkish maiden whose brother then
slew the king and slOlt: hisjewellcd sword. This was
later rctriewd by Kraljevir :vlarko, the Mac-
oooni:lIl folk-hero who was thell in Ouoman
servICe.
Ankara, 1402
The bailie of Ankara was hetween an Ottoman
force, at least a third of whom werc infantry, plus
sipohi cavalry am! SOIllC Tartar and the
larger force of Timur which fought in th(' same
C'.cntral Asian horse-archlTY tradition followed by
lhe Ottomans' own ancestors. 'rhe sizes of the two
armies an.' reliably estimated at [-10,000 on Timllr's
sidc and 110 more than 85,ooU unclcr Sultan Bayezit
I. Both \'njoyt'd recent records of success,
Hayezit lOok up a strong ddi:nsiw pOSl\lon
behind a st ream alid alO[lg I(M hills ddi'm!c'd hy his
Janissary and a.:.tI/J inlalllry. The RumcJi and
Anatoliall Ji/Hl!liJ stood to their len and right.
Timur's army first attacked the Ji/mlti.J of Rllllldia
on thc Ottoman leli wing, then the Serbian vas.'ml
colllingcnt which fOrTlll'd the second line on the
OtlOman right. The Serbs repulsed '!'i rnllr's cantlry
but, while trying to pursue them, lost cohesion and
fell back, abandoning their original position to the
enemy. Bayczit's Tartar auxiliaries thell changed
sides and also allacked the Ottoman left wing,
where the Rumeli .lipaltiJ hegan to waver, Some
Ottoman reserVf.'S under j\khmel Gelcbi charged
the trailOrous Tartars, but the Ottoman left had
slowly 10 gin- ground,
Turcoman conting"ellts from the recently COlI-
q\lcred Anatolian emirates, forming the bulk of the
Ottoman wing", now also deserted 10 TimuL
thus leaving- lhe Jallissaries and a<;.aps exposed on
both f1anks.Judging thl: bailie lost, the remaining
Ouoman reserves fled with the Sultan's heir,
Siilcymall, Bayezil decided tojoin the Serbs with his
infa1l\ ry am! cover his SOil'S c'scape, He chose the hill
of Gat ai, where six remaining squadrons fi'olll the
Ottoman right wcrl' already making a stand.
Timur's t!'Oops surrounded this hill but their
assaults W('fe lx:aten back. When night fell Bay('zit
and some 300 cavalry broke out eastwards, but the
Sultan's horst' fell and hc was captllred.
'Abbas Ali in .h., ..i"., .. Euphno .,s', Tu..kish ",;n"lIu"';"." ""., ...,
oft.,n n.o..., cone., ..... .,.! ""iCh ...,,,listie d.,lails .han ""., .... th..
anisl" of I..... n. Th;" l''';nt.'ng of e.,600 shows A....b """"";Oni
Iik.. tho.... who "., ..".,.t as Onom"n a\lXili""';.,,,. (lIt"MIII ""'''IlII"
by Fuz':'li, 1'01". Or. ''l<KI!), F.233r, Bri . Lib" London)
Istanbul, 1453
The Ottomans set up l!wir guns lltcing the walls or
the prize they called Kizil Elma, the R('(l Applv, 011
t I April. A total of 69 guns formed t5 balleries
bcing the city gates or firing across lhe Golden
Horn. Fivc had fall r small guns, nine had lour small
and one large. The final battery, Ileal' the Sultan's
tent opposite the 51. Romanus Gatc, would ul-
timately include the three great-gulls, although at
first two were sited facing the present Egri and
Edirnc Gates to lhe north.
The great-guns fired shot of t,:wo to 1.500lbs,
while the smallest shot balls of around 2.')0Ihs
weight. All were set up on woodell eradles with
shock-ahsorbing timher or SlOne bulwarks behind.
They were loaded with powder, a woodell wad, a
c
,\ e tion (r constructed) of l.he Rumeli Hisari, '452. (After
Gabriel) 1\ Pa/fIIA st)'1 walcb-tower: ,-tiInber and wattle
fencing' 2-ditcb, 3-drawbridge; ,,-turret wll.h musket-
embra ure . (After Mar igli) c orner of a /'il/mko-style
fortification: 5-earl.h infill; b-tiJnber urtain-wal1; ,-transverse
tren tb ning timbers; 8-ba. e of gun-tower. ( fter Marsigli)
m nt ntinu d until th night 0[28-29 Ma . wh n
on greal- lin a< ad an ed right up to lh
to kad> ofrubbl anel 0 d that the d fI nd I. had
built a 1'0 th ir lIap d wall. It fir d an h ur
b fore dawn, and th n nc again a lh lIltan and
hi m n mad their final and ue essful 'aull.
munition.
force left
h land finalJ 'priming powd r. p ning fir
\loman ann n maintain d Lheir
barrage fI I' 4- day. firing ome I
(appro'.3,<31In. r.hl). ilh nl
b II lh 1i t gun brought down a fi
. eetion of \I all. Probl m' r lcvation weI' oon
Iv d \I hik lh. of overheating w re entualJ
ur d by 'P nging- the gun wiLh oil. n gr al-gun
bur'l bUl wa' I"C-ca land th n moved to lhe
ultan. tenl h Lter \i here it wa laler joined b
lhe lhird gr l- un, plu mall I' ann n.
Brea he \ rc mad n ar lh t. Romanu and
Egri l. ndinantr as' uh'lollowed but\ er
driv n ba k. The tl man n w d idd l
n enlratc on the l. Romanu ate and it
nanking "alL. B' 21 \pril the had larg J
rumbled. n I -1 fay th un th l had b 11
hooting over alat t w I'd lh' Id n H rn
w r m d t fa th] mp ri I P la. nel th n to
the ullan" t nL I all 'r .Th r n r th b m ard-
Danuoc on 26 J utle, to be mct by the Aect and thc
Wallachians. Kiliya was besieged on 5 July nnd
surrendered 011 the 14th. The Ihte of its two
Parcalabs, IvaSCll and Maxim, is unrecorded.
On 19 July the Ottomans set out again and
during a four-day march were joined by the
Crimean Tartars. The army suHcred an aCllte
shortage of water 011 its way, but the investment of
Belgorod began 011 till' 22m!. For 15 days cannon
bombarded the IOwn while sappers dug trenches
ready for an inJantry assault. Negotiations staned
on 5 August. On the 71h the two defending
Parcalabs, German and Oana, were reponedly
killed during lhe cominuing bombardment, ancr
which a ddcgation ufinhabitants surrendered their
city 10 the Sultan. One week later, aner re-
organising the administration and installing a
garrison, Bayezit II led his army homc.
Raydaniyah, 1517
The Egyptian ivlarnluks tried to copy Ottoman
artillery techniques aftcr thcir defcat at iVlatj Diibik
in 151 G. By the following year tlwir Sultan, Tuman
Bey, had built 100 ox-drawn waggollS carrying
arquebllsicn. and light copper cannon; had re-
cruited camel-riding sharp-shoolcrs, and had col-
lected hcavy c;:\llllon from various Egyptian cit-
adels. For his pan, thc OUOlllan Sultan Sdirn I
occupied Syria alld Palestine, then marched rapidly
across Sinai to caplure Bilbays and AI Khanka.
The :'\1amluks helieved that a defensivc battle
was .heir bCSl hope. so Tuman Bey had a deep
trench dug in lionl of Rayd;iniyah villag(, from
Jabal ill Ahmar (RI;d Mountain) to the irrigaled
area. Behind this he built stone emplacements.
1'1\(:sl: were intended to shield his unwieldy cannon
which, firing frnm fixcd posilions, would sulxlue the
unprotectcd Ottoman artillery. The new gun-
waggons were also drawn Lip behind the trcnch.
On 22 January Sclim's army reached Birkat al
Haji. a shol'l way From Raydaniyah. Al dawn on
the 23rd the advanced fiom the village to
take up lhcIr positions, but the Ottomans had
learned ot" the Mamluk plan and, instead of
advancing into the trap, Selim kept his artillcry Ollt
ofrangc and led his men round the back ofJabal al
Ahmar. OUlflanked and finding their baggage and
camp :lllackl'Cllrom tlw rear. the Mamluks had to
USe their traditional Charging with spear.
sword and javelin, they suffered appalling losses to
Janissary firearms. Both sultans fOllght in person,
Tuman Bey actually killing onc of Selim's advisors
in the belief that he was the Ottoman ruler.
Incvitably. howevcr, firepower triumphed and the
broken ivlamluks ned, having 10SI vcry fcw men to
traditional weapons.
Dardanelles, 1657
During the Cretan War (1654-t{}6g) thc Ottoman
navy faced Venetian, Papal and Maltese (Knights
of 51. John) fleets which were attempting to
blockade the Dardanelles from thc Venctian-held
islands of Limnos and Bozcaada. In June [657 the
Christian fleets decided to forcc the straits and
atlack Istanbul with 35 sailing ships, seven galeasses
and 33 galleys. The Turks Ilad meanwhile assem-
bled 18 sailing ships, ten galeasslike square-rigged
mahufl troop transports, 30 galleys and numerous
coastal craft with which to recover Bozcaada.
On the 8th mosl of the Christian galleys retired to
Imroz, which was inadequately guarded by the
Turks, for fresh water, re\LIming on the 17th. That
morning the Ottomans allacked the 20 Christiall
sailing ships, seven galcasses and four rcmaining
gallcys which wcre blockading tile Dardanelles.
These had, however, been IOfced into mid-channel
by coilstal batterics. A confused mclee followed
which drifted to Bozcaada, wllere the Christians
anchored. i\'lost of the Turks sailed on to Mitilini,
"UH l{nAnni, .. lion-sk.in Imperial drum, l61h century.
(Arn.y 1..llInbul)
though !>onw ot' tlll'ir g-alleys, seeing tl1(" Christians
returning frum InHo/., returned tv deli-nd the
Dardanelles.
;\loral(' no\\' sllll1lp('d in the Christian flcct, and
on :.!3 JUlH.' the Papal and contingents
home, The Vt'TH,tians continued to hlockade
the straits, hut lht'ir diminished strength enabled
the Ollolllan gallcyl> at i\litililli to row throughout
the night of',q '.lj August and land 3.000 troops Oil
the w{'Stnll side of Bozeaada. On llll" 31st the
"t'tlctian g:arriSOlt \\ithdn.:w, t\ similar mal1(J(.'llvre
loreed the ,'elll'tians from Limnos on 1'2 November.
Embo",..,d lealher Clip" llnd skirt uf a Janis"ary INn, late 181h
.,,,ntury. (Army Mu""unl, Is'anbul)
Vienna, 1683
'rhe immediate target of the Ottoman arm)
besieging Vienna was the wall octween the Castle
and Lion Bastions, whieh was protected by the
Castle Ravclin and its coul1lersearp. Three ap-
proaches towards the Ravclin and Bastions were
started during the night of t4 15.July, linked by
regular parallels. Vulnerable points were rooled
with timber and earth, while larger sunken areas
formed gun-hallcries or assembly poillls for assault
troops.
An artillery bombardment began the following
morning, ilnd the batteries were then moved
forward as the trellch systcm ,ukanccd, But as the
Ottomans had unly brought 17 mediulll alld 95
li/{ht cannon. plussollll' monars, this hombardment
served only to keep the defenders' heads down,
Infrequcnt sonies by the garrison wen: ineffective,
and once the Turkish trenches bad J'eaclH"d the
outer defencl's the must notable activilies lor the
next weeks were Ottoman mining al\(I infantry
assaulls. ;\Iining, in l;\ct, began in earnest beneath
the salient angles of the Ravclin and the two
bastions on 22 July. Al first its impact was slight,
and sllbsl.'CjllCllI assaults were beaten back,
Counter-milles hy the dt:fenclers were evt'n "'ss
ellectivC and most only undermined Vienna's de-
fences still further. ;\kanwhile the Turks raised
earthworks that ovcrlooked the Ravclin.
The daily pallern of Ottoman activity consisted
of intensive anillcry bombardment during the
morning, the explosion of mines in the afternoon,
and illr.ultry attacks by evening or night. Sapping
and mining gradually oblitcr<JIecl the Viennese
earthworks, and Oil 9 August the Ottomans reached
the moat. \dwrc thcy roofed their now vulnerable
trenches. On the 12th a large mine eventhr"w up a
rubble causeway DElIO the Ravelin, part of which
the Turks sciz('(l. Their tactics were now vinually
those of 1918 storm-troopers, with small groups of
30 to 100 men making night assaults for limited
objectives. The Ottomans advanced foot by fOOl
ulltil, on 2 September, the defenders had 10
abandon tbe Ravelin clltin:ly, This, plus a mine
which opencd lip part orthe Ca.stle Bastion on lhe
salll(' day, meant that Vienna could not hope 10
hold oul much longer. Furthcr mincs brought down
the left wall ol"the Castle BaSlion plus the point and
left wall of the Lion Bastion,
Ho ap ea t ofLake van, wa a typical Kurdish feudal ca tie to
which the Ottom.ans added large round towers suitable for
artillery.
uoman rc ad an in r up th Danub bUI
ignoranl of th 'ir trength, led 5 0 a tr op plu'
lighl cavalr . artiller. and irregular: a ro:. th
a a rlv I' nel pa t Beograd. 1\1 anwhile the Grand
IZler ilahtar M hm t Pa a mar h d thr ugh
med ro 0 and took up a elden i e position nonh-
t I' r "ka. H I' h rang d hi infantr along
th wo d d hill ide. v rI kin, the I' d (i'om
Beograd as it oundlhrough a deflJe betwe n Bol c-
and I' "ka.
V\ alii th u ht he nl fa d a . mall It man
unit Ihat blocked Ihe road as it emerged from Ihi.
ddil and harg d ah ac! with hi avail'. Th
hal' m n n ~ und th ms Iv s entangled in
ine arc!. hand th u trian infantr , who
W I' cageI' for a
a.scmbld some
rn Bulg ria r. ing a 1'-
round P II' val' din. n
f u tria. I arning thaI th
Grocka, 1739
thr L'-prOllge I uSII'ian In a Ion of It mal
I rritor: in 1737 wa soon routed. althou h an
U lri n ~ r . till held B ograd a ear later. Mo t
Quom n. u e se.' r' h I' 'ult fth .omt de
Bonncval' planning and I' form before hi arrog-
an c led to hi being. k d.
By the 'pring r I 7' th id
de i. ive b, ttle. Th
I ,0 men in \ C t
or ani d n my I'm
22July:-'1 h I \Valli
By 1'2 .'cplcmbcr Ihe lloman were e en
mining btl1L'a h Ihe iIY" curt'Lin-wall to Ih I'l'l r
the Ravclin. but on Ihal dab tile was fou ht
out. ide \'i 'nna in , hi h J hn obi ki' I' Ii "ing
I'm I'll h I th Turki. hie iegin fore'.
The baIlie of Ankara, '402.
\ er 'trung ut virtuall in inglc fil b hind them,
wert' no\\' as ailed b ' concentrated mu kctry. 7\10 t
C the .wah-' retreated in di, order, but ne
r gim 'nt or PalCr Cuir i . ized a m II hill.
ing their lanc" as pikes the rc:istcd man
c unt r- II, ks unLil lnall v nun.
Rl"lativ I Ccw Jani arie held th, hill
'qu cz d I Iwe n thcdcfil and the I r d Danube,
a uch an i 'olated po ition ould ea. il ha\'e
b c mad 'alh-trt p. Most oC Ih It man Ir p
\ r to th \ t r m \ here the poured fire int
th onCus'd AU;lrian. G r, .. ault by th
]ani "ari " ni ltlfall enabled Marshal v\ allis to
r lr al i, mil . t inca, after IO'ing ,0 0 kiJled
an I 7,000 wounded.
Further Reading
R. '. net' n" all(J! War inlhe Levant /55 /853,
( Li rp I I, 52).
. B leli nu Le fonde lloman de. Balkan,
(!.J():.!-J,'j6li), (r print London 1'1 ).
'. Duff" ,'itgl' The Forlres ill the Ear()'
J/odml World /49+-,660 (Land n 1979).
G.] ... E 'r I and hir I he Turkish Empire
J2f)8-1924, (reprint 1 work 1 9).
H. I nal ik, The Olloman Empire: The Classical Age
1600. ( and n r 73),
. j. Parry and M, E. Yapp (edit.j, /I or,
Technologr lind in Ilze ,\fiddle Ea t (L ndon
1 75).
E. P tra ch, Die Tti'rkenbellie (Karl ruh IC 70),
D. E. Pitcher, J Hislorical of Ifte Olloman
Empire, (Leiden 1,72), ala as an I the'i,
L nd n ni r il same title.
H. R. R bin n, Orienlal Annol/r, (L nd n 1,67)'
ha\ oj lite Olloman Empire and Hodem
Turk)' v I. I, Empir qf lite Cazi : The Ri, e alld
Declin of the Olloman Empire /2 /808, ( .amb-
ridge 197 ).
P.V\iu k LaFoT/lWliondelEmpireOl101ll1l1l,(r pl-int
London I R ).
P. it cck, The Risp (if'the Olloman Empire, (L nd n
1938).
71e PIOlfS
AJ: JIt'eJ-1 ,fIT/alolian infanl1Jman, firsl half /4tft
Th Byzantin rm re-organi ed along Fr n h
lin in th 12th ntur. had han d liut b lhe
arl. qth. Thi' man u tufe-nk bl to
pr Irk Fir. Hi typieaJl larg' B
hield \ as primarily a de enee a ain'l
I'BariamandJ aaph',Brzamin m nu ript 14th
c nl. M. ,r('c. 1128, Bib, I aris' "t.
h od re ira', Byz3nLin fr I 21 .\D in
Jilu Kari e ami, I tanbul.)
A: Olloman Gazi,fir: I half /4th cmtllfJ'
Thi or r ligi u volunt r, w r a tyl f
buff-leather armour ori inally introdue d by Lhe
13th ntur fongoL. Th circular ar-pie cs on
hi helmel arc aloof M n 01 d ri ali n, whil hi,
traight sword i t pi all I ranian. (Is lat d minia-
tur s, zarba jan, mid-14th nl., M . Haz. 21
Topkapi Lil., l'ianbll!' 'Ided'w rd-hilt ,Iran,
carl, '4.th 'nl., 1'1 Mu. urn I. Luis.)
3: Turcoman tribal IlOrsem(lII. early 141ft emllllJl
ur man hors - rcher formed Lh> 1llik C ad
ltoman armi . 1 1os1 would have been un-
armoured r hav nl a I ather-bm liar cuir 'S,
mown IWI'I". 'rhis man. howcv(,r, isa leader and also " A
wcars an iron helmet with an ample mail <lvcntail.
(Helmct, Anatolian Turkish, latc 13th-carly 14th
ctlll" Topkapi Arllloury. Istanbul: 'Kitab-i Samak
Ayyar. w('stcrn Iran, early 141h CCII!., Ous.
381, Bodleian Lih.. O:.:ford: Shah4Namah. Azar-
bayjan, 1335/6 .\Il. cX4Dcmotte Call.. rlOW scat-
tercel. )
81: OUall/a/l-Ba/kim la)'a. [,MO' 'Silt
Man)' Ottoman inr:'lnlrymcn were of Christian
origin and this seems to ha\'C becn reflectcd in their
tquipmclI!. This man wears an Italian-style rein-
foTted 'jaekct' over eastern dress. His fe:uhcred
javelin with its bag of incendiary matenal was used
against siege-engines. ships, woodcn defences or
simply to tcrrif)' the foc. (Isolated miniatures,
Armcllia
4
Azarbayjan, late J4th-carly 15th cenL,
Ms. J-1az. 2153, Topkapi Lib., Istnnhlll; 'judge-
ment ofAnnc and Caiphas', carved wo<xlcn coller,
Tmllsylvilnia. late 14th cerlt .. Plltna ivlonastery,
..Ioldavia; 'Orientals', Italian fresco, mid-t'l,th
cent., in silu Castle ofSabbionara, Avio; 'Treatise on
Walfare', 15th cent., Kier Coil., Lon-
don.)
82: Turki,h Si//(/!Ji. f.f./oo
Feudal cavalry wen: the backbone of medicval
OUOlll<l1l armil'S. This man a 'turban' helmel
and wields tl1(' lllace favoured by many Muslim
\\'arriOl'5. The opening of his highly decoratcd mail-
and-plate armour is protected by an additional
chl'St-covcring medallion, and his horse's lamellar
bard a dOlh covering. (Tul'uan-helrnct, Ot-
toman or MamlLik. carly 151h celli., privatc colI.;
'Three Romances by Kinniini'. miniatures by
junayd al Sultani, Iraq. <:.1395 .\1), Ms. Add.
t8113, Brit. Lib., London; 'Iskandar-N:'i.mah',
northern Anatolia. 1416.\1), i\1s. Turc. 309, Bib.
Nat ..
By Olloll/a" infant,y. earo' 15th
This man is clearly one of the Sultan's elitc. He
wears full infantry armour of mail-and-splints.
probably dCliiglled lor siege-warfare, Evell his
engraved iron shield could resist primitive firearms.
His sword is stung from his shoulder, a style only
used by fOOl soldiers. (Turkish infallll'Y armOllr,
15th CCll!., of Art. New York.)
Thi" minialltr'" of Ken'an Pa'la marching again"'l Albanian
relM:ll1 showlI ,h., n.,w infantry who w.,..., the.. ,h., mOllI
.,ffecti ...., Ouoman troop". (/'al,ma"", c.'63o, M". Sloane 3,;84,
Brit. Lib., London)
Cf: lrallaciliflTl '"op,;k (fllxiliary. (./500
The military equipment of the Balkans under
Ottoman domination soon added Turkish slyles to
previous Byzantinc and western European fashions.
This man's helmet is of Asiatic form. His armour is
Italian, but old-fashioned, while his weapons and
shield arc Jypically eastern European. (Sword of
Stephan the Creat of second hair 15th
cent., Topkapi Museum, Istanbul; pavise-shicld,
Romanian, 15th C("Ill., Central l\'lilitary Museum,
Bucharest; halbard, Wallachian, second half 151h
cenL, Regional Buzau; 'Hungarians',
wo<xlcut by Burgkmair, early 16th cenL, Nat. Bib.,
Vicnna.)
C2: ](f1fimfl)" 151h cmlllT)'
The govcnunellt-isslled equipment
infantry \o,'as simple but ofgood quality, as was lheir
Inlerior "f the lown 8"le of Ohrid in Maced"n;a, showinlr the
iron-plaled doors. Mosl of Ihese fortifications dale from
Ouon.an lin.eli and surround the Illh cenlury citadel of I.he
Bulgarian Tsar Samual.
heavy woollcn clOthing. The .haracteristic woollen
cap would lain grow larger, while shield and bow
would soon both !>t. abandoned in ravour or a
muskct. (Drawing ofaJanissary by Gentile Bellini,
15th cenl.. British Museum, London.)
G':J: .Varllt Ilfri((1fI marinf, {ar!.J' 1611t Willi']
Jl/agltiiribalt, or North Arricans, were among the
most cnl'ctivc naval troops in thc Ottoman mustcr.
and Ihe crossbow, somc rOUl' leet long, was their
ravourcd weapon. This lllall wears an ex-Spanish
salel helmet and a mail shin or Mamllik Egyptian
origin. His fine leal her mlarga shield is, however,
typically Moorish. ('Spaniards capture Oran from
the ivloors', fresco byJuan de Borgogna, early 16th
CClll., ill Jirll Chapel, Toledo Cathedral;
:\'loorish adarga shield, late t5th cenl., Real Ar-
Illcria, i\'ladrid; Italo-MoOlish helmet, late 15th
cenL, AsIaI' CoiL, Hcvcr Castle.)
DI: Am!)' Commander, C.IGoo
An abundance or fine robes, fur-lined and richly
embroidered, werc a mark both of rank and of thc
Sultan's favour. This man's iron helmel, shaped like
a turba'n wound around a cap, is something of a
curiosilY and was probably more decorative than
effective. (Helmet of Ali I)ap, 16th cenl.. Real
Armeria, :"'Iadrid; ponraits of Sultans, Ottoman,
1574 t595 ,\D, Ms. Haz. 1563, Topkapi Lib.,
Istallbul.)
D2: Siltililar. second half 16th cell(u/:Y
The with their striking rcdJanissaryslYlc
woollen caps, were onc of thc Sultan's guard
regimcllls, This was naturally reflecled in the richer
quality ofthcir clothing and weapons. ('Siilaym;"in-
N:imah', Olloman, 1558 AD, Ms. Haz. 1517,
Topkapi Lib" Istanbul; 'Nusrat-Namah',
Ottoman, 1584- AD, Ms. Haz. 1365, Topkapi Lib.,
Istanbul.)
D3: Guard {(/Va/ryma1/. half 16th cellIIU)'
Men rrom the kapiklllu ca\'alry werc an elite and
often ended up as senior officers. This man probably
wears armour beneath his robes, though only
helmet and arm-defences arc visible, (Bras... stan-
danl, Army Museum, Istanbul; 'Sh;"ib.Ni'imah of
Sellm Khan', Ottoman, c, 1570 All, Ms. Ahmci
:3595, Topkapi Lib., Istanbul.)
1: So/akbaji, second half 16th eenfllry
The Jolak guards formed the ruler's ceremonial
protection and an archaic bow and infollliry quiver
were tl1eir dislinctive mark. Their senior officer, or
hafi, ranked seventh in the entire Janissary corps.
('Divan', ofNaditi, Ouoman, t573/4 An, Ms. Haz.
88g, Topkapi Lib., Istanbul; 'I-liincr-Namah',
Olloman, 1584 AD, Ms. Haz. 15'23, Topkapi Lib.,
Istanbul.)
'2: ACl'11d Og/a1t, tale 16th eellfury
The (lcrm, oglan, or trainecJanissary, having studied
Turkish on an Anatolian farm, now learned to be a
soldier. His musket is a simple spring-loaded
malchlock. ('Book ofOttoman coslumes', Auslrian,
1586 All, Cod. 8615, Nat. Bib., Vienna; matchlock
musket, Ottoman, early 17th ccnt., Army Museum,
Istanbul; ;Shah.Namah of Mehmet III', by
Nis."iari, Oltoman, c. 1600 ,\t), Ms. Haz. ,6og,
Topkapi Lib. I tanbul.)
E3: 'avol ill parade uniform, Lale 16lh cenllll))
E hJani ar or/a h d it wn r t worn only on
p cial parad . Thi m n w ar a m d I gall in
his plume-hulder pr bably showin him to b from
on oflh m rin r 'm nt . Hi urv d word is a
paiyos imilar to th European na al utla s. In hi
belt I also carrie a small ax for cutling musk t-
ball lead from the bar which be keeps in hi p u h.
(B k f II m n oslum s', u lIian 1586 AI)
Cod. 861 at. Bib. i nna' matchlo k musket,
OttOman arly 17lh nl. Arm 1.u um 1 tan-
bul; lila m-n- -mah' lloman 1 57 AD Ms.
Haz. rSI 7 Topkapi Lib., I tanbul.)
FI: ipahi, earl' 171h cenlury
Thi h rs m n w the final fI rm of Ottoman
avaky armour. Hi rifak h Imet ha an addiL.i nal
mail aventail which betra the harp. h uld r
outlin I' hi mail-and-plal' koradn. rmed wilh
110 word. (one und r hi saddle) ayatagan and a
pair of pi tols, he aJ a arries a two-horsetail lug
pro in ial tandar . (H 1m t, Ottoman late 1 th
nl. Tower of L ndon I'm uri . Sipahi ar-
mours, Ottoman 16th cent. aflensammlung
\ ienna and rms al d I'm ur In titut ,
rand 'on aLI hoI'S -armours, Ottoman 16th
cent. rand 011 a tJ nd . tOl' che Museum
Brn' fMur 1111', ttoman .1585
AD, Edwin Binn 11. w York; he Prophet
with his rmy', !lum n .16 AD Edwin Binney
Call. w York.)
F2: Deli :Jtolll, c.J6oo
The Balkan origin of lh deli cout w I' h wn til
th ir we p nr nd lathing. 'uch Ii ht avalr
Oft'lI . port'd travagant feather d, animaI- kin
h adg r nd arried ea tern 'ur p an-st Ie
. hi Ids. (Ka{argalld arm ur, Ottoman I 6th- 17th
pkal i rm ury [tanbul' History f
lila man' Oll man, 157 AD, M . 413,
h t I' B all Lib., Dublin; usrat- amah
Olloman c. I 82 .'\D, s. del. I I, Brit. Lib.)
Fj: Arab auxi/im)l, early 17tlt cenlury
B'douin (rib sm 11 a uir'd th >ir quipm nt from
wh r v rth uld. rm ur,lik thi m Il' mail-
and-plale uir 'and w r rt inly mad in
th rab provin but boot was just a Imp 1'-
tanto Till man' h Imet and w rd ar h w v r,
ManUi:"lk t 0 centuries old and probably tr a our d
family heirloom. (Mail-and-plate armour and if
Ottoman- yrian 17th cent., ational u um,
Damascu . 'Li eor uhammad' byMustalaZ iiI',
r S9 /S AD, M. 19, he tel' Beatty Lib. Dublin;
helm t Mamluk lat 15th Ill. pkapi Ar-
moury Istanbul.)
GI: Tufekfi, mid-17th celltury
Tiifekfi mu keteers weI' among the new inC; nLJ)'
recruited dUling th 17th century. This man has an
imported Dutch rapi r and a urki h-mad
mll ket wilh an imported European wheel-Io k.
('Pasa- amah Ottoman c. 16 . Sloane
584, Brit. Lib., London; wheel-lock m'-;l k t
Ottoman, 17th nL, rmy u cum IstanbuL)
G2: PC)lk late 17th century
The IJeyk wa ba ically one of lh ultan'. m n-
. ers, but hi real dutie spread far beyon I that. H
carried the ruler's orders to bis command 1's a
pri ilege reRected in the magnificenc of his ha ed
brass h 1m t and ild d r nam lIeI w ap nry.
(' ur- amah' Ottoman 17'20 At) Is. hmet
3593 opkapi Lib., I tanbul; Halil ibn a s
-a', p rtrait by L vn!, early 18th nt., M . Haz.
21 4 Topkapi Lib. 1 tanbuL)
Ottoman iege-work and the fortification of Vien.na, ,683'
(After Suttinger)
JJ
'I ,
CD $ II Ii" Bost4on
......... " -,,-'
, /.
I(II"CH: dl"lf'lct's
___ OtlomiOtn tnnch.,
CUomo" OnOYI t I
.liAx.Ot ballt'tlt:J
The modern Turkish Arn.yh... mainiainf'dlliraditional ""hi"
band sinee 1953. II .. memb.,ra .,.,rforn. on original inSlru-
me"ts (he"" ,. I.he original of Ihe Europea.. dari..el)
and ...e.r .... plica OUon"... untlorn,,,.
G.1: A-/l/Jikulti c(l1'all)'/!uln. mid-J71/1 centu')'
Olloman horsemen largely abandoned armOUI' in
Ihe 17th celUury. although Ihis man, lacking cvcn a
helmel. would seem lu havc becn caught unpre-
pared lor combat. Evell his three (iril javelins were
now used more for sport than war. ('Murat IV with
servants', portrait, Ottoman, 1639 AO, Ms. Haz.
2134, Topkapi Lib., Istanbul; 'Sh<lh-N<lmah',
OtlOman, c.1630 .\11, Ms. Haz. I I 16, Topkapi Lib.,
Istanbul; 'Khamsah', by Ata'!, C.1675 AD, Ms. R.
816, Topkapi Lib., Istanbul; javelins and quiver,
Olloman. 17th cellt., Museo Civico, Bologna.)
G4: Tartar /llIied horseman. l'ar(;' J7th atllury
Tartar trihts from lhe Crimea. who fought 111
traditional style as horse-archers, were now the
most dlcctivc cavaky in the Ottoman army. This
man wears an iron skullcap under his fur hat, and a
captun:d Russian mail-ami-piatt: cuirass under his
hC;lvy fdl coal. (Tartar saddle, 17th cenL,
Waffensammlullg, Vicnna; mailandplatc cuirass,
Russian, c.t600 (\1), State Historical Muscum,
Moscow; Tartars in 'HistOry of Suitun SLilayman',
1579 .\[), Ms. 4'3, Chester Beatty Lib., Dublin.)
H,: Bosllian Jrollliersmall. mid-18/h UII/UfJ'
Now on the defensive, the Ottoman Empire relied
heavily on the guerilla tactics of i'.'luslim villagers
like this Bosnian. He is formidably armed with a
snaphaullce musket, pistols, larg-c )'lltagall dagger
and Dalmatian schiavona sword. (Flimlock mus-
ket, Ottoman, early 18th cent., Nat. Museum of
Archaeology, Madrid; 'Siir-Namah', Olloman,
1720 .\D, Ms. Ahmel 3593, Topkapi Lib., Istan-
buL)
1"12: Egyptian Mamluk Sil)(l/li. mid-18th century
The Mamluks of Egypt prescrved their proud but
outdated mcdicval traditions of horsemanship,
though thcy no longer wore armour. As light
cavalry, armed with spear and sabrc plus the still-
despised pistol, they remained unsurpassed. Asilver
powder horn is slung on the left hip. ('Book of
Ottoman Costumes', Ottoman for a Gcrman
readership, mid-18th cent., Bavarian Statc Lib.,
i"funich; drawings of i\4amluks by Carle Vernet,
French, late 18th cenL, Bib. NaL, Paris.)
113: !Jl'wish. 181h wIIIIIY
Muslim holy-men, roughly equivalent to Christian
friars, despised wealth and won their living by
begging. In the Ottoman Empire many retained
prc-Islamic pagan Turkish practices. Those of the
order, howl'vcr, were closely associated with
theJanissary corps and accompanied them on most
of their campaigns. Note the large wooden sword
Ihal had long been a religiolls symbol in Islam.
('Dcrvishes', Oaoman drawing, t7th cent., Kraus
Call., New York; dervish', engraving by
unknown artist, Tlte Dtrvishes by J. P. Brown,
London 1868; SuiTs begging bowl, Persian, early
19th cenL, VicLOria and Albert Museum, Londoll.)
The Ciu,del of Van ha.. beecn ofv;tal "trategic import.....ce for
Iho"""nds of years. II st;1l cover. a huge area and iu bes"
wall .. dale from Ihe Ouo... an e ..... (photo T. A.
Sindair)

I: West Anatolian inrantryman.

rlTlJl hair 14th C.
2: OllomanGaiti, nnt half 141hC.
3: Turcoman tribal horseman,
earl)' 14thC.
I: Ottoman-Bulkan Yuya, ead)' 15th c.
2: Turkish Sipahi, c.1400
3: Olloman inranlryman. early 151h c.
1
I:WaJlachian oynikau.xiliary,c.l 00
2: Jani ary,15th .
3: orth frican marine. early 16th .
2
3
I: Annycommllnder. c.l600
2: Sillihlilr. "'lcond half 16lh C.
3: Guard cavalryman. second half 16th century
I: Joni lif)' nlor orne r. pl\rad uniform,
ond half 16th .
2: cemf Og160. late 16lh
3: 6\'61 Joni ary.
parade unifonn.
lal 16th .
1
3
I, "the. 1: Sipahl, ear
2: Deli Icout. c.l600 I 171hC.
3: Arllb auxiliary. ear y
I, Turelu.l, mid-17lh C.
2, 1>",yk, 1.1'" 17th C.
3: Kllpikulu e.,'.lrymllll,
mid-17IhC.
..:T.rt.re...... rym...,
......y 17thC.
I: Boanian frontienman, mid-18th C.
2.: EC'Pllan Mamliik Sipahl. mid-18th C.
3: &.ktqi del"'iah. 18th C.