Transformations of the Concept of Ideology in the Twentieth Century Author(s): Kathleen Knight Source: The American Political Science

Review, Vol. 100, No. 4, Thematic Issue on the Evolution of Political Science, in Recognition of the Centennial of the Review (Nov., 2006), pp. 619-626 Published by: American Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27644391 . Accessed: 11/06/2013 11:20
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American

Political

Science Review

Vol.

100, No. 4

November

2006

Transformations of the Concept of Ideology in the Twentieth Century

KATHLEEN
/deology

KNIGHT

Barnard College and Columbia University

has been the subject of a surprising amount of attention during the last half of the twentieth it has been argued that the term has been "thoroughly muddied by diverse uses" century. Although reveals substantial 1964, 207), an empirical of the pages of the Review investigation (Converse
among but political scientists over time on a core definition. This essay traces the use of the

convergence

concept
the term,

in the Review
suggests an

since

its launch

in 1906.
on

It reveals
the essential

changing

fashions

in the connotation
stability

of
and

underlying

agreement

components?coherence,

contrast?and

underlines

the centrality

of the concept as a to ap
even

of ideology

in political

science.

Political

characterized is generally science "borrower" discipline due to its tendency

propriate concepts like class, capital, and

(1997)
a

"Definitional
from

Analysis."
which to

I use these accounts

comment on streams

as
of

foundation

is one of power from other fields of inquiry. "Ideology" in political science, having few terms to have originated apparently been invented by Count Antoine Destutt de to publish Elements Tracy, who survived the revolution Head in 1817 2002; 1985). The term d'Id?ologie (Hart almost from its birth, and more has been controversial than one call has been issued to desist from its profligate use (Sartori 1969). I use the occasion of the centennial of the American of the Political Science Review to trace understandings term "ideology" among political scientists over the last century. My primary resource is the Review itself, which
serves as a yardstick to help measure transformation

political science research involving ideology. Previous differences reviews of the concept have inventoried 14 differ identified for example, in usage. Putnam, ent ways in which political elites might use the term. a cure for this apparent "semantic Gerring proposed to the attribute the concept single strip promiscuity": upon which all users can agree, and concluded (1997, is virtually of coherence 980) that "the importance
unchallenged... a set of idea might add, Ideology, that elements as corollaries, are to refers least, very ... One bound together contrast and stability?the at the

in political
Review has

scientists'
the advantage

thinking
of

about

the subject. The

over time and

one implying coherence vis-?-vis competing ideologies and the other implying coherence through time." This accords well with Converse's (1964) in understanding in the of Belief Systems in "The Nature terpretation
Mass Publics."

consistency

an arguable but clear disciplinary imprimatur. My ap research articles proach of counting and categorizing that have paid attention to ideology causes me to leave
many

In broader
way a system?a

terms,

ideology

can be defined
or even

as the
a whole

single

individual

over time. tunity for a broad overview of developments contention Bell's Daniel (1960) Notwithstanding in the 1950s, the second half "ended" that ideology of the twentieth century turned out to be an age of ideology.1 Far from ending, ideology became, and has
remained, ence. Of a common course, focus of so attention regularly in political employed sci can a concept

questions

unanswered,

but

provides

the

oppor

itself. Ideologies may be idiosyn society?rationalizes but cratic (Lane 1962), impractical, or even delusional, coherence and of characteristics still share the they or of contrast, stability. The characteristic temporal differentiation between alternative principles and their is frequently for government, implicit in implications
analytic requires treatments two of the term. and At some alternatives minimum, means contrast to distin

gain currency at the expense of precision, becoming all rather things to all users (Freeden 2001). Nonetheless, than bogging down in conceptual polit fragmentation,
ical scientists have converged on several elements of a

them. Contrast may lead to controversy guish between or conflict, which tends to stimulate further attention two objects or groups 1960). When (Schattschneider are in contention, the nature of it is simple to describe or that conflict in terms of a single spatial dimension
continuum. There a is no requirement that ideology has become re

core definition
a range of

of ideology

that is now reflected

across

subfields.

main
as we common

unidimensional
shall see, across linear the

(Jacoby
discipline.

1995; Stimson

1975), but

of While building upon several prior considerations Luskin the concept of ideology 2003; 1983, (Kinder 1972; 1961; Mullins 1969; Minar 1987; Merelman Putnam 1971; Sartori 1969), I lean heavily on Gerring's
Kathleen is Senior Knight and Columbia Lecturer Barnard in Political Science, NY 10027 New York,

conceptualization

IDEOLOGY IN ITS FIRST HUNDRED YEARS

University, College (kk552@columbia.edu). of Political and the Department Iwish to thank Nell Dillon-Ermers Lewis J. at Barnard College for funding; Adelle Science Tilebalieva, for technical and editorial S. Erikson, Hale, Robert Edinger, Donald I am responsible for any and the editor of the Review. assistance; errors. remaining 1 to Reinhard Bendix With apology "Age of Ideology" (1964), whose era. all of the post-Enlightenment encompasses

The
when

nineteenth
the remaining

century

was

only

a few
earned

years

old

"ideologues"

Napoleon's

wrath man"
Napoleon

for their principled support for "the rights of to his dictatorship. Ever after, in opposition
used "ideologue" as an epithet indicat

to democratic principle. By ing irrational dedication of the the mid-nineteenth century, the core principle
ideologues?popular sovereignty?was attacked from

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Concept

of Ideology

inTwentieth

Century

November

2006

FIGURE Ideologue,

1.

Percentage or Ideologues

of Research by Decade

Articles

Employing

the Term

Ideology,

Ideologies,

Ideological,

the right ("divine right") and the left ("dicta Marx liberal torship of the proletariat"). challenged as a for democratic it rationale ideology, castigating class oppression, and called Destutt de Tracy a "fish blooded bourgeois." The negative implication of ide who ology was later reinforced by Karl Mannheim, be argued that ideology was inherently conservative cause it derived its ideal model of society from the it with Utopian past and who contrasted thinking, which he defined as future-oriented 2004; (Geoghegan Mannheim it is impossible here to 1936). Although the immense literature that has evolved encompass this it is following perspective, worthy of note that the whether conscious implication of a bias in worldview, or not, is still consistent with a definition of ideology as a coherent and stable set of attitudes. both

IDEOLOGY INTHE TWENTIETH CENTURY

As the twentieth century began, the term ideology was concern limited references rarely employed beyond was This apparent ing political philosophy. obscurity in the pages of the Review. Where to ideol references ogy averaged only 2.6 per year in its first half-century, 10 per year. After World War II, and never exceeded though, references to ideology mushroomed, averaging 20.3 per year and never dropping below 10 per year. as a 1 charts articles mentioning Figure ideology of all articles published in the Review by percentage in order to smooth out annual fluctuations decade2 in format and the number and to control for changes of articles published during a given period. The steep
2 I used bility. Sigelman's (2006) decade cut points to maximize compara

to ideology increase in attention starting in the late to Figure 1, 1940s and early 1950s is startling. According by the 1970s, roughly half of all articles in the Review mentioned ideology in one way or another. As a val line in Figure 1 represents idation check, the broken of all articles in political science jour the percentage nals indexed by JSTOR mentioning ideology and its over same the Overall, cognates political sci period.3 to ideology increased more gradually entists' attention and continually than in the Review. Still, by the end on ideology in all of the century, the concentration political science journals had nearly caught up to that of the Review (44% vs. 52%). the Review's first decade, only one author During used the term "ideological," referring to a rule in the referenda that had only sym Swiss constitution against bolic impact (Rappard 1912). Just three research ar second ticles mentioned ideology during the Review's based decade, each using it to refer to a psychologically attribute of groups. For example, Benedict (1924,278), in Great Britain the socialist movements comparing in ideol and the United States, attributed "differences in "mental processes" ogy and strategy" to differences the British labor movement and American between socialists. The Review was not alone in devoting scant attention to ideology, for the two earliest political science jour and the Annals of the nals, Political Science Quarterly did likewise. The first reference American Academy,
3Here

I entered the search terms "ideology, ideologies, ideological, in JSTOR, selected all political science or(s)" ideologue, ideologues journals, and filtered with the "articles" option. To obtain the decade count for the denominator I filtered the same way and searched on "the."

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American

Political

Science Review

Vol.

100, No. 4

FIGURE 2. and Related

of Articles Percentage Terms by Decade

in the Review

Mentioning

Ideology,

Communism,

or Fascism

to ideology in a political science journal was in Edwin "The Economic of History," Interpretation Seligman's in 1901. That piece was in inPolitical Science Quarterly schol tended to introduce Marx's theory to American sense of and it ars, reading today conveys a wonderful of issues that science awareness the state of political
were soon to overtake the world.

COMPONENTS OF INCREASE INTHE

ATTENTION TO IDEOLOGY
Communism and Fascism

of 1917 and the consolida The Russian Revolution in tion of the Soviet state during the 1930s produced creased attention to communism among political scien of articles in the tists. Figure 2 compares the percentage to those men Review4 explicitly employing ideology
tioning communists, communism, Marx, Marxism, or

that "The Men Stewart (1928,852) William explained tors of Mussolini" liber rejected nineteenth-century alism as an "effete ideology," and Charles Beard and John Lewis (1932, 236) asserted that elites had histor for representative democracy ically resisted demands "with all of the power of police and ideology." During the next decade, John Herz (1942,142) spoke of "ide de Francis Wilcox while warfare," (1942,446) ological as an "ideological fence scribed the Monroe Doctrine referring directly to ideology against fascism." Articles more than doubled. The sense of democratic ideology to other sets of beliefs was inherent in in opposition to fascism de the language of the time. References of the clined after World War II, but it is a measure to fascism lasting impact of the period that references in the in almost 10% of the articles published persisted in the last quarter of the twentieth century. Review

in any form and to those mentioning Marx-Leninism and other variants. Socialism, fascism, Nazis, National The peak decade of concern with fascism occurred dur collapse and labor unrest ing the period of economic in Europe following World War I and the rise of fas For example, cism in Italy and Germany (1927-1936).
counts of articles men three independent The graph represents terms. For com and "ideological" "fascist," tioning "communist" and articles are defined by the "article" filter in JSTOR parability, as above. of the I did further analyses obtained the denominator co-occurrence of the sets of terms not reported in detail here. 4

Communism
References

and

Anticommunism
Marx, Marxism, and asso

to communism,

in the two decades ciated concepts peaked following with communism and World War II. A preoccupation is evidenced anticommunism by the fact that nearly 70% of the articles in the immediate post-war decade that referred to ideology also made refer (1947-1956)
ence to communism, Marx, or related concepts. Dur

treatments of ideology as a sinister ing that period, evident. For example, Zbig force were particularly remarked that "We find niew Brzezinski (1956,751-52)

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Concept

of Ideology

in Twentieth

Century

November 2006

reformers a readiness to among 19th century European use violence for the sake of postulated reforms, much like the ideological intolerance and brutality of the
Rosenbergs Even or Zudanovs as the ideological of our of era age." communism and fas

a transformation associated with

in the implications it.

and expectations

Ideology Behavioralists

among

"Elites"

to ide cism faded away, political scientists' attention increased. The decade or so after World War ology of the concept in II was critical in the transformation The with the anti science. coincided period political communist crusade exemplified by the congressional
investigations of McCarran, Dies, and McCarthy. A

of this period was the be second major "happening" revolution. The third impetus ginning of the behavioral to ideology was, ironi increased attention propelling of its demise. This cally, Daniel Bell's announcement in 1955, but inMilan occurred initially at a conference of The until the publication did not really penetrate End of Ideology in 1960. Critical attention to problems of ideology in the conceptualization and measurement
also, the albeit term. inadvertently, led to a much greater use of

the "end of ideol generally bypassed in further domesticated and the debate, process ogy" the concept. Early roll-call studies had identified a di that was useful in ex mension beyond partisanship behavior. When plaining political speaking of legisla tors, judges, and other political practitioners, political scientists had little trouble inferring that the second dimension was left-right ideology, with the continuum defined by the policies and rationale for government of the "New Deal" mode. In the first article published that analyzed in the Review ideology quantitatively, di Duncan MacRae (1952) referred to "ideological votes in roll in the the call between parties vergence" House In 1954, of Representatives. Massachusetts Ralph K. Huitt published an innovative study of Senate in which he "ranged all Sena committee assignments
tors ... along a 'liberal/conservative' continuum" on

THE END OF IDEOLOGY"

The "end of ideology" that Bell (1960) proclaimed attitude with a philosophic disillusionment represented in notions of toward government variously embodied
socialism, and "social welfare liberalism."

communism,

debate was carried on primarily The end-of-ideology in journals of opinion, but it penetrated mainstream science in several ways, primarily during the political to Review's sixth decade. First, it stimulated attention the need to define terms. This was evident in the Review as early as 1957, when Samuel Huntington stipulated that "By ideology Imean a system of ideas concerned of political and social values and with the distribution a in by significant social group." The debate acquiesced also penetrated political science as a rejection of "isms" that was part of a drive toward a rational and empir ical discipline. David Apter (1964) put it directly as a and the "ideology choice between "vulgar ideologies"
of science"?and at that point, on the "science" side was

pertinent roll call votes (325). Indices tapping ideology to the other branches in elite behavior were extended as early as Glendon Schubert's of government (1958) Since then, of decisions. analysis judicial scalogram data roll-call and other institutional decision-making science have become political staples of quantitative research (see, e.g., Poole and Rosenthal 1997; Segal and on the coherence of behavior Spaeth 1993). Emphasis spatial dimension (or dimensions) along an underlying With connotations. purged ideology of its pejorative re few exceptions 1958), behavioral (e.g., McClosky search on ideology among elites has treated it as a relatively benign "organizing device."

Ideology
At

in the Mass Public

winning.
a third,

The
more

idea that ideology was at an end also had

subtle, influence the generation recov

the mass level, the initial expectation was that ide issue preferences show up in consistent ology would just as it did in legislators' voting behavior. Early mass as liberal surveys asked people to identify themselves
or conservative. When issue preferences did not ac

ering from World War II and faced with a seemingly a way to contrast interminable Cold War. It provided "them" and "us" (Bawn 1999). "We" knew "the truth" and had not been misled by ideology the way "they"
had.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF IDEOLOGY

By 1967, references
references

the latter was identification," "ideological and Cantril 1967). At the suspect (Free The American Voter of the authors school," "Michigan did not consider ide (Campbell et al. 1960, 202-205) factor in voting decisions. Even so, ology a decisive included questions surveys routinely tap Michigan's orientations through "feeling ping liberal/conservative as early as 1964. Although contribu thermometers" tions from the nascent field of political psychology were cord with considered
more prominent (e.g., Rosenberg et al. 1960), the influ

to ideology
to communism

in the Review
and fascism

began
com

to exceed

new was happening in the bined; clearly something were Part of scientists the way political concept. using this change resulted from the "end of ideology" de bate and from intensified efforts to define the concept. of The coincidence of this debate with the emergence in a science resulted not so much behavioral political
transformation of the core meaning of the term, as in

ence of Anthony Downs (1957) is also evident in The et al., 549). By 1972, the Voter (Campbell American of formulation ideology had been wholeheart spatial election edly adopted in the issue scales of theMichigan
studies. Interviewees as were asked to place liberal" to imagine themselves

and other political

labeled tremely running conservative."

objects
from It

and actors on a continuum

"extremely is difficult to "ex a more

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American

Political

Science Review

Vol.

100,

No. 4

explicit definition of ideology, which presumably versally understood by readers of the Review, not by some members of the public.

is uni even if

over the definition consensus litical science. This consensus

definition" of coherence,

of ideology within po is reflected in the "core

of what other con

regardless

ELITE?POPULIST

DEBATE

ceptual baggage might be imposed on the concept, the notion of ideology remains a relatively stable set of ideas. Beyond the interrelated crucial element of this,
contrast?the notion that one set of beliefs a competes

et al. Voter (Campbell The findings of The American a over that in much can, controversy 1960) provoked debate." simplified terms, be called the "elite-populist most of the debate has been carried on Although in methodological terms, at its heart is the question
of whether citizens are competent to understand and

against
ologies,

another?is
"ists," and

implicit
"isms."

in discussion
Furthermore,

of party
substantial

ide

act on policy debates. From this standpoint, ideology, or the ability to think ideologically, entan becomes Converse's "The Na gled with political sophistication. ture of Belief in Mass Publics" Systems (1964) was to this debate, but the most prominent contribution in The American the arguments were begun Voter et al. and continued in "Attitudes and (Campbell 1960) of a Dialogue" Continuation Non-Attitudes: (1971) articles were and well beyond. The two Converse in in invoked 174 articles the Review subsequently
alone. Converse's argument about information in the mass

on an essentially part of the discipline has converged Downsian of conception ideology?an understanding of politics in terms of spatial location on a left-right dimension. This "spatial con (or liberal-conservative) well have been driven by the ascension vergence" may over the last of formal and quantitative methodology half of the twentieth century. It may also represent a significant of the concept, but it has simplification made the term ideology more intelligible and has con tributed to its increased use as a term of political science
discourse.

EVIDENCE OF THE SPATIAL CONVERGENCE INCONCEPTUALIZING IDEOLOGY

laid the groundwork for understanding the pro Having I now consider the gression of ideology as a concept, has been re convergence degree to which definitional flected in the pages of the Review over time. I coded all research articles (through May 2006) 1,148 pertinent according to the most explicit way in which "ideology" was used in each.5 To derive the percentages reported the number of articles in which the below, I divided term was used by the total number of research articles in the Review as defined by Sigelman published (2006). Ideology What
science

for electoral accountability public and its importance has been internalized by more than a generation of po litical scientists (see, e.g., Ferejohn and Kuklinski 1990; MacKuen and Rabinowitz entered the 2003). Converse debate over ideology by extending the proposition, first an to in The American that be "ide Voter, developed in the United States a member of the mass ologue" to to conceptualize needed be able the differ public ences between the candidates and parties in terms of
a liberal-conservative continuum. In "The Nature of

inMass Publics," he proposed Belief Systems several less stringent tests of the ability to think ideologically, in one's issue po including the degree of constraint
sitions, more the stability of one's a issue preferences over

as

a Generic the term

Term ideology so useful

a broad, sometimes in these

makes
is that

time, and the ability

conservative. He

to say which
set

political

party was
estimate of

in political
abstract

it can

communicate

"maximum

reasonable of ideological considerations recognition" by the mass public of "slightly more than fifty percent" smaller 1964, 222), but categorized much (Converse as of the American proportions public "ideologues" (2% or 3%) or even "near ideologues" (9%). It is important to see Converse's contribution in the
context flected of the times. By in the representation continuum, implications that ideology proposing on of preferences the spatial definition of bias or false was a liberal removed re

concept
used

efficiently.
usually single

In 356 articles

the term was

just
only

in passing, or in a footnote

and once, only Even reference.

passing to

comments,
beliefs was

the core definition

evident. General or

of ideology
passing

as a set of

references

the term increased as attention to ideology did, reach ing 20% of all articles in the 1970s, dropping sharply
thereafter, in the most and recent then climbing decade. again to more than 20%

conservative the negative

consciousness.

Ideology
of

became

a beneficial
An

characteristic
would

and amark
have a rea

The Content

of the Definitions
that employed only a pass in order to focus on explicit

sophistication.

"ideologue"

set of attitudes and preferences sonably well organized that were stable across time and informed by knowl edge of what the government was doing. This led to an
intense controversy over whether the American public

Figure 3 excludes articles to ideology ing reference

was "ideological" Smith 1989).

The decades progression clearly

(e.g., Nie, Verba,

of reflects concerns the over press of

and Petrocik
ideology historical across

1979;
the

events,

but it also suggests

the development

of an underlying

5 a coding scheme I established identifying major uses of the terms and then read enough of each research articles (as defined by the most explicit way the term ideology Sigelman 2006) to determine was employed. The 18 categories in the original coding scheme have been grouped into six summary categories ab reflecting increasingly use of the term. Please stract and comprehensive contact me directly for the detailed coding scheme and data set.

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Concept

of Ideology

inTwentieth

Century

November

2006

FIGURE

3.

by Decade (through May 2006)

Percentage

of Articles

in the Review

According

to Most

Explicit

Definition

of

Ideology

1916 1926 1936 1946 1956 1966 1976 1986 1996 2006
Decade Pers Trait a Group Ending Pty Ism o Spatial Theory

in definitions of the terms. It arrays these definitions five broad categories from the most specific or concrete to the most treatment abstract theoretical example in Figure 3 consists of offered. The bottom category references ideology with a specific example. defining to particular in This category encompasses references dividuals and politicians identified as ideological, or as or political theo but not to philosophers ideologues, rists. Named individuals included the "usual suspects" and (Hitler, Stalin, Khrushchev, Mao, Ronald Reagan, some lesser known Russians; and various Jesse Helms; exem third-world leaders) plus some nonideological to psy also includes references plars. This category and to descriptions of traits and emotions, chological historical eras as ideological. to ideology as a psychological References trait dis some over movement time. Character play intriguing izations of ideology and ideological behavior as being to com driven by unrealistic principle, unwillingness in and abounded the emotional early promise, volatility years of the Review, faded during the 1930s and 1940s, and returned with a vengeance in the postwar years. to psycho references sixth decade, By the Review's in nearly 10% of all ideology logical traits defined to define ideology as research articles. The tendency a character trait faded over time, but did not entirely in a for up recently, for example, disappear?showing to compromise mal model as unwillingness (e.g., Laver The next category contains articles referring to ide of a group. In the early years ology as a characteristic to ideology there were some references of the Review,
as an element of national character, but as time pro

2005).

ideology in terms of groups gressed, authors addressing of ideol also used one of the more abstract definitions of For interest of members ogy. group ratings example, appear in the spatial category because they Congress

similarly, discussions of employ a left-right continuum; class and ideology explicitly referring to Marx would the 1960s, in the fifth category. After be represented to the ideology of a group became more references and Walker likely to have racial content (e.g., Aberbach and Cohen Dawson 1970; 1993). The third level of abstraction, identified by the short hand of "party/isms," of captures conceptualizations or one set that contrast between conflict imply ideology of beliefs and another. This includes descriptions of par to the "ideology of" and references ties as ideological an abstract political tendency, most commonly commu of nism, liberalism, or nationalism. This understanding from the 1930s the 1960s. dominated ideology through More interest in parties and their ideology recently, but the dominant way of thinking has not diminished, about it changed with the behavioral revolution. Par also frequently tisanship became party identification, as a continuum?a story of dimensionality represented much too long to begin here (see, e.g., Weisberg 1999). a massive increase in concep Figure 3 documents tualizations of ideology in explicitly spatial terms. The spatial category started out small in the 1950s but even the way ideology is used in the tually came to dominate and unifies by Review. It is used across subdisciplines the simple idea that units of analysis can be arrayed on a left-right continuum. In addition to spatial represen tations in formal theory (e.g., Enlow and Hinich 1982), three major operationalizations fall into this category. or left The most familiar is the liberal-conservative mass to its In addition continuum used in surveys. right politics, it has dif regular use in research on American fused to survey-based research in many other nations. of ide A second well-known spatial conceptualization ology involves elite behavior, based on either survey or roll-call or similarly based data. The third subcategory the greatest recent growth. It involves has experienced

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American

Political Science Review

Vol.

100,

No. 4

the use of aggregate data to infer the ideological lean 1994; Huber 1998; ings of a collectivity (e.g., Ames in compara Przeworski and Soares 1971) particularly tive politics and international political economy. Also included in this category are articles involving aggre
gated indicators from mass U.S. survey data in compar

connote any belief system. Democratic ideology was as good against evil. contrasted with totalitarianism, as ideologues The image of Hitler and his followers in the public mind, per extraordinaire was imprinted
haps to be resurrected at the opportune moment. But,

at least as apparent
connotation of irrational

in the pages
commitment

of

the Review,
to a set of

the
ideas

ative state politics (Erikson, Wright, and Mclver 1989) and in dynamic analyses of "policy mood" (Stimson and MacKuen 1991; Stimson, Erikson, 1995) Overall, in the last decade 28% of all research articles published of the Review used a spatial conceptualization of ide
ology. The top, most abstract, category reflects theoretical

the internal anticommunist crusade and the over furor the uend of (academic) ideology." The be havioral revolution reinforced the concept of ideology
as a "belief system" and connotations. relieved the concept of re maining the use negative of the

faded with

As political

scientists
term,

have become
a new round

comfortable
of research

with
has

and philosophical discussions that do not conceptual ize ideology in spatial terms or subject it to empiri cal tests. It includes theoretical discussions of ideology that employ multiple definitions, like the reviews of the concept cited at the beginning of this essay. An addi tional quarter of the articles in this category deal with by Marx. There have also been ideology as understood
multiple references to Weber, Mannheim, Habermas,

and Hobbes, but otherwise the theorists referred to in of ideology have been an eclectic lot, uni discussions fied by the notion that ideology represents a coherent
set of ideas.

arisen that portrays the American public as becoming more "ideological" and Saunders 1998; (Abramowitz et al. 2001; Layman 2001; MacKuen Hetherington have been offered to sug 2003). New interpretations to ideological gest that the public is able to respond cues as heuristics (Brady and Sniderman 1985) and new have been offered about the core values perspectives structuring ideology (Barker and Tinnick 2006; Feld man 1988). There has been great progress in the ability on the basis of to communicate of political scientists
a shared seems understanding to worthwhile of reconsider a central two concept. major Yet questions it

CONCLUSION: THE RESURGENCE OF IDEOLOGY?

More than half of the research articles in the Review over the last 50 years have made some use of the term "ideology" or its variants. Of course, the fact that the
term versally is in common understood. use does However, not that guarantee the foregoing it is uni analysis

that have been raised about ideology in the past: is it a benign influence on democratic politics? And how far does it really penetrate into the public at large?

REFERENCES
Aberbach, Ideology." 1199-1219. Abramowitz, alignment 634-52. Ames, Joel D., and Jack Walker. 1970. "Political American Political Review Science Alan I., and Kyle. S. Saunders. in the U.S. Electorate." Journal Trust and Racial 64 (December):

suggests that political scientists who have used the term have not built a tower of babble. Almost all usages, even the general ones, pass the "core definition" test of
referring to a set of ideas (coherence). Moreover, the

1998. "Ideological Re 60 (August): of Politics

usage of ideology that carried the least implication of coherence (psychological traits) has faded. Definitions of ideology that refer to parties, groups, and "isms"
imply not only coherence, but also contrast one abstract

group, or its beliefs, with another. Finally, formal the of ideology have con ory and empirical measurement on a spatial conceptualization verged of ideology as a
matter of location on a left-right or liberal-conservative as a coher ideology or values re has over time, the con continuum.6 the Although ent and relatively constant mained core definition set of of beliefs science stable in political

notations
transformation. connoted

associated
In attachment

with
the to

the concept
nineteenth values of

have undergone
century, liberal ideology democracy,

was to support "the rights and to be an "ideologue" of man" against an absolutist state. The implication of being unrealistically to those ideas was dedicated added by Napoleon and later by Marx. In the first half of the twentieth century, as the fights against fascism
and communism took center stage, ideology came to

6 The content as manifested 1999.

of the continuum and whether at measurement, by attempts

it is really a continuum, is taken up in Knight

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Concept

of Ideology

in Twentieth

Century

November 2006

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