Peak To Average Power Ratio (Papr) Reduction in Ofdm Based Radio Systems - 3

MEE10:12
PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIO (PAPR) REDUCTION IN OFDM BASED RADIO SYSTEMS
Mohammad Zavid Parvez Md. Abdullah Al Baki
This thesis is presented as part of Degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
Blekinge Institute of Technology May 2010
Blekinge Institute of Technology School of Engineering Department of Signal Processing Supervisor : Professor Abbas Mohammed Examiner : Professor Abbas Mohammed
Dedication To Our Parents And Teachers
Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden
Page 2
Abstract
High data rate wireless access is demanded by many applications. Usually, more bandwidth is required for higher data rate transmission in any of the system. With promising technology and ever-increasing wireless devices, the spectrum is becoming scarcer day by day. In this case, using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Cognitive Radio (CR) for spectrally efficient transmission are an alternative solution. OFDM is a bandwidth efficient multicarrier modulation where the available spectrum is divided into subcarriers, with each subcarrier containing a low rate data stream. OFDM has gained a tremendous interest in recent years because of its robustness in the presence of severe multipath channel conditions with simple equalization, robustness against Inter-symbol Interference (ISI), multipath fading, in addition to its high spectral efficiency. However, the Peakto-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) is a major drawback of multicarrier transmission system such as OFDM. CR can be defined as an intelligent wireless system that is always alert about its surrounding environment through sensing and should have ability to dynamically adjust its radio operation parameters. The CR demands that the physical layer (PHY) needs to be adaptable and flexible. For flexibility and adaptability, the OFDM is an attractive candidate for CR systems. This dissertation proposes a novel non-contiguous OFDM (NCOFDM) technique, where the implementation achieves high data rates of noncontiguous subcarriers while simultaneously avoiding any interference to the transmissions. In this dissertation we apply different modulation techniques to reduce high PAPR for non-contiguous bands spectrum of OFDM based CR. The simulation results for PAPR reduction shows that higher modulation techniques are better compared to lower modulation techniques.
Page 3
Acknowledgement
All praises to almighty ALLAH who give us strength and abilities to complete this thesis work successfully. We would like to give our sincere gratitude to our honourable supervisor Prof. Abbas Mohammed for his assistance and good guidance time after time which made our thesis work become more precise and attractive. He supervises us and gives his spare time to discuss more about the problem of thesis work. We are grateful to our beloved parents for their love and continuous support during the thesis work at BTH until finish. Finally, we would like to thanks again to almighty ALLAH, for keeping us good understanding and relationship in between us through this thesis work that is more improved and constructive to do better.
Page 4
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................. 4 Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................... 8 List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 9 List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. 10 Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................................... 14 1.1 Motivation ................................................................................................................................... 14 1.2 Thesis out Lines .......................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter Two: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) ................................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM System ..................................................................... 17 2.2.1 Advantages of OFDM .......................................................................................................... 17 2.2.2 Disadvantages of OFDM ..................................................................................................... 18 2.3 OFDM System Model ................................................................................................................. 18 2.4 Mathematical Definition of OFDM Signal ................................................................................. 20 2.5 NC-OFDM System Model .......................................................................................................... 21 2.6 Why PAPR reduction in OFDM system ..................................................................................... 22 2.7 Mathematical Definition of PAPR .............................................................................................. 23 2.8 PAPR Techniques ....................................................................................................................... 23 2.8.1 Signal Scrambling Techniques............................................................................................. 24 2.8.1.1 Block Coding Techniques ............................................................................................. 24 2.8.1.2 Block Coding Scheme with Error Correction ............................................................... 24 2.8.1.3 Selected Mapping (SLM) .............................................................................................. 25 2.8.1.4 Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) .................................................................................. 25 2.8.1.5 Interleaving Technique ................................................................................................. 25 2.8.1.6 Tone Reservation (TR).................................................................................................. 26 2.8.1.7 Tone Injection (TI) ........................................................................................................ 26 2.8.2 Signal Distortion Techniques ............................................................................................... 27 2.8.2.1 Peak Windowing ........................................................................................................... 27
Page 5
2.8.2.2 Envelope Scaling........................................................................................................... 27 2.8.2.3 Peak Reduction Carrier ................................................................................................. 27 2.8.2.4 Clipping and Filtering ................................................................................................... 28 2.9 Overall Analysis of Different Techniques .................................................................................. 29 2.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 30 Chapter Three: Cognitive Radio ............................................................................................................ 31 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 31 3.2 The Features of CR ..................................................................................................................... 32 3.3 The Evolution of Radio Technology ........................................................................................... 33 3.4 Software Defined Radio (SDR) .................................................................................................. 34 3.4.1 Benefits of SDR ................................................................................................................... 34 3.4.2 Relationship between SDR and CR ..................................................................................... 35 3.4.3 Ideal SDR Architecture for CRs .......................................................................................... 36 3.5 Spectrum Sensing........................................................................................................................ 37 3.5.1 Different Techniques of Spectrum Sensing in CR ............................................................... 37 3.5.1.1 Primary Transmitter Detection ...................................................................................... 38 3.5.1.1.1 Matched Filter Detection ....................................................................................... 39 3.5.1.1.2 Energy Detection.................................................................................................... 39 3.5.1.1.3 Cyclostationary Detection ...................................................................................... 40 3.5.1.2 Cooperative Detection................................................................................................... 42 3.5.1.3 Primary Receiver Detection .......................................................................................... 42 3.5.1.4 Interference Temperature Management ........................................................................ 43 Chapter Four: OFDM Based Cognitive Radio ........................................................................................ 44 4.1 Merits and Challenges for OFDM Based CR ............................................................................. 44 4.2 OFDM Based CR Architecture ................................................................................................... 44 4.3 Proposed System ......................................................................................................................... 47 Chapter Five: Channel Models .............................................................................................................. 49 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 49 5.2 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel.................................................................... 49 5.3 Rayleigh fading channel.............................................................................................................. 50 5.3.1 Mathematical Expression ..................................................................................................... 51 Chapter Six: Simulation and Results ..................................................................................................... 53 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 53 6.2 Mathematical Definitions ............................................................................................................ 53
Page 6
6.3 PAPR Reduction ......................................................................................................................... 54 6.4 BER calculation for AWGN channel .......................................................................................... 57 6.5 BER calculation for Rayleigh fading channel ............................................................................. 59 6.6 BER calculation for Different channels ...................................................................................... 61 Chapter Seven: Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 63 References ............................................................................................................................................ 64
Page 7
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1-OFDM subcarriers in frequency domain ......................................................... 17 Figure 2. 2-A basic diagram of OFDM Transceiver ........................................................... 19 Figure 2. 3 NC-OFDM Transceiver ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 3. 1-SDR intensity ...................................................................................................... 33 Figure 3. 2 -The relationship of SDR and Cognitive Radio ............................................... 35 Figure 3. 3 -Ideal software defined radio architecture ....................................................... 36 Figure 3. 4 -Primary transmitter detection ......................................................................... 38 Figure 3. 5 -Implementation of an energy detector using Welch Periodgram averaging40 Figure 3. 6 -Implementation of a cyclostationary feature detector ................................... 41
Figure 4. 1- Research challenges in Cognitive Radio and OFDM [10] ............................. 45 Figure 4. 2- OFDM base Cognitive Radio system block diagram [10] ............................. 46 Figure 4. 3 -Proposed block diagram of NC-OFDM based Cognitive Radio ................... 47
Figure 5. 1- AWGN channel .................................................................................................. 50
Figure 6. 1- PAPR reduction using BPSK with clipping and filtering .............................. 54 Figure 6. 2- PAPR reduction using QPSK with clipping and filtering ............................. 55 Figure 6. 3- PAPR reduction using QAM16 with clipping and filtering .......................... 56 Figure 6. 4- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through AWGN channel ...................................... 57 Figure 6. 5- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through AWGN channel ..................................... 58 Figure 6. 6- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through Rayleigh fading channel ....................... 59 Figure 6. 7- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through Rayleigh fading channel ....................... 60 Figure 6. 8- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through two different channels ........................... 61 Figure 6. 9- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through two different channels .......................... 62
Page 8
List of Tables
Table 2. 1-Comparison of PAPR Reduction Techniques ................................................... 29 Table 3. 1- Comparison different techniques of spectrum sensing ................................... 42 Table 4. 1- OFDM Based Wireless Standards ..................................................................... 46
Page 9
List of Abbreviations
A
AWGN ATSC ADSL AI ADC DAC Additive White Gaussian Noise Advanced Television Systems Committee Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Adaptive Interleave Analog to Digital Converter Digital to Analog Converter
B
BPSK BER BSC BO Binary Phase Shift Keying Bit Error Rate Binary Symmetric Channel Back Off
C
CR COBSC CDMA CP CDF Cognitive Radio Combination Optimized Sub-Block Coding Scheme Code Division Multiple Access Cyclic Prefix Cumulative Distribution Function
D
DSP DVB DFS DARPA DFT DTV Digital Signal Processing Digital Video Broadcasting Dynamic Frequency Selection Defense Advanced Research Project Agency Discrete Fourier Transform Digital Television
Page 10
EDGE
Enhance Data GSM Environment
F
FFT FDM FDMA FCC FPGA FEC Fast Fourier Transform Frequency Division Multiplexing Frequency division Multiple Access Federal Communication Commission Field Programmable Gate Arrays Forward Error Correction
G
GPP GSM General Purpose Processors Global System for Mobile Communication
H
HiperLAN High Performance Radio LAN
I
ISI ICI IEEE IFFT IDFT Inter Symbol Interference Inter Carrier Interference Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Inverse Fast Fourier Transform Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform
L
LTE LAN LO LOS Long Term Evolution Local Area Network Local Oscillator Line Of Sight
Page 11
M MIMO MISO MAC Multiple Input Multiple Output Multiple Input Single Output Media Access Control
N
NPRM Notice of Proposed Rule Making
O
OFDM OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
P
PHY PTS PSK PEPs PA LNA PAPR Physical Layer Partial Transmit Sequences Phase Shift Keying Peak Envelope Powers Power Amplifier Low Noise Amplifiers Peak to Average Power Ratio
Q
QPSK QAM R RBLO-SBC RF Redundant Bit Location Optimized Sub-Block Coding Radio Frequency Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Page 12
S
SDR SNR SLM SoC SISO SIMO Software Defined Radio Signal to Noise Ratio Selective Level Mapping System on Chip Single Input Single Output Single Input Multiple Output
T
TR TI TDMA Tone Reservation Tone Injection Time Division Multiple Access
U
UWB U-NII Ultra Wide Band Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure
V
VLSI Very Large Scale Integration
W
WiMAX Wi-Fi WLAN WRAN WMAN WLAN WCDMA WSS WLAN Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access Wireless Fidelity Wide Area Network Wireless Regional Area Network Wireless Metropolitan Area Network Wireless Local Area Network Wide Code Division Multiple Access Wide Sense Stationary Wireless Local Area Network
Page 13
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Motivation
With the advent of new high data rate wireless applications, demand of the spectrum is rapidly increasing. Communications governmental and regulatory agencies impose regulations on spectrum usage, such as control of allocations and priorities, as well as its features. At this time, most of the prime spectrum has been assigned and it is difficult to find spectrum for the new wireless applications. It can be made available for either expand existing infrastructures or invent new services. Even though much of the spectrum has been allocated and preliminary measurement is that the spectrum is unutilized by primary users. There exist a lot of spectrums holes, which can be easily used by secondary users. FCC is currently working on the concept of dynamic spectrum access, where secondary users can borrow un-used portions of the spectrum from primary users. Cognitive Radio (CR) is employing on proper spectrum utilization because of their rapid adaptability and flexibility. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is promising candidate for flexible spectrum pooling in communication systems [31]. CR is an emerging technology, which intelligently detects a particular segment of the radio spectrum currently in use and selects unused spectrum without interfering to licensed users. One of the challenges of the OFDM is high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR). A high PAPR brings disadvantages like an increased complexity of the A/D and D/A converters and reduced efficiency of radio frequency (RF) power amplifier [53]. OFDM signal consists of a number of independent modulated subcarriers that leads to the problem of PAPR. If all subcarriers come with same phase, the peak power is N times the average power of the signal where N is the total number of symbols in an OFDM signal. Thus, it is not possible to send this high peak amplitude signals to the transmitter without reducing peaks. Because power amplifier used for the transmission has non-linear nature which causing inter-modulation and out-of-band radiation. The high peak of OFDM signal can be reduced in several ways. The focus of this dissertation is on OFDM based CR, which can handle the apparent spectrum scarcity and enable high data rate communications. The proposed system exhibits high PAPR reduction for non-contiguous bands spectrum of OFDM based CR.
Page 14
1.2 Thesis out Lines

This thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2: Presents an introduction of OFDM and describe its principles, advantages and disadvantages, the basic OFDM transceiver model, different techniques of PAPR reduction and finally the comparison of PAPR reduction techniques in theoretical aspect. Chapter 3: Presents the introduction of Cognitive Radio (CR), background, spectrum sensing, licensed and unlicensed spectrum in CR. It also presents an introduction to software defined radio (SDR), background, benefits, architectures, and the relationship between SDR and CR. Chapter 4: Presents the merits and challenge architectures of OFDM based CR and analysis of its system block diagram. Chapter 5: Presents in the different kinds of channel model; including AWGN, Rayleigh fading channel. Chapter 6: Presents the simulation results by using MATLAB simulator that is implemented in different channels with BPSK, QPSK, and QAM16 modulation schemes and also BER calculation. Chapter 7: Presents the main objective of thesis with concluding remarks and proposes the future work of this thesis for advance research.
Page 15
Chapter Two: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
2.1 Introduction
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier modulation technique that divides the available spectrum into subcarriers, with each subcarrier containing a low rate data stream. The subcarriers have proper spacing and pass-band filter shape to satisfy orthogonality as shown in Figure 2.1. OFDM will play an important role in realizing Cognitive Radio (CR) concept by providing a proven, scalable, adaptive technology for wireless communications [10]. Inter-symbol interference (ISI) is reduced completely by using a guard band in every OFDM symbol. In OFDM, using guard band is cyclically extended in order to avoid inter-carrier interference (ICI). The advantage of OFDM system is robustness to channel fading in wireless communication environment. Frequency selective fading is reduced by increasing the number of subcarriers. By choosing the coherence bandwidth is greater than the subcarrier spacing of the channel, each subcarrier is going to be affected by a flat channel and thus no or simple channel equalizer is needed. OFDM is used in many wireless applications today. Already it is used in different WLAN standards (e.g. HIPERLAN-2, IEEE 802.11a), Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN), Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), 3GPP-LTE, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) and power line communications. Despite of OFDM advantages, it has a major potential drawback in the form of high Peak-toAverage Power Ratio (PAPR). The high PAPR has nonlinear nature in the transmitter and it degrades the power efficiency of the system.
Page 16
1 Subcarrier
(f)
f=1/Ts
+f
+f
(f)
8 Subcarriers ()
(f)
Figure 2. 1-OFDM subcarriers in frequency domain
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM System

There are some advantages and disadvantages of OFDM are summarized below:
2.2.1 Advantages of OFDM

Some of the advantages of an OFDM system are as follows: OFDM is computationally efficient to employ the modulation and demodulation techniques by using FFT. The OFDM signal is robustness in multipath propagation environment and more tolerant of delay spread.
Page 17
OFDM is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier transmission systems. OFDM system gives good protection against co-channel interference and impulsive parasitic noise. Pilot subcarriers are used in OFDM system to prevent frequency and phase shift errors. It is possible to use maximum likelihood detection with reasonable complexity. OFDM is a good candidate for CR because of its flexibility and adaptability [10].
The orthogonality preservation procedures in OFDM are much simpler compared to CDMA/TDMA technique in multipath conditions [8].
2.2.2 Disadvantages of OFDM

Some of the disadvantages of an OFDM system are as follows: The OFDM signal suffers high peak to average power ratios (PAPR) of transmitted signal. OFDM is very sensitive to carrier frequency offset. It is difficult to synchronize when subcarriers are shared among different transmitters.
2.3 OFDM System Model

A Basic OFDM system is described in Figure 2.2. Here an input data symbols are supplied into a channel encoder that data are mapped onto BPSK/QPSK/QAM constellation. The data symbols are converted from serial to parallel and using Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to achieve the time domain OFDM symbols. Time domain symbols can be represented as:
(2.1) where, is the transmitted symbol on the N is the number of subcarriers
subcarriers
Page 18
Time domain signal is cyclically extended to prevent Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) from the former OFDM symbol using cyclic prefix (CP).
Input
Mod
S / P
IFFT
P / S
ADD CP
DAC
RF frontend
Transmitter
Output
Demod
P / S
FFT
S / P
Remove CP
ADC
RF frontend
Receiver
Figure 2. 2-A basic diagram of OFDM Transceiver

The Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) is performed to convert the baseband digital signal into analog signal. This operation is executed in DAC block of diagram. Then, the analog signal is proceeded to the Radio Frequency (RF) frontend. The RF frontend performs operations after receiving the analog signal. The signal is up converted to RF frequencies using mixer and amplified by using Power Amplifier (PAs) and then transmitted through antennas. At the receiver side, the received signal is down converted to base band signal by RF frontend. The analog signal is digitized and re-sampled by the Analog to Digital Converter (ADC). The ADC is used to digitize the analog signal and re-samples it. In the figure, frequency and time synchronization block are not shown because of simplicity. Cyclic prefix is removed from the signal in frequency domain. This step is done by the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) block. The received symbols in the frequency domain can be represented as: Y (k) = H (k) Xm(k) +W (k) (2.2)
where, Y (k) is the received symbol on the subcarrier, H (k) is the frequency response of the channel on the same subcarrier and W (k) is the additive noise added to , subcarrier which is generally assumed to be Gaussian random variable with zero mean and variance of . Thus, simple one tap frequency domain equalizers can be employed to get the transmitted symbols. After FFT signals are de-interleaved and decoded to recover the original signal.
Page 19
2.4 Mathematical Definition of OFDM Signal

OFDM consists of multiple carriers. Each carrier can be presented as a complex waveform like: , where, is the amplitude of the signal (t) is the phase of the signal (2.3)
The complex signal can be described by , (2.4)
This is a continuous signal. Each component of the signal over one symbol period can take fixed values of the variables like: , , where, n is the number of OFDM block.
T is a time interval and the signal is sampled by 1/T then it can be represented by: , Let 0=0 then the signal becomes: , (2.6) (2.5)
The signal is compared with general Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT): (2.7) Here, is time frequency domain.
Page 20
Both are equivalent if f = where, is symbol duration period (2.8) = =
The OFDM signal can be defined by Fourier Transform. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) can obtained frequency domain OFDM symbols and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) can obtain time domain symbols. They can be written as: Fast Fourier Transform (2.9) Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (2.10) where,
2.5 NC-OFDM System Model

In OFDM system, the achievement of large number of non-contiguous subcarriers by collective usage for the high data rate transmission is referred as Non-Contiguous OFDM (NC-OFDM) [31]. NC-OFDM can provide the necessary agile spectrum usage for the target licensed spectrum if spectrum can be occupied by primary and secondary users. The spectrum sensing measurements are deactivated during the subcarriers corresponding to the spectrum occupied by primary user. Moreover, dynamic spectrum sensing can be determined when the active subcarriers are located in the unoccupied spectrum bands. Fundamentals of the NC-OFDM signal transmission and reception are quite similar to that of the OFDM signal explained in Section 2.7.1. However, NC-OFDM techniques offer very important advantage for growing scarcity of the large contiguous frequency spectrum, i.e. it can support dynamic spectrum pooling for high data rate transmissions.
Page 21
Spectrum sensing measurement Null subcarrier selection Subcarrier ON/OFF information
Input
Mod
S / P
IFFT
P / S
ADD CP
DAC
RF frontend
Transmitter
Subcarrier ON/OFF information
Output
Demod
P / S
FFT
S / P
Remove CP
ADC
RF frontend
Receiver
Figure 2. 3 NC-OFDM Transceiver [31]
2.6 Why PAPR reduction in OFDM system

The OFDM technique divides the total bandwidth into many narrow sub-channels and sends data in parallel. It has various advantages, such as high spectral efficiency, immunity to impulse interference and, frequency selective fading without having powerful channel equalizer. But one of the major drawbacks of the OFDM system is high PAPR. OFDM signal consists of lot of independent modulated subcarriers, which are created the problem of PAPR. It is impossible to send this high peak amplitude signals to the transmitter without reducing peaks. So we have to reduce high peak amplitude of the signals before transmitting.
Page 22
2.7 Mathematical Definition of PAPR

The PAPR of the OFDM signal can be written as: PAPR{ where, s(t) is the original signal is the time interval is the peak signal power is the average signal power , } = (2.11)
2.8 PAPR Techniques

There have been many new approaches developed during the last few years. Several PAPR reduction techniques have been proposed in the literature. These techniques are divided into two groups. These are signal scrambling techniques and signal distortion techniques. The signal scrambling techniques are: Block coding Selective Level Mapping (SLM) Partial Transmit Sequences (PTS)
Signal scrambling techniques work with side information which minimized the effective throughput since they commence redundancy. Signal distortion techniques introduce band interference and system complexity also. Signal distortion techniques minimize high peak dramatically by distorting signal before amplification. The signal distortion techniques are: Clipping Peak windowing Peak cancellation Peak power suppression Weighted multicarrier transmission
Page 23
2.8.1 Signal Scrambling Techniques

2.8.1.1 Block Coding Techniques
Coding techniques can be applied for signal scrambling, M sequences, Golay complementary sequences, Shapiro-Rudin sequences codes can be used to reduce the PAPR efficiently. This Block coding technique has been proposed by Wilkinson and Jones in 1965 for the minimization of the peak to mean envelope power ratio of multicarrier communication system [1]. The key object in this paper is that PAPR can be minimized by block coding the data. The block coding techniques have three stages for the development. The first stage works with the collection of appropriate sets of code words for any number of carriers, any M-ary phase modulation method, and any coding rate. The second stage works with the collection of the sets of code words which enable proficient implementation of the encoding/decoding. The third stage offers error deduction and correction potential. There different methods for the collection of the sets of code words. The mainly insignificant method, order to search the peak envelope power (PEP) for all possible code words for a certain length of given number of carriers. This technique is simple and accurate for short codes because it needs extreme computation. Natural algorithms are mainly sophisticated searching techniques. It can be used for the collection of longer code words. A selection of code words select from searches for encoding and decoding can be performed with a look up table or using combinatorial logic exploiting the mathematical structure of the codes minimization when the frame sixe is bigger. Large PAPR reduction can be achieved if the long information sequence is separated into different sub blocks, and all sub block encoded with System on a Programmable Chip (SOPC). There are many likely spaces, where the odd parity checking bits can be put into each frame to minimize PAPR. For further minimization of PAPR, redundant bit location optimized sub-block coding (RBLO-SBC) optimizes these locations redundant Combination optimized sub-block coding scheme (COSBC) optimizes the combination of the coded subblocks, where two coding schemes instead of one is used to encode the same information source.
2.8.1.2 Block Coding Scheme with Error Correction

This Block coding scheme with Error Correction has been proposed by Ahn and et.al in [12] to introduce a new block coding proposal for minimization of peak to average power ratio (PAPR) of an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system. Block coding has error correction capability. In block coding method, the OFDM symbol can be reduced by selecting only those code words with lower PAPR. In this paper, the key object of the method is proposed that properly designed block codes can not only minimize the PAPR, but also give error correction capability. A k bit data block (e.g. 4-bit data) is encoded by a (n, k) block code with a generator matrix G in the transmitter of the system. Followed by the phase rotator vector b to produce the encoded output x=a.G+b(mod 2).
Page 24
To achieve the accurate generator matrix and phase rotator vector that make sure the minimum PAPR for the OFDM system, check all the 2n codes and choose only 2k codes that obtain the minimum PAPR. After that generator matrix G and the phase rotator vector b are produced; which are used mapping between these symbols combination and input data vector a. The converse functions of the transmitter are executed in the receiver system. The parity check matrix H is achieved from the generator matrix G, with an exception that the effect of the phase rotator vector b is removed before calculations of syndromes. Contrasting the method in [1], which only presents error detection; this method can improve the overall system performance and provides error correction capability.
2.8.1.3 Selected Mapping (SLM)

Selective Mapping (SLM) approaches have been proposed by Bauml in 1965 [13]. This method is used for minimization of peak to average transmit power of multicarrier transmission system with selected mapping. A complete set of candidate signal is generated signifying the same information in selected mapping, and then concerning the most favorable signal is selected as consider to PAPR and transmitted. In the SLM, the input data structure is multiplied by random series and resultant series with the lowest PAPR is chosen for transmission. To allow the receiver to recover the original data to the multiplying sequence can be sent as side information. One of the preliminary probabilistic methods is SLM method for reducing the PAPR problem. The good side of selected mapping method is that it doesnt eliminate the peaks, and can handle any number of subcarriers. The drawback of this method is the overhead of side information that requires to be transmitted to the receiver of the system in order to recover information.
2.8.1.4 Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS)

Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) technique has been proposed by Muller and Hubber in 1997 [14]. This proposed method is based on the phase shifting of sub-blocks of data and multiplication of data structure by random vectors. This method is flexible and effective for OFDM system. The main purpose behind this method is that the input data frame is divided into non-overlapping sub blocks and each sub block is phase shifted by a constant factor to reduce PAPR. PTS is probabilistic method for reducing the PAPR problem. It can be said that PTS method is a modified method of SLM. PTS method works better than SLM method. The main advantage of this scheme is that there is no need to send any side information to the receiver of the system, when differential modulation is applied in all sub blocks.
2.8.1.5 Interleaving Technique

Interleaving technique has been proposed by Jayalath and Tellambura [2], for reduction peak to average power ratio of an OFDM transmission. A data randomization technique has proposed for the minimization of the PAPR in this paper.
Page 25
The notion that highly correlated data structures have large PAPR can be reduced, if long correlation pattern is broken down. Also, this paper proposes an additive method to minimize the complexity. The basic idea in adaptive interleaving is to set up an initial terminating threshold. PAPR value goes below the threshold rather than seeking each interleaved sequences. The minimal threshold will compel the adaptive interleaving (AL) to look for all the interleaved sequences. The main important of the scheme is that it is less complex than the PTS technique but obtains comparable result. This method does not give the assurance result for PAPR reduction. In this circumstance, higher order error correction method could be used in addition to this method.
2.8.1.6 Tone Reservation (TR)

Tone Reservation (TR) method is proposed for PAPR reduction [15]. The main idea of this method is to keep a small set of tones for PAPR reduction. This can be originated as a convex problem and this problem can be solved accurately. The amount of PAPR reduction depends on some factors such as number of reserved tones, location of the reserved tones, amount of complexity and allowed power on reserved tones. This method explains an additive scheme for minimizing PAPR in the multicarrier communication system. It shows that reserving a small fraction of tones leads to large minimization in PAPR ever using with simple algorithm at the transmitter of the system without any additional complexity at the receiver end. Here, N is the small number of tones, reserving tones for PAPR reduction may present a nonnegligible fraction of the available bandwidth and resulting in a reduction in data rate. The advantage of TR method is that it is less complex, no side information and also no additional operation is required at the receiver of the system. Tone reservation method is based on adding a data block and time domain signal. A data block is dependent time domain signal to the original multicarrier signal to minimize the high peak. This time domain signal can be calculated simply at the transmitter of system and stripped off at the receiver.
2.8.1.7 Tone Injection (TI)

Tone Injection (TI) method has been recommended by Muller, S.H., and Huber, J.B. [14]. This technique is based on general additive method for PAR reduction. Using an additive method achieves PAPR reduction of multicarrier signal without any data rate loss. Note that Tone injection (TI) uses a set of equivalent constellation points for an original constellation points to reduce PAPR. The main idea behind this method is to increase the constellation size. Then, each point in the original basic constellation can be mapped into several equivalent points in the extended constellation, since all information elements can be mapped into several equivalent constellation points. These additional amounts of freedom can be utilized for PAPR reduction. This method is called Tone Injection method because of replacing the points in the basic constellation for the new points in the larger constellation which corresponds to injecting a tone of the proper phase and frequency in the multi-carrier symbol. The drawbacks of this method are; need to side information for decoding signal at the receiver side, and cause extra IFFT operation which is more complex.
Page 26
2.8.2 Signal Distortion Techniques

2.8.2.1 Peak Windowing
The peak windowing method has been suggested by Van Nee and Wild [17]. This method, proposes that it is possible to remove large peaks at the cost of a slight amount of self interference when large peaks arise infrequently. Peak windowing reduces PAPRs at the cost of increasing the BER and out-of-band radiation. Clipping is a one kind of simple introduces PAPR reduction technique which is self interference. The technique of peak windowing offers better PAPR reduction with better spectral properties. (Peak Windowing technique provides better PAPR reduction with better spectral properties than clipping). In peak windowing method we multiply large signal peak with a specific window, for example; Gaussian shaped window, cosine, Kaiser and Hamming window. In view of the fact that the OFDM signal is multiplied with several of these windows, consequential spectrum is a convolution of the original OFDM spectrum with the spectrum of the applied window. Thus, the window should be as narrow band as possible, conversely the window should not be too long in the time domain because various signal samples are affected, which results an increase in bit error rate (BER). Windowing method, PAPRs can be obtained to 4dB which from the number of independent subcarriers. The loss in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the signal distortion is limited to about 0.3dB. A back off relative to maximum output power of about 5.5dB is needed in spectra distortion at least 30dB below the in-band spectral density.
2.8.2.2 Envelope Scaling

The Envelope Scaling technique has been proposed by Foomooljareon and Fernando in [18]. They proposed a new algorithm to reduce PAPR by scaling the input envelope for some subcarriers before they are sent to IFFT. In this paper, they used 256 subcarriers with QPSK modulation technique, so that envelopes of all the subcarriers are equal. The key idea of this scheme is that the input envelope in some sub carrier is scaled to achieve the smallest amount of PAPR at the output of the IFFT. Thus, the receiver of the system doesnt need any side information for decoding the receiver sequence. This scheme is appropriate for QPSK modulation; the envelopes of all subcarriers are equal. Results show that PAPR can be reduced significantly at around 4 dB. Finally the system of single scaling factor and number of clusters equal to number of sub carriers is recommended.
2.8.2.3 Peak Reduction Carrier

Peak Reduction Carrier has been proposed by Tan and Wassell to use of the data bearing peak reduction carriers (PRCs) to reduce the effective PAPR in the OFDM system [19]. This scheme includes the use of a higher order modulation scheme to represent a lower order modulation symbol. This permits the amplitude and phase of the PRC to be positioned within the constellation region symbolizing the data symbol to be transmitted.
Page 27
For example, to use a PRC that employs a 16-PSK constellation to carry QPSK data symbol, the 16-phases of the 16-PSK constellations are divided into four regions to represent the four different values of the QPSK symbol. This scheme is appropriate for PSK modulation; where the envelopes of all subcarriers are equal. When the QAM modulation scheme will be implemented in the OFDM system, the carrier envelope scaling will result in the serious BER degradation. To limit the bit error rate (BER) degradation, amount of the side information would also be excessive when the number of subcarriers is large.
2.8.2.4 Clipping and Filtering

High PAPR is one of the most common problems in OFDM. A high PAPR brings disadvantages like increased complexity of the ADC and DAC and also reduced efficiency of radio frequency (RF) power amplifier. One of the simple and effective PAPR reduction techniques is clipping, which cancels the signal components that exceed some unchanging amplitude called clip level. However, clipping yields distortion power, which called clipping noise, and expands the transmitted signal spectrum, which causes interfering [20]. Clipping is nonlinear process and causes inband noise distortion, which causes degradation in the performance of bit error rate (BER) and out-of-band noise, which decreases the spectral efficiency [21]. Clipping and filtering technique is effective in removing components of the expanded spectrum. Although filtering can decrease the spectrum growth, filtering after clipping can reduce the out-of-band radiation, but may also cause some peak re-growth, which the peak signal exceeds in the clip level [22]. The technique of iterative clipping and filtering reduces the PAPR without spectrum expansion. However, the iterative signal takes long time and it will increase the computational complexity of an OFDM transmitter [20]. But without performing interpolation before clipping causes it out-of-band. To avoid out-ofband, signal should be clipped after interpolation. However, this causes significant peak regrowth. So, it can use iterative clipping and frequency domain filtering to avoid peak regrowth. In the system used, serial to parallel converter converts serial input data having different frequency component which are base band modulated symbols and apply interpolation to these symbols by zero padding in the middle of input data. Then clipping operation is performed to cut high peak amplitudes and frequency domain filtering is used to reduce the out of band signal, but caused peak re-growth [22]. This consists of two FFT operations. Forward FFT transforms the clipped signal back to discrete frequency domain. The in-band discrete components are passed unchanged to inputs of second IFFT while out of band components are null. The clipping and filtering process is performed iteratively until the amplitude is set to the threshold value level to avoid the peak out-of band and peak regrowth.
Page 28
2.9 Overall Analysis of Different Techniques

There are several techniques has been proposed in literature. Thus, it is possible to reduce the large PAPR by using the different techniques. Note that the PAPR reduction technique should be chosen with awareness according to various system requirements.
Table 2. 1-Comparison of PAPR Reduction Techniques

Name of Schemes Distortion less Clipping and Filtering Coding Partial Transmit Sequence(PTS) Selective Mapping (SLM) Interleaving Tone Reservation (TR) Tone Injection(TI) Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Name of parameters Power increases Data rate loss
No No No
No Yes Yes
There are many issues to be considered before using the PAPR reduction techniques in a digital communication system. These issues include PAPR reduction capacity, power increase in transmit signal, BER increase at the receiver, loss in data rate, computational complexity increase and so on. Simultaneously most of the techniques are not proficient to obtain a large reduction in PAPR with low coding overhead, with low complexity, without performance degradation and without transmitter and receiver symbol handshake.
Page 29
2.10 Conclusion
OFDM is a promising technique for wireless communication systems although it has some drawbacks which are given below: High PAPR Frequency offset
High PAPR is one of the major problems of OFDM system. There are several techniques to reduce the PAPR in OFDM transmission system. All PAPR reduction techniques have some advantages and disadvantages. These PAPR reduction techniques should be chosen carefully for getting the desirable minimum PAPR. All PAPR reduction techniques are based on particular situation of system. This section describes and summarizes several techniques of PAPR and proposes repeated clipping and frequency domain filtering technique which is the best solution for PAPR.
Page 30
Chapter Three: Cognitive Radio
3.1 Introduction
Cognitive Radio (CR) is an intelligent wireless communication system that is self-aware of its surrounding environment and identifies unused portion of radio spectrum on the basis of observed spectrum usage and able to make decision itself and efficiently uses spectrum in a dynamically adaptive way. The demand of spectrum is increasing day by day. A CR is an emerging technology for the efficient use of the spectrum. It can discover unused spectrum by spectrum sensing and can adjust its transmission setting accordingly without causing interference to licensed users. The inconsistency between allocation and use of spectrum leads to need for the development of intelligent radios. The regulation and more flexible spectrum management techniques are required to increase the efficient use of our natural spectrum resources. The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) has started considering dynamic approaches for spectrum sharing. The IEEE 802.22 standards have launched the process to use TV band spectrum holes for enabling wide area Internet service. The IEEE 802.22 working group is developing a standard for cognitive wireless regional area networks (WRAN) for use by license-exempt devices on a non-interfering basis in spectrum that is allocated to the TV Broadcast Service [24]. The CR has the ability to dynamically adjust its certain operating parameters (e.g. transmit power, carrier frequency, and modulation strategy) in real-time, with two primary objects in mind: to provide highly reliable communications and efficient utilization of the radio spectrum.
Page 31
3.2 The Features of CR

CRs enable a more efficient and flexible usage of spectrum. The Federal Communication Commission FCC has been identified in [27] the following features of CRs as given below:
Frequency Agility: The radio is capable of modifying its operating frequency in adapting to the environment. Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS): The Radio can sense signals from neighboring transmitter to select a most desirable operation environment. Adaptive Modulation: The transmission waveforms and characteristics can automatic modulation adjustment to utilize for the usage of spectrum. Transmit Power Control: It is adapted to full power limits when required on the one side and to lower levels on the other hand to permit greater sharing of spectrum. Location Awareness: The radio is capable to identify in its location. In the same location, other devices operate using the same spectrum to make as effective use of transmission parameters. Negotiated Use: The CR can have algorithms for allowing the sharing of spectrum usage. So, they must have some terms and conditions between a licensed and a third party or an ad hoc in real time.
Page 32
3.3 The Evolution of Radio Technology

A CR is an extension of modern Software Defined Radio (SDR). The evolution of radio technology is shown in Figure 3.1.
Software Capable Radio
Software Programmable Radio
Software Defined Radio
Aware Radio
Adaptive Radio
Cognitive Radio
Increasing Technology/Software Maturity
A SDR is a Communications device whose attributes and capabilities are developed and or implemented in Software (Based on the FCCs notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) 8/12/2000).
High (State of the art)
Cognitive Radio
Suo-SAS
CSEL MBMMR MBITR
JTRS DMR
medium (State of the shelf)
MIDDS
Falcon PSC-5 ICNIA Jaguar JIT NTDR EPLRS PRC-117
Leprechaun
Low (mature)
LST-5 SINCGARS ASIP VRC-99 Racal 25 ARC-220 ARC-210 ARC-164 PLRS SINGARS WSC-3 Software-Capable Software Programmable Software Defined Cognitive Radio
Figure 3. 1-SDR intensity [28]
Page 33
3.4 Software Defined Radio (SDR)

A Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are software defined is known as Software Radio or Software Defined Radio (SDR). The term SDR was first proposed in 1991 by Joseph Mitola. SDR is considered as a wireless device that is fully controlled or reconfigured by software [33].The first software radio technical paper was published at the IEEE National Tele Systems Conference in the united state in 1992.The European Commission sponsored the first International Workshop on Software Radio. The SDR Forum, working in collaboration with IEEE group, has provided definition of SDR [54]. A radio is a one kind of electronic device that transmits or receives signal through the radio frequency (RF).A radio frequency is a part of electromagnetic spectrum. Radio exits in many items for instance; television, cell phones, vehicles, car door openers and computer. Traditionally, Radio is hardware based radio device. It can only be possible to modify radio through the physical intervention. On the other hand, A SDR permits multi-band, multi-mode and multi-functional wireless devices that can perform in an efficient way and comparatively inexpensive. A set of hardware and software technologies where all of the radios operating functions are implemented through modifiable software or firmware operating on programmable processing technologies. These sort of devices include field general purpose processors (GPP), programmable System on Chip (SoC), programmable gate arrays (FPGA), digital signal processors (DSP), or other application specific programmable processors. These technologies provide a degree of freedom that allows new wireless features and capabilities and can be enhanced using software upgrades to existing radio systems without requiring new hardware devices. All transmit or receive frequencies parameters are fixed in hardware based radio where hardware design cant be changed. Example: A 800 MHz cellular phone cant work in 1900 MHz PCS band without adding additional hardware devices. Example: A dual mode phone can operate in both the GSM and PCS worlds over both the US and the EU frequency bands.
3.4.1 Benefits of SDR

An SDR is an enabling technology in a wide range within wireless communication systems. To replace as many analog components and digital VLSI devices of the transceiver as possible with programmable devices is the main goal of SDR. Benefits of SDR are given below [33]: Flexibility and Adaptability. Subscriber: easy international roaming, more flexible and improved services. Mobile network operator: provided adds value services.
Page 34
Handset and base station manufacturers: increase production flexibility and new scale of economies.
Flexibility means able to change modulation and to switch the channel depending on its surrounding environment. Adaptability means having capable of adaptation. SDR can adapt itself according to the parameters information.
3.4.2 Relationship between SDR and CR

The most popular definition of CR and SDR that is aware of its environment, internal state and location, and autonomously adjust its operation to achieved designed objectives. There is one simple conceptual method that represents the relation between SDR and CR as shown in Figure 3.2.
Cognitive Radio
Upper Layer Functionalities
SDR
Cognitive Engine
Internal and External Sensing
Figure 3. 2 -The relationship of SDR and CR [10]

Cognitive engine is responsible for controlling the SDR based on parameters learned from environment. Cognitive engine is always alert to the radios hardware resources and capabilities.
Page 35
Compared to hardware radio where radio can operate single or limited radio functionality. The SDR creates software based digital signal processing with software tuneable Radio Frequency (RF) components. Thus, SDR is capable of operating with different bandwidths over wide range of frequencies and using many different modulations. As a consequence, SDR can support multiple standards e.g. WCDMA, EDGE, GSM, CDMA2000, WiMAX, Wi-Fi and multiple access technologies such as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiplexing (TDMA), Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) and Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA). Sensing device needs to sense the spectrum; Sensing is most important part of CR. Sensing devices can sense the spectrum which can be implanted into SDR internally or externally. A SDR may have spectrum analyzer which can provide spectrum information to cognitive engine [10].
3.4.3 Ideal SDR Architecture for CRs

The ideal architecture of SDR shown in Figure 3.3 consists of three main units which are reconfigurable such as digital radio, software tunable radio along with fixed impedance synthesizer, and software tunable antenna systems [36]. The reconfigurable digital radio function is responsible to perform digital functionalities such as various waveforms generation, antenna units and optimization algorithms for software tunable radio, and also controls all units. Software tunable analog front-end system cant perform digitally because those are restricted such as RF filters, combiners/splitters, data converter, power amplifier (PA) and Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA). Impedance synthesizer is a sub-system of this scheme. Impedance synthesizer is a vital section to optimize the performance of software tunable analog radio system. For example, the software tunable antenna system for a random frequency plan is specified by cognitive engine. Depending on system requirements, reconfigurable digital radio system monitors and controls the software tunable radio system [10].
Antenna Control Signal
Feedback information
Reconfigurable Digital Radio
Software Tunable Analog Radio
Impedance Synthesizer
Radio Control Signal
Figure 3. 3 -Ideal SDR architecture [10]
Page 36
The key relationship between the main units of SDR is explained as follows. The cognitive engine is crucial unit that transmits radio configuration parameters to reconfigurable digital radio unit. As a result it can easily reconfigure the entire radio. The reconfigurable digital radio unit can calculate some parameters such as location information of a specific user for cognitive engine. The unit of reconfigurable digital radio can configure itself with antenna systems and software tunable radio elements to optimize these unit performances. There is feedback option which is utilized by reconfigurable digital radio unit from software tunable radio (mainly impedance). The reconfigurable digital radio unit can adjust the parameters of software tunable radio.
3.5 Spectrum Sensing

Spectrum Sensing is used to detect the under-utilized portion of spectrum. Spectrum sensing is key object that makes possible to opportunistic spectrum access in CR networks. However, spectrum sensing can give error result in the form of false alarm and misdetection. The key object is to offer more spectrum opportunities to Secondary Users (SUs) without causing any interference to the Primary Users (PUs). CR hardware should be able to detect the vacant portion of the spectrum. The accurate sensing of the wireless spectrum is a key challenge in realizing CR technology. The individual cognitive devices can sense the environment and sent the sensing information to the base station. The base station has to adapt a common set of channels that do not conflict with PU throughout its coverage area. The necessity supports from the physical layer (PHY) of the CR architectures as well as intelligent algorithms that are implemented in software. Various sensing techniques exist in the literature are described in Section 3.5.1.1.
3.5.1 Different Techniques of Spectrum Sensing in CR

A CR be conscious about changes of the environment in which spectrum sensing plays important role by identifying unused spectrum portions called spectrum holes without causing interference to the PU. Spectrum sensing plays important role in future wireless communication systems to provide high performance services. The aims of CR are to enforce the efficient use of resources as including spectrum, frequency, transmitted energy, and time. Spectrum sensing has two important roles: Firstly, sensing should provide guaranty of interference free communication for PU. Secondly, it can indentify spectrum opportunistic for increasing capacity of cognitive networks.
The detection should be very short time that can avoid weak signals in a noisy environment, as result there will be very small probability of miss detection.
Page 37
Usually, Spectrum sensing techniques can be classified into four groups: Primary Transmitter detection Cooperative detection Primary receiver detection Interference temperature management
3.5.1.1 Primary Transmitter Detection

Generally, Cognitive users do not have any real time interaction with primary transmitter and receiver. They do not have prior information about PUs. So, the transmitter is to find out the used and unused spectrum bands of CR users. CR users should have the capability to detect the signal from the primary transmitter on the basis of local observation of CR users in shown Figure 3.4. The basic hypothesis scheme of transmitter detection can be presents as follows: , (3.1)
where, x(t) signal is received by the CR user. s(t) signal is the transmitted signal of primary user, n(t) is a zero-mean Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) and b is the amplitude gain of the ideal channel. is a null hypothesis that represents no licensed user in a specific spectrum. Conversely, is an alternative hypothesis that denotes there exits some signals of PUs. These proposed systems are generally used for the transmitter detection: matched filter, energy detection, and features detection.
No intersection between CR user and Primary Tx/Rx

Primary Transmitter Primary Transmitter
CR user must rely on locally sensed signals from the Primary transmitter to infer user activity to infer primary user activity.
Figure 3. 4 -Primary transmitter detection
Page 38
3.5.1.1.1 Matched Filter Detection Matched filter is a filter that is obtained by correlating a known signal with an unknown signal to detect the presence of AWGN. A known signal X(t)has an impulse response equal to a conjugated time-reversed version of X(t).This filter can provide a maximum Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) output when a signal X(t) is AWGN. This matched filter is appropriate for random signal when they have some periodically repeated elements. There are some applications of matched filter to spectrum sensing in CR which includes the known elements of ATSC, GSM, DTV, IS-54/136, 802.11a/g, OFDM, etc. The filter can be matched in GSM system to 26-bit midamble (code) in the centre of each 156-bit traffic time slot. In EEE 802.11a/g standard, OFDM can be matched to the 127-bit repeated pilot subcarrier synchronization sequence. The matched filter has some merits include simplicity, optimally computational for AWGN. This filter has one serious demerit; it provides poor performance in non-AWGN channels and sensitivity to deficient synchronization. The matched filtering is an optimal way for detection of PU [36].A matched filter needs demodulation of PUs signal that means a CR has a pre-knowledge of PU at both PHY and MAC layers such as bandwidth, modulation, order, packet format, and pulse shape. This type of information might be pre-stored in memory of CR. The most of PUs have preambles, pilots, spreading codes, training sequences and synchronization words that can be used for the coherent detection. The narrow band TV signal has pilots for audio and video carriers. CDMA systems have devoted synchronization channels and spreading codes for pilots. In OFDM system, it has preambles for packet acquisition. The main advantage of matched filter is only samples to achieve detection error probability constraints [37]. The main drawback of matched filter is that a CR needs special receivers for every PU. 3.5.1.1.2 Energy Detection Energy detector is a sub-optimal non coherent receiver. The energy detector is a sub-optimal way for detecting the unknown signal. The energy detector is also known as periodogram or radiometry. An energy detector can be implemented by averaging frequency bins of a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) like a spectrum analyzer as represented in Figure 3.5 [38]. In this block diagram, processing gain is proportional to FFT size N and averaging time T. When N increases, it improves the frequency resolution that helps in narrow band signal detection. The noise power level is reduced by longer averaging time (T) which leads to improve the SNR. However, the energy detector requires only samples to achieve a detection error probability constraint.
Page 39
Threshold X(t) A/D N pt. FFT
Average over T
Energy Detect
Figure 3. 5 -Implementation of an energy detector using Welch Periodgram averaging

There are several drawbacks of energy detector. The energy detector is not difficult to implement but it can only identify the presence of the signal not to differentiate signal types (modulated, signals, noise and interference). So, the energy detector provides often false detection. Energy detector cannot identify the interference. So, it cant be benefited from adaptive signal processing (for cancelling the interference). A threshold that used for primary users detection is highly susceptible to unknown or uncertain noise levels. Adaptive threshold would be set for primary user detection but it can generate the false alarm or increase miss detection probability. Finally, the energy detectors do not work properly for detecting spread spectrum signal [40]. 3.5.1.1.3 Cyclostationary Detection The cylostationary detection is another method for detecting primary users signal by exploiting the received signals in spectrum sensing. Implementation of a spectrum correlation function for cyclostationary feature detection is illustrated in Figure 3.6. Modulated signal are generally paired with sine wives carriers, repeating spreading, pulse train, cyclic prefixes, hopping sequences which result in built-in periodicity. These modulated signals are distinguished by cyclostationarity, since their autocorrelation and mean show periodicity. The feature detection can utilize this inherent periodicity in the PUs signal by analyzing a spectral correlation function. The cyclostationary detection can differentiate noise energy from primary users signal. This is a consequence for the noise is Wide Sense Stationary (WSS) with no correlation while modulated signal are cyclostationary with spectral correlation due to spectral redundancy caused by periodicity [41].
Page 40
X(t)
A/D
N. pt FFT
Correlate
Average over T
Feature Detect
Figure 3. 6 -Implementation of a cyclostationary feature detector

The Cyclic Spectral Density (CSD) function of received signal as given below: (3.2) where, Cyclic Auto-Correlation Function (CAF) is the cyclic frequency.
and is
The key advantages of cyclostationary detection or feature detection is more robust to noise uncertainty than an energy detector. This cyclostationary is also able to distinguish different type of signals and abide false alarm caused by external signal such as those from interference or other CR users. Transmitter detection as matched filter detection, energy detection, and cyclostationary feature detection are described and comparison is shown these different detection techniques in Table 3.1.
Page 41
Table 3. 1- Comparison different techniques of spectrum sensing

Spectrum Sensing Scheme Match Filter Advantages Disadvantages
Optimal detection Works at low computational cost
Needs a prior knowledge of the primary user
Energy Detection
Sub-optimal Detection No need to any prior Information of the primary User
It cant perform in low SNR and cant differentiate users sharing the same channel.
Cyclostationary Detection
It is robust to interference and robust in low SNR.
Needs partial information of the primary user and computational cost is high
3.5.1.2 Cooperative Detection

A cognitive user (Transmitter) can have a good line of sight to CR receiver although it may not be able to detect the primary transmitter because of shadowing. Moreover, transmitter detection techniques cant avoid causing interference to primary receivers due to lack of information of primary receiver. As a result, sensing information from other users is needed the primary transmitter. So, Cooperative sensing is required to handle in this situation. A few problems arise in spectrum sensing due to fading, shadowing and noise uncertainty which can be solved by cooperative sensing. Cooperative sensing can also solve the hidden primary user problem and can reduce the sensing time as discussed in the literature [43].
3.5.1.3 Primary Receiver Detection

Generally the primary receiver emits the Local Oscillator (LO) leakage power from its RF front end when it receives signals from the primary transmitter. A primary receiver method utilizes this LO leakage power instead of the transmitted signal from the primary transmitter in order to detect the presence of the primary receiver directly.
Page 42
3.5.1.4 Interference Temperature Management

In 2003, the FCC has proposed the concept of Interference temperature in order to determine to RF interference. This model is designed to operate to the distance at which the receive power approaches the level of noise floor. The noise floor is location specific depending on the additional interfering signal. This model shows a recommended interference temperature limit that is the amount of new interference which the primary receiver can tolerate. The objective of spectrum sensing is best fitted by this proposed model but the difficulties to properly determine the interference temperature. Naturally a CR is aware of its transmitted power level and global positioning system and also knows it precise location. A CR can compute the probability with the help of this information that its transmission can cause significant interference to a neighboring receiver on the same frequency. Unfortunately, however, the interference temperature techniques may not give guarantee. Actually there is no practical way for CR user to estimate or measure the interference temperature because CR users have difficulties in differentiating the actual signals from the PU and interference [44].
Page 43
Chapter Four: OFDM Based Cognitive Radio
4.1 Merits and Challenges for OFDM Based CR

The challenges of OFDM based cognitive radio (CR) can be grouped into three categories as represented in Figure 4.1. The first category includes challenges are related to OFDM systems including Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR), phase noise, synchronization and sensitivity to frequency offset. The second category comprise of CRs, i.e. spectrum sensing, cross layer adaptation and interference avoidance. Third category can be arising when OFDM technique is employed by CR. CR provides the tempting solution to spectral crowding problem by introducing the proper opportunistic usage of frequency bands that are not heavily occupied by licensed user [45]. CR demands that the physical layer (PHY) should be adaptable and flexible. CR may achieve this objective through the use of OFDM. OFDM has gained popularity and is used in many current wireless communications system nowadays, e.g., Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN), Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), and Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) that is already proven as an adaptive, flexible and reliable transmission method. In spite of this, identified challenges (adaptation, awareness, etc.) need to be researched further to find firm solutions. It is predicted that OFDM will be an attractive PHY technology for CR systems.
4.2 OFDM Based CR Architecture

The OFDM applications to CR bring new features and challenges to system design. An OFDM based CR model is shown in Figure 4.2. The cognitive engine is the main unit of this model. Basically, cognitive engine is an intellectual unit that is responsible for making the intelligent decisions and configures the PHY parameters. The decision unit can identify the spectral opportunities based on the information from policy engine through local and network spectrum sensing data [10]. After that, policy engine gives information to the cognitive engine regarding to the present policies to be measured depending on the system location. This makes sure that CR doesnt use unauthorized waveform or break any policies.
Page 44
OFDM challenges
Cognitive Radio challenges
ICI PAPR Synchronization
CR - OFDM specific challenges
Spectrum sensing Cross layer adaptation Interference avoidance
Figure 4. 1- Research challenges in CR and OFDM [10]

Alternatively, local spectrum sensing unit handles the spectrum information and recognize licensed users accessing the spectrum, their signal specification such as power level and their bandwidth. When the necessary information is available, the decision unit can make an execution in a proper way for the system. The decision encompasses selecting the suitable channel coding, modulation bandwidth and operating frequencies. At this present stage, OFDM technology has advantages over other similar transmission technologies with its adaptive and flexibility features. The cognitive engine system can correspond with different radio access technologies in the environment by only changing the configuration parameters of OFDM in Table 4.1. The radio circuit is divided into digital and analog parts. The digital part consists of digital IF, ADC, and DAC. On the other hand the analog part consists of software tunable analog radio. The digital and analog parts are reconfigurable by the cognitive engine in order to increase the flexibility of the system. This includes controlling the operating frequency, filters, mixer and bandwidth, and antenna parameters. The antenna parameters (beam forming, number of antennas) can be configured in order to improve the system performance.
Page 45
Cognitive Engine Policy Engine Decision Unit Local Spectrum Sensing
Software Tunable Radio Local Policies DAC Coding S/P IFFT Digital RF
Spectrum Information from Network Decoding Upper Layers
Synch & channel estimation
Equalizer
P/S
FFT
PHY Layer
Radio
Figure 4. 2- OFDM base CR system block diagram [10]
Table 4. 1- OFDM Based Wireless Standards

Standard IEEE 802.11 (a/g) 64 1, 2, 4, 6 4 20 CSMA IEEE 802.16 (d/e) 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32 1, 2, 4, 6 Variable 1.75 to 20 OFDMA /TDMA IEEE 802.22 1024, 2048, 4096 Variable 2, 4, 6 96, 192, 384 6, 7, 8 OFDMA /TDMA DVB-T
ADC
Digital RF
FFT Size CP Size Bit per symbol Pilots Bandwidth (MHz) Multiple Accessing
2048, 8192 1/4, 1/8 1/16, 1/32 2, 4, 6 62, 245 8 N/A
Software Tunable analog Radio Page 46
4.3 Proposed System

This work describes the OFDM based CR architectures block diagram. In order to reduce the high peak power ratio by introducing repeated clipping and frequency domain filtering which is demonstrated in Figure 4.3. This thesis, we attempt to exploit previous channel information in Non-Contiguous OFDM (NC-OFDM) based CRs under dynamic spectrum sharing environments. In the traditional OFDM systems have base on the resource allocation problem such as the allocated transmission spectrum is fixed. The spectrum is co-shared in the CR and the operating bandwidth is not continuously fixed in frequency, time, and geographical domains. The channel and power status will be tracked through this system and provided reliable feedback from channel state information to the transmitter. In this thesis, we take NC-OFDM radio link under a varying available bandwidth and maintain the SNRs of sub-channels under total power constraints. We have adaptively chosen high PAPR reduction approach which are clipping and filtering.
Null subcarried selection
Spectrum sensing measurement
Input
Mod
S / P
IFFT
Clip Filter
P / S
ADD CP
DAC
RF frontend
Transmitter
Channel and spectrum info. feedback Power and past channel status
Output
Demod
P / S
FFT
S / P
Remove CP
ADC
RF frontend
Receiver
Figure 4. 3 -Proposed block diagram of NC-OFDM based CR

High PAPR brings disadvantages like an increased complexity of the analog to digital and digital to analog converters and reduced efficiency of radio frequency (RF) power amplifier. One of the uncomplicated and effective PAPR reduction techniques is clipping, which cancel the signal components that exceed some unchanging amplitude called clip level. However, clipping yields power distortion which called clipping noise.
Page 47
Clipping is a nonlinear process. It causes in-band noise distortion, which causes degradation in the system performance and out-of-band noise, which decreases the spectral efficiency. The clipping ratio is defined as the ratio of the clipping level to the root mean square value of the unclipped signal which causes no distortion to the in-band power and rejects out-of-band power of the signal. With the form of filtering, clip-and-filter operation causes some peak regrowth. By using repeated clip-and-filter operations can be reduced the overall peak regrowth. The clipping and filtering technique has discussed in details the Section 2.8.2.4.
Page 48
Chapter Five: Channel Models
5.1 Introduction
The communications channel is the physical medium connecting the transmitter to receiver. Wired telephone, wireless phones, optical fiber are examples of communication channels. An accurate and appropriate modeling of the radio channel is crucial in order to predict the performance of wireless radio systems. A narrow band model is based on predicted mean signal level and some assumptions about the envelope fading statistics. The assumption is necessary due to the limited bandwidth of the signal being sent through the channel. For this reason, a narrow band channel is usually called flat fading channel. However, in wide band channels, the signal fading caused by time dispersion varies as a function of frequency and the channel model is usually called frequency selective fading. Early Binary symmetric channel (BSC) model was described by Wozencraft and Jacobs in 1967. This channel was memory less channel. Bello presented a channel using a tapped delay line representation that is based on knowledge of the correlation properties of the channel in 1963. In the literature; Stein, Schwartz and Bennett used a deterministic characterization of the channel and then introduced dynamics into the model to describe the time varying fading channel in 1996 [47]. The modeling of channel has been continuing research to recent days. The modeling of the multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) channel has attracted attention, because it offers significant increases in data throughput without additional bandwidth or transmits power. In this section we introduce the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel and Rayleigh fading channel.
5.2 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel

The simplest channel model in wireless commutations is the well known Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) model. The mathematical expression of the AWGN channel as follows in Figure 7.1: , where, X(t) is the transmitted signal and plus N(t) is the white Gaussian Noise. (5.1)
Page 49
Transmitted Signal
Received Signal
X (t)
Y (t) = X (t) + N (t)
Noise N (t)
Figure 5. 1- AWGN channel

AWGN channel is considered as an important reference or benchmark model for comparing the performance evaluation of communication systems and modulation formats. However, when the signal travels from transmitter to receive via multiple propagation paths then a practical fading channel model must be used to model the propagation environment. There are some factors affecting fading including multipath propagation, speed of surrounding objects, speed of the mobile, the transmission symbol duration and the transmission bandwidth of the signal.
5.3 Rayleigh fading channel

Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signal reaching the receiver antennas via multiple propagation paths. There are many causes of multipath fading including atmospheric ducting, refraction, reflection from terrestrial objects such as buildings and mountains, etc. The most harmful fading channel is the Rayleigh fading model which was first introduced by Bell Lab in 1970s. It is a statistical model of the communication channel to represent the effects of a propagation environment on a radio signal. A statistical Rayleigh fading model is the simplest fading channel model. A Rayleigh fading channel is viewed as a model when a radio signal passes through communication channel that varies power of signal according to Rayleigh distribution. Note that when there is no dominant propagation along a Line-of-Sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver, Rayleigh fading is most applicable. Rician fading is more applicable when there is a dominant LOS component. Rayleigh fading model performs as reasonable channel model when there are many objects (such as building and mountain) in the propagation environment which scatter the radio signal before it arrives at the receiver.
Page 50
5.3.1 Mathematical Expression

Clark model is applicable to mobile reception in general scattering environments. R. k Clark modelled the mobile channel as a Rayleigh fading channel in [52]. R. K Clark considered non-LOS between the transmitter and the receiver. The radio signal is reflected and scattered due to obstacles such as buildings, mountains and trees. Clark has also considered the Doppler effect because of motion of mobile unit. The phase and angle of arrival of each element wave will be statistically independent. Clark model expresses the carrier signals received at the mobile whose phases are supposed to be Gaussian random variables and the phase angle is uniformly distributed on the interval 0 to 2. Doppler shift is given by: (5.2) where,
is the carrier frequency v is the mobile velocity is the angle is the carrier wave length According to the Clark assumption, the Efiled can be represented as an in phase and quadrature. (5.3) where,
Here, and both are Gaussian random processes. Those are uncorrelated zero-mean Gaussian random variables and variance is equal which given by:
Then, the magnitude of E-field is specified by: (5.4) Rayleigh distribution is given by in [52]:
Page 51
, where, is the variance of the Rayleigh distributed variables.
(5.5)
Page 52
Chapter Six: Simulation and Results
6.1 Introduction
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section calculates peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) reduction and bit error rate (BER) for the single channel. The second section calculates BER for different channels. In the system, the following specifications are used for the PAPR reduction of OFDM: Parameters of the simulation: bandwidth is 10 MHz, FFT/IFFT block is 256, and clipping ratio is 4. Three types of modulation schemas BPSK, QPSK, QAM16 used in simulations. There are two types of channel models AWGN, Rayleigh fading used in simulations. The three different outputs of the simulation are: reduction of PAPR, BER vs. SNR for single channel (theoretical, without clipping, and with clipping), and BER vs. SNR for two different channels.
6.2 Mathematical Definitions

The theoretical BER for BPSK or QPSK using AWGN channel: , where, is spectral noise density and is energy per bit. (6.1)
The theoretical BER for BPSK or QPSK using Rayleigh fading channel: , where, is spectral noise density and is energy per bit. (6.2)
The peak-to-average power ratio of OFDM, PAPR{s(t), } is given in equation 2.9. where, s(t) is the signal and is the time interval.
Page 53
A clipping method in its basic form is based on simple time domain signal limitation. Clipped signal can be expressed by following relationship: (6.3) where, A is clipping level and (t) is the phase of original signal s(t).
6.3 PAPR Reduction

Simulation results of PAPR reduction using different modulation techniques are given below (Figure 6.1-6.3): The complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF) of the PAPR for the transmitted signal are plotted in Figure 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, where the PAPR technique being employed by the iterated clipping and filtering. It is evident from these results that the PAPR can be improved by using iterated clipping and filtering.
10
PAPR reduction using BPSK
10
-1
CCDF
10
-2
10
-3
Original First Iteration Second Iteration Third Iteration Fourth Iteration 0 2 4 6 PAPR [dB] 8 10 12
Figure 6. 1- PAPR reduction using BPSK with clipping and filtering
Page 54
In Figure 6.1, by increasing PAPR, we observed that CCDF is 10-3 at 11.5 dB; but during next iteration, same 10-3 is achieved at less PAPR, i.e., 10.05 dB. At fourth iteration, PAPR is 6.8 dB.
10
PAPR reduction using QPSK
10
-1
CCDF
10
-2
10
-3
Figure 6. 2- PAPR reduction using QPSK with clipping and filtering

In the Figure 6.2, by increasing PAPR, we observed that CCDF is 10-3 at 10.8 dB; but during next iteration, same 10-3 is achieved at less PAPR 9.95 dB. At fourth iteration, PAPR is 6.7 dB.
Page 55
10
PAPR reduction using QAM16
10
-1
CCDF
10
-2
10
-3
Figure 6. 3- PAPR reduction using QAM16 with clipping and filtering

In the Figure 6.3, by increasing PAPR, we observed that CCDF is 10-3 at 10.6 dB; but during next iteration, same 10-3 is achieved at less PAPR 9.7 dB. At fourth iteration, PAPR is 6.65 dB. In the system, repeated clipping and filtering significantly reduce PAPR, where modulation schemas are BPSK, QPSK, and QAM16. PAPR of QAM16 is low compared to BPSK and QPSK which gives better result can be as seen in Figure 6.3. According to the fourth iteration, PAPR are given respectively 6.8, 6.7, and 6.65 dB for BPSK, QPSK, and QAM16. Finally, it can be concluded that QAM16 is given better result compared to the BPSK and QPSK.
Page 56
6.4 BER calculation for AWGN channel

Simulation results of BER vs. SNR using BPSK and QPSK modulation techniques through AWGN channel are given below (Figure 6.4-6.5):
10
BER vs SNR using BPSK through AWGN channel Theoretical Without Clipping With Clipping
10
-1
10
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
5 SNR(dB)
10
15
Figure 6. 4- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through AWGN channel
Theoretical and without clipping curves are nearly same while with clipping gives worse results in Figure 6.4. The results are given below: BER= 10-3 at SNR 7 dB for theoretical and without clipping. BER= 10-3 at SNR 11 dB with clipping.
Page 57
10
BER vs SNR using QPSK through AWGN channel Theoretical Without Clipping With Clipping
10
-1
10
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
5 SNR(dB)
10
15
Figure 6. 5- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through AWGN channel
Theoretical and without clipping curves are nearly same while with clipping gives worse results in Figure 6.5. The results are given below: BER= 10-3 at SNR 7 dB for theoretical and without clipping. BER= 10-3 at SNR 11.5 dB with clipping.
Page 58
6.5 BER calculation for Rayleigh fading channel

Simulation results of BER Vs SNR using BPSK and QPSK modulation techniques through Rayleigh fading channel are given below (Figure 6.6-6.7):
10
BER vs SNR using BPSK through Rayleigh fading channel Theoretical Without Clipping With Clipping
10
-1
10
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10 SNR(dB)
15
20
25
Figure 6. 6- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through Rayleigh fading channel
Theoretical and without clipping curves are nearly same while with clipping gives worse results in Figure 6.6. The results are given below: BER= 10-2 at SNR 14 dB for theoretical and without clipping. BER= 10-2 at SNR 17.5 dB with clipping.
Page 59
10
BER vs SNR using QPSK through Rayleigh fading channel Theoretical Without Clipping With Clipping
10
-1
10
-2
BER
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10 SNR(dB)
15
20
25
Figure 6. 7- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through Rayleigh fading channel
Theoretical and without clipping curves are nearly same while with clipping gives worse results in Figure 6.7. The results are given below: BER= 10-2 at SNR 14 dB for theoretical and without clipping. BER= 10-2 at SNR 20 dB with clipping.
Page 60
6.6 BER calculation for Different channels

Simulation results of BER vs. SNR using BPSK and QPSK modulation techniques through different channels are given below (Figure 6.8-6.9):
10
BER vs SNR using BPSK through different channels (with clipping) AWGN channel Rayleigh fading channel
10
-1
10
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10 SNR(dB)
15
20
25
Figure 6. 8- BER Vs SNR using BPSK through two different channels
Rayleigh fading channel gives worst result compared to AWGN channel in Figure 6.8. The results are given below: BER= 10-2 at SNR 8.5 dB for AWGN channel. BER= 10-2 at SNR 17.5 dB for Rayleigh fading channel.
Page 61
10
BER vs SNR using QPSK through different channels (with clipping) AWGN channel Rayleigh fading channel
10
-1
10
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10 SNR(dB)
15
20
25
Figure 6. 9- BER Vs SNR using QPSK through two different channels
Rayleigh fading channel gives worst result compared to AWGN channel in Figure 6.9. The results are given below: BER= 10-2 at SNR 9 dB for AWGN channel. BER= 10-2 at SNR 20 dB for Rayleigh fading channel.
Page 62
Chapter Seven: Conclusion

This thesis presented an overview of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Cognitive Radio (CR). For flexibility and adaptability, the OFDM is an attractive candidate for CR systems. This dissertation proposes a novel non-contiguous OFDM (NC-OFDM) technique, where the implementation achieves high data rates of non-contiguous subcarriers while simultaneously avoiding any interference to the transmissions. The main goal of this thesis work was to investigate PAPR reduction techniques for non-contiguous bands of OFDM based CR system. Simulation results of PAPR reduction has shown that the performance of QAM16 is good compared to others modulation schemes such as BPSK, QPSK. According to the BER results, we need higher value of SNR to achieve the same BER as compared to lower constellation modulation schemes.
Page 63
References
[1] Wilkison, T. A. and Jones A. E., "Minimization of the Peak to mean Envelope Power Ratio of Multicarrier Transmission Schemes by Block Coding," IEEE, Vehicular Conference, Vol.2, Jul. 1995. [2] Jayalath, A. D. S. , and Tellambura C., "The use of Interleaving to Reduce the Peak to Average Power Ratio of an OFDM Signals ," IEEE Global telecommunications conference, Vol.1, Nov. 2000. [3] Loo, Kah Chenge, "Design of an OFDM transmitter and receiver using FPGA ," Masters thesis, University Teknologi, Malaysia. [4] P. Bedell, Wireless Crash Course, Second Edition ed. McGraw Hill, March 2001. [5] E. Phillip, "Adaptive Technique for Multiuser OFDM," PhD thesis, James Cook University, Australia, 2001. [6] L. D. Kabulepa, "OFDM Basics for Wireless Communications," Darmstadt University of Technology. [7] R. Prasad, OFDM for Wireless Communications System . Artech House, Inc., 2004. [8] H. Rohling et al., "OFDM Air Interface for the 4th Generation of Mobile Communication Systems," in Proc. 6th International OFDM Workshop, Hamburg, Germany, September 2000. [9] F. Alam, "Space Time Processing for Third Generation CDMA Systems," Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blackburg, Virginia, November 2002. [10] H. Arslan and T. Yucek, Cognitive Radio, Software Defined Radio, and Adaptive Wireless Systems. Springer, 2007. [11] B. Farhang-Boroujeny, "Signal Processing Techniques for Spectrum Sensing and in Cognitive Radios," Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Utah Lecture, 2007. [12] Ahn, H., Shin, Y. m and Im, S., "A Block Coding Scheme for Peak to Average Power Ratio Reduction in an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing System ," IEEE Vehicular Conference Proceedings, Vol.1, May 2000. [13] Bauml , R. W. , Fischer, R. F. H. , and Huber, J. B., "Reducing the Peak to Average Power Ratio of Multicarrier Modulation by Selective Mapping," IEEE Electronics Letters, Vol.32, Oct. 1996.
Page 64
[14] Muller , S. H. , and Huber, J. B., "OFDM Reduced Peak to Average Power Ratio by optimum combination of Partial Transmit Sequences," IEEE Electronics letters, Vol.33, Feb. 1997. [15] J. Tellado-mourelo, "Peak to Average Power reduction of OFDM signals using Peak Reduction Carriers," James Cook University Signal Processing Research, 22-25 August, 1999. [16] A. Gatherer and M. Polley, "Controlling clipping probability in DMT transmission, in Proc. Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers , Pacific Grove, Calif, USA, , Vol.1, p. 578584Nov. 1997. [17] Van Nee, R. , and Wild, A., "Reducing the Peak to Average Power Ratio of OFDM," in IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, May 1998, Vol.3. [18] Foomooljareon , P and Fernando, W. A. C., "Input Sequence Envelope Scaling in PAPR Reduction of OFDM," in IEEE 5th International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications, , Vol.1, Oct 2002. [19] Tan, C. E. Wassell I. J., "Data bearing peak reduction carriers for OFDM systems," in IEEE Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Conference of the Fourth International Conference of Information, Communication Signal Processing and Fourth Pacific Rim Conference On Multimedia, , Vol.2, Dec 2003. [20] Toshiyuki, Shigeru, Masaharu, and Junichiro, "Peak Reduction Improvement in Iterative Clipping and Filtering with a Graded Band Limiting Filter for OFDM Transmission," IEICE Trans Fundamentals, Vol.E90A, No.7, 2007. [21] Xiaodong Li and Leonard J. Cimini, "Effects of Clipping and Filtering on the Performance of OFDM ," IEEE Communications Letters , Vol. 2, No. 5, May 1998. [22] Masaki Ojima, and Takeshi Hattori, "PAPR Reduction Method using Clipping and Peakwindowing in CI/OFDM System," Sophia University Journal, 2007. [23] F. Communication, "Unlicensed Operation in the TV Broadcast bands," First Report and Order and Notice of proposal Rulemaking, pp. 06-156, Oct. 2006. [24] Stephen J. Shellhammer, "SPECTRUM SENSING IN IEEE 802.22", Qualcomm Inc. San Diego. [25] F. C. Commission, "Spectrum Policy Task Force," Rep. ET Docket, pp. 02-135, Nov. 2002. [26] S. Haykin, "Cognitive Radio: Brain-Empowered Wireless Communications ," IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 23, pp. 201-220, Feb. 2005. [27] F. C. Commission, "Report and Order (FCC 05-57): Facilitating Opportunities for Flexible, Efficient, and Reliable Spectrum Use Employing Cognitive Radio Technologies," ET Docket No. 03-108, 2005.
Page 65
[28] J. Polson, "Cognitive Radio Applications in Software Defined Radio," in Prof. of the SDR 04 Technical Conference and Product Exposition, 2004. [29] Joseph Wynn Mwangoka , Khaled Ben Letaief, Zhigang Cao," Robust End-to-End QoS Maintenance in Non-Contiguous OFDM Based Cognitive Radios, " Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, 2008. [30] FCC, " Facilitating Opportunities for Flexible, Efficient, and Reliable Spectrum Use Employing Cognitive Radio Technologies," pp. 03-108, 2003. [31] Rakesh Rajbanshi, Alexander M. Wyglinski, Gary J. Minden, "Adaptive-Mode Peak-to-Average Power Ratio Reduction Algorithm for OFDM-based Cognitive Radio," The University of Kansas, 2006. [32] CSDR, "Software Defined Radio, Term, Trends and Perspective," Aalborg University White paper, January, 2007. [33] Sadiku, M. N. O. and Akujuobi, C. M., "Software Defined Radio: A brief overview," Potentials, IEEE , Vol.23, No.4, pp. 14-15, Oct. 2000. [34] B. Cetiner, H. Jafarkhani, J. Qian, H. Yoo, A. Grau, and F. De Flaviis., "Multifunctional Reconfigurable Mems Integrated Antennas for Adaptive MIMO Systems," IEEE Commun. Mag., Vol. 42, No. 12, p. 6270, Dec. 2004. [35] S.H. Oh, J. T. Aberle, S. Anantharaman, K. Arai, H. L. Chong, and S. C. Koay, "Electronically tunable antenna pair and novel rf front-end architecture for software-defined radios," EURASIP J. Appl. Signal Process, p. 27012707, 2005. [36] J. Proakis, Digital Communications, 3rd ed. Mc Graw Hil. [37] A Sahai, N. Hoven, R. Tandra, "Some Fundamental Limits on Cognitive Radio," in Proc of Alberton Conference, Monticello, 2004. [38] A. V Oppenheim, R. W. Schafer, and J. R. Buck, Discrete-time Signal processing . Prentice Hall, 1999. [39] A Sahai, N. Hoven, R. Tandra, "Some Fundamental Limits on Cognitive Radio," University of California at Berkeley Wireless Foundations, EECS, February 11,2005. [40] D. Cabric S. Mishra, and R. Brodersen, "Implementation issues in spectrum sensing for cognitive radios," Asilomar Conf. on Signals, Systems and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, . Vol. 1, p. 772776, Nov. 2004. [41] D. C. a. R. W. Brodersen, "Physical layer design issues unique to cognitive radio systems," IEEE int. Symposium personal Indoor and Mobile Radio Commun, Sept.2005.
Page 66
[42] Haijian ZHANG, Didier LE RUYET, Michel TERRE, "Spectral Correlation of multicarrier Modulated signals and its application for signal detection," Electronics and Communications Laboratory, CNAM. [43] G. GENESAN and Y. Li, "Cooperative Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks," no. IEEE Int. Symposium on New Frontiers in Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 137-143, Nov. 2005. [44] Yang Xiao and Fei Hu, Cognitive Radio Networks. CRC Press, NW, 2009. [45] T. Ycek, "Channel, Spectrum, and Wave form Awareness in OFDM based Cognitive Radio systems," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of south Florida, July, 2007. [46] H. Anderson, Fixed Broadband Wireless System Design. The srtium, Sothern Gate, Chichester, West sussex PO19 8SQ, England: John Wiley & Sons , March 2003 . [47] J. D. Gibson, The Communications Hand book . Santa Barbara, USA: University of California, April 29, 2002. [48] V. Erceg, K. V. S. Hari, M. S. Smith, D. S. Baum et al, "Channel Models for Fixed Wireless Applications," IEEE 802.16.3 Task Group Contributions , 2001. [49] Pedro Sebastiao, Fernando Jose Velez Rui Costa Daniel Robalo, Antonio Rodrigues, Planning and Deployment of WiMAX Networks, Publish online ed. 26 August, 2009. [50] J. Winters, "On the capacity of radio communication system with diversity in a Rayleigh fading environment," Vol. SAC-5, no. IEEE journal on the selected areas in communication, pp. 87-88, 1987. [51] S. Salous, "Multiple Input Multiple Output systems: Capacity and Channel measurements," department of electrical Engineering and Electronics, UMIST. [52] R. H. Clarke, "A Statistical Theory of Mobile-Radio Reception," The Bell Systems Technical Journal , Vol. 47, No. 6,pp. 957-1000, Jul. 1968. [53] May T., and Rohling H., " Reducing The Peak to average Power Ratio on OFDM ," radio transmission systems, IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, Vol.3. [54] SDR forum,"Driving the future of radio communications and systems worldwide ," URL:http:// www.sdrforum.org. [55] Wikipedia, The free encyclopedia, URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.
Page 67

Peak To Average Power Ratio (Papr) Reduction in Ofdm Based Radio Systems - 3

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Peak To Average Power Ratio (Papr) Reduction in Ofdm Based Radio Systems - 3

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MEE10:12

Mohammad Zavid Parvez Md. Abdullah Al Baki

This thesis is presented as part of Degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

Blekinge Institute of Technology May 2010

Dedication To Our Parents And Teachers

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Figure 5. 1- AWGN channel .................................................................................................. 50

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Enhance Data GSM Environment

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Chapter One: Introduction

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

1.2 Thesis out Lines

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Chapter Two: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Figure 2. 1-OFDM subcarriers in frequency domain

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM System

2.2.1 Advantages of OFDM

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.2.2 Disadvantages of OFDM

2.3 OFDM System Model

(2.1) where, is the transmitted symbol on the N is the number of subcarriers

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Figure 2. 2-A basic diagram of OFDM Transceiver

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.4 Mathematical Definition of OFDM Signal

The complex signal can be described by , (2.4)

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Both are equivalent if f = where, is symbol duration period (2.8) = =

2.5 NC-OFDM System Model

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

Spectrum sensing measurement Null subcarrier selection Subcarrier ON/OFF information

Figure 2. 3 NC-OFDM Transceiver [31]

2.6 Why PAPR reduction in OFDM system

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.7 Mathematical Definition of PAPR

2.8 PAPR Techniques

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.8.1 Signal Scrambling Techniques

2.8.1.2 Block Coding Scheme with Error Correction

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.8.1.3 Selected Mapping (SLM)

2.8.1.4 Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS)

2.8.1.5 Interleaving Technique

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.8.1.6 Tone Reservation (TR)

2.8.1.7 Tone Injection (TI)

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden

2.8.2 Signal Distortion Techniques

2.8.2.2 Envelope Scaling

2.8.2.3 Peak Reduction Carrier

Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH), Sweden