Republic of the Philippines Polytechnic University of the Philippines Commonwealth, Quezon City

The Significance of both Sociology and Anthropology for Educators: Understanding Cultural Differences of the Students

Submitted by: Mandiit, Ma. Vangeline B. BBTE 3-1

Submitted to: Prof. Artemuz Cruz

Introduction

People must acquire certain knowledge and skills in order to survive. Education is the total process that prepares people for life in their society. It is the social institution responsible for systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure to prepare individuals for effective membership in society. To achieve the concept of education, effective teachers are needed.

Educators are responsible for molding the students. They are the facilitator of learning. In order for teachers to facilitate student, learning several things need to occur. The teachers as facilitators need to assess the students, plan the learning, implement the plan, and evaluate the process. They should also recognize the talents and potentialities of each learner. They should provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment. They should maintain harmonious and pleasant personal relations not just with the learners but also with peers and other people around the community. They should develop the skills of the learners into becoming persons of intellect and character. They should ensure that the learners are provided with safe and adequate learning environment that is conducive for the students to learn.

The role of the teachers is not easy. They encounter many students who have different culture. In todays diverse classrooms, sometimes cultural differences can be mistaken for student behavior problems. Children in various cultures also learn different

rules for communication with adults through facial expressions, body language, and physical gestures. Understanding the behavioral and cultural differences of the students may help the teachers to find more ways to effectively engage them in learning and classroom communication.

Both sociology and anthropology are necessary for understanding the cultural differences of the students. They are the most interrelated disciplines and which tend to complement one another. (Masquiso, 1997) Sociology studies the structure of human interaction and establishes that structures relationship with mans behavior. Anthropology establishes the bases of such interaction or behavior. It also explains why man in these structures behave the way they do.

Sociologists and anthropologists view education as the process, in school or beyond, of transmitting societys knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors. Every society seeds to educate its young members, to prepare them for adult roles.

The information that will be gathered in this study will prove the importance of sociology and anthropology for educators to understand the behavioral and cultural differences of the students that they handle.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant to teachers. This study will help them to be more effective. It can also let them think for some other ways in order to be successful in handling their students. Understanding the cultural differences of the students can make them improve their principles and strategies of teaching.

Students will also benefit in this study. Through the information that can be read in this study, they will realize the uniqueness of the individuals. They will also

understand why they are different with their classmates. In that way, they will become more competitive. It will also help them to improve their study skills.

Each of us will benefit in this research. No individuals are exactly alike. In this case, sociology and anthropology should be considered. sociology and anthropology are the following: Why? The relevance of

1. Introduces us to the various concepts and principles vital in our understanding of culture and society. 2. Enables us to see ourselves as part of a larger social pattern. This expands our view of the world in order that we can appreciate better our culture. 3. Makes us better understand why people of different groups and culture behave the way they do. Through this understanding, we may be able to adjust ourselves to their peculiar ways and patterns.

4. Gives us the insight that our group is different from others. Through this, we may be led to respect the identity and unique nature of other groups and members of such groups. 5. Help in promoting inter-ethnic and cultural understanding. It can promote national unity and progress, and international understanding through promotion and cross-cultural knowledge.( Nael, 2007)

Statement of the Problem

1. How are sociology and anthropology related to each other? 2. What is the purpose of education as a social institution? 3. How are individuals different? 4. What are the effects of cultural diversity inside the classroom? 5. How can educators improve their ways of teaching to effectively engage the students with cultural differences in learning? 6. What is the significance of both sociology and anthropology for educators?

Review of Related Literatures and Studies

Foreign Literature

Similarities between Sociology and Anthropology

Young (2009) posted about the similarities between sociology and anthropology in http://www.helium.com/items/1631401-similarities-between-sociology-and

anthropology. Sociology and anthropology both study human society, how societies are organized and how humans interact and behave within them. The difference is in how all of this is studied. Anthropology and forensic anthropology can be seen as more oriented to the biological, historical, and holistic nature of human society and interaction, while sociology looks at the entire spectrum of human interaction, social structure and social organization with interest in quantitative analysis of the causes and effects of individual and group activity. Sociology looks at groups, from small to global in scope, while anthropologists work closely or even live with groups and societies in order to study the holistic enterprise of human action and interaction.

Both fields share some detailed interest in the same theory, methods, historical backgrounds, and scientific approaches. It is important that the student of both fields remain aware that the individual is not eh key unit of study, since the individual is a product of the society, which, in turn is not the product of the actions of any one individual. Psychology is more appropriate for study of the individual.

Sociology and anthropology reject arguments that are solely based on human nature as the sole or overriding causative factor in a situation. It is overall society and its cultural influence and how it affects the nature of the human that is of interest to sociologists and anthropologists. While all causation as dependent upon individual action is rejected, neither field allows slacking off with over broad argumentation, such as society is entirely the cause of a persons actions, either.

Both fields consider that some aspects of human behavior, culture, and action may have nothing to do with the group or society as a whole, and seed to understand how people who form into social groups, or huge societies work, live, develop their thoughts, beliefs, norms, and values.

According to Hoebel, Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense one and the same. Evans Pritchard considers social anthropology a branch of sociology. Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies.

Sociology has borrowed many concepts like cultural area, culture traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag, culture patterns, culture configuration, etc., from sociocultural anthropology.

The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as socio-cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of society can be gained by comparing various cultures, particularly, the modern with the primitive.

Anthropology as a discipline is so closely related to sociology that the two are frequently indistinguishable. Both of them are fast growing. The socio-cultural

anthropologists today are also making a study of the present and their societies. In a number of universities, anthropology and sociology are administratively organized into one department.

Anthropology and the Contemporary World

Today, humans face a world that is changing faster than ever before. It is also a world that, despite a great deal of human progress, is beset by a multitude of serious problems. Anthropology is at the forefront in the search for solutions to problems of rapid change, social upheaval, and environmental degradation; moreover its holistic perspective is especially suited for coming to terms with the complexities of the world system. In the face of crisis and uncertainty we need, more than ever to understand where we came from, what we are, and what we have adapted to an array of environments, anthropologists can contribute a great deal toward gaining this understanding concern with promoting the notions of universalism and cultural relativism gives it an important role in a world over run with communal and racial intolerance, hatred, and violence.

Anthropology, the scientific study of humanity, seeks to explain how and why people are both similar and different through examination of our biological and cultural

past and comparative study of existing human societies. Anthropologists ultimate goal is to develop an integrated picture of humankinda goal that encompasses an almost infinite number of questions about all aspects of our existence. We ask, for example, what makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be tall and lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky? Why do some people practice agriculture, while others hunt for living? Anthropologists are interested in all things human. (Hattis, 1992)

The Diversity of Man

Hattis (1992) also mentioned that all modern humans are physically and genetically very much the same. Even so, physical diversity is readily apparent in body types, pigmentation, hair textures, and the like. Natural selection may account for some of the differences because regional populations could have adapted to local conditions. Random evolutionary processes may account for other differences.

The most astounding aspect of the diversity of modern humankind is the great variety of human cultural adaptations. Cultural mechanisms have partly circumvented the slow process of human biological evolution by allowing groups to adapt rapidly to a broad range of environments.

Human biological diversity can be approached in two ways: first, as the outcome of human evolution and second, as an ongoing process, as humans continue to adapt to environmental factors. Within these contexts, anthropologists seek to explain the

diversity. Are there differences of any evolutionary significance? How should human populations be described and classified? In exploring such questions scientists examine the biological basis of human variability, including the complex interrelationships between genes, environment, and traits, and the nature of growth and development. In their efforts to explain the genetic and evolutionary implications of the diversity, anthropologists are particularly concerned with identifying the patterns by which specific traits vary among groups.

Culture

Universal biological imperatives are associated with a universal set of psychological problems that people need to solve in order to survive; thus, all individuals must create ways to deal with these universal problems. The ways that each group develops then become their culture. (Matsumoto 2006)

Matsumoto (2006) define culture as the product of the interaction between universal biological needs and functions, universal social problems created to address those needs, and the contexts in which people live. Culture is created as people adapt to their environments in order to survive, and it results from the process of individuals attempts to adapt to t heir contexts in addressing the universal social problems and biological needs.

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Cultural Differences among Learners

Taylor (2007) explained that in todays diverse classrooms, sometimes cultural differences can be mistaken for student behavior problems. She gave a checklist which offers some possible cultural explanations for 16 perceived behavior problems a teacher may encounter in a classroom. Perceived behavior #1: Student avoids eye contact.

Possible Cultural Explanation: Keeping eyes downcast may be a way of showing respect. In some cultures, direct eye contact with a teacher is considered disrespectful and a challenge to a teacher's authority.

Perceived behavior #2: The student tends to smile when disagreeing with what is

being said or when being reprimanded. Possible Cultural Explanation: A smile may be a gesture of respect that children are taught to employ to avoid giving offense in difficult situations.

Perceived behavior #3: The student shrinks from or responds poorly to

apparently inoffensive forms of physical contact or proximity. Possible Cultural Explanation: There may be taboos on certain types of physical contact. Buddhists, for instance, regard the head and shoulders as sacred and would consider it impolite to ruffle a child's hair or give a reassuring pat on the shoulder. There is also significant difference among cultures with respect to people's sense of what is considered an appropriate amount of personal space.

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Perceived behavior #4: The student appears to be overtly affectionate with other

students. Possible Cultural Explanation: In many cultures it is not uncommon for friends (girls and/or boys) to link arms, hold hands or greet each other with a hug or kiss on the cheek.

Perceived behavior #5: The student refuses to eat with peers.

Possible Cultural Explanation: Some students may be unaccustomed to eating with anyone but members of their own family.

Perceived behavior #6: The student refuses to eat certain kinds of foods or

doesn't eat at all at certain periods. Possible Cultural Explanation: Many religions have food taboos and fasting periods. Young children are often exempt from fasting, but many choose to participate.

Perceived behavior #7: The student does not participate actively in group work

or collaborate with peers on cooperative assignments. Possible Cultural Explanation: Cooperative group work is never used by teachers in some cultures. Students may thus view sharing as "giving away knowledge" and may see no distinction between legitimate collaboration and cheating.

Perceived behavior #8: The student displays uneasiness, expresses disapproval,

or even misbehaves in informal learning situations involving open-ended learning processes. (For example, exploration).

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Possible Cultural Explanation: Schooling in some cultures involves strict formality. For students who are used to this, an informal classroom atmosphere may seem chaotic and undemanding, while teachers with an informal approach may seem unprofessional. Such students may also be uncomfortable with process-oriented learning activities and prefer activities that yield more tangible and evident results.

Perceived behavior #9: The student talks loudly and sometimes overlaps speech

with the others in the group or class. Possible Cultural Explanation: In some classrooms around the world, students have more freedom to speak. They're not as closely regulated. Students talk a lot more, and the talk more loudly. What is considered interruptive or rude behavior in North American classrooms would be considered task-oriented behavior in the home country's schools.

Perceived behavior #10: The student refuses to participate in extracurricular or

in various physical education activities. For example, swimming, skating, track and field. Possible Cultural Explanation: Extracurricular activities may not be considered part of learning or may even, along with some physical education activities, be contrary to a student's religious or cultural outlook. Some students may also be required to use afterschool hours to generate income or help out with a family business.

Perceived behavior #11: The student seems inattentive or does not display active

listening behaviors.

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Possible Cultural Explanation: In some cultures, the learning process involves observing and doing or imitating rather than listening and absorbing through note-taking or other forms of active listening.

Perceived behavior #12: Performance following instruction reveals that the

student does not understand the instruction, even though he or she refrained from asking for help or further explanation. Possible Cultural Explanation: In some cultures, expressing a lack of understanding or asking for help from the teacher is interpreted as a suggestion that the teacher has not been doing a good enough job of teaching, and is considered impolite.

Perceived behavior #13: The student is unresponsive, uncooperative, or even

disrespectful in dealing with teachers of another gender. Possible Cultural Explanation: Separate schooling for boys and girls is the norm in some cultures. Likewise, in some cultures the expectation for boys and girls is quite different. The idea that girls and boys should have the same opportunities for schooling and play comparable roles as educators will therefore run contrary to some students' cultural conditioning.

Perceived behavior #14: The student appears reluctant to engage in debate,

speculation, argument, or other processes that involve directly challenging the views and ideas of others.

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Possible Cultural Explanation: In some cultures, it is considered inappropriate to openly challenge another's point of view, especially the teacher's. In other cases, there may be a high value attached to being prepared, knowledgeable, and correct whenever one speaks.

Perceived behavior #15: The student exhibits discomfort or embarrassment at

being singled out for special attention or praise.

Possible Cultural Explanation: To put oneself in the limelight for individual praise is not considered appropriate in some cultures, where the group is considered more important than the individual.

Perceived behavior #16: The student fails to observe the conventions of silent

reading. Possible Cultural Explanation: Some students may be culturally predisposed to see reading as essentially an oral activity and will therefore read aloud automatically. For others reading aloud is associated with memorization.

McGee

(2008)

posted

in

http://www.greatschools.org/special-

education/support/704-cultural-differences-student-performance.gs#sthash.JEF0EOBp about how cultural differences may affect student performance. In everyday

conversation, spoken words are only one way to communicate. As little as 7 percent of a message may be expressed in words. The rest is through facial expression, voice tone, body gestures, and overall posture. When the verbal and nonverbal messages don't match

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up, people pay more attention to the nonverbal message. That's what's meant by the old saying, "A picture is worth a thousand words."

It may be difficult to understand nonverbal messages because different cultures have different expectations about eye contact, physical touch, body gestures, etc. A person's gender, age, position in society, level of acculturation, and individual preference can complicate communication even more.

Let's consider eye contact. Kids from many Latin American and Asian cultures show respect by avoiding the glance of authority figures. A teacher who's unfamiliar with this cultural norm, however, might interpret the lack of eye contact as just the opposite - a sign of disrespect. For many American Indian children, looking a teacher in the eye and answering her question in front of the class is "showing off." Yet a teacher who doesn't know this could think the child was unmotivated or inattentive.

Culture greatly influences attitudes about physical contact, whether it's a handshake, hug, or pat on the back. In Asia, female friends often hold hands and men casually embrace one another as they walk down the street. Americans, however, may feel uncomfortable with such public behavior. In some Asian cultures, affectionately patting an adult's head is strictly taboo, although it can be acceptable behavior between adults and young children.

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How close should people stand to each other when they're having a conversation? In areas of the Middle East and South America, people stand very close when talking. European Americans like to have more distance between them, while some African Americans prefer even more space. You can create great discomfort by standing too close to another person. Not being aware of this can even prevent someone from understanding or accepting the ideas you're trying to get across.

To create a positive environment for communication, your nonverbal message must closely match your verbal message. First, recognize your own expectations about nonverbal communication, and then find ways to learn about those of individuals and other cultures. One way to do this is to carefully observe how kids and families speak and behave around each other and with people of authority. This can provide clues about the true meaning of their nonverbal interactions.

Nonverbal messages have a powerful impact on what's communicated. When a person is sensitive to these silent messages, he's far more likely to interact with others in a friendly, comfortable manner and to make his spoken message more understandable.

Grossman (2004) in his book entitled: Classroom Behavior Management for Diverse and Inclusive Schools, discussed about cultural differences. Cultural differences can affect whether or not a teacher regards a students behavior as appropriate, polite, fair, or moral. For example, in some cultures, people are brought up to be considerate of others. Dont play the stereo too loud, Dont make noise too early, you will wake the

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people in the next campsite, and Play outside with your friends so that your brother can study. In other cultures, youngsters are brought up to be tolerant of others: Dont let the radio bother you, You better go to sleep early; you know that campers make noise in the morning, and Learn not to be distracted by other peoplethe world cant stop just because you have to do your homework.

Teachers who have been brought up to be considerate of others are more likely to perceive students as interfering with the rights of others or as unwilling to share, conform, or go along with the group. As a result, they may intervene in situations that other teachers would accept as reasonable behavior.

As noted previously, teachers are less likely to view the behavior of students who share their ethnic and socioeconomic class cultural backgrounds as problematic. Since cultures have different expectations regarding active versus sedentary behavior, cooperative versus competitive and independent behavior, sharing, waiting ones turn, meeting conflicts head on, apologizing for mistakes, speaking frankly, and so on, whether teachers view many behaviors as problematic depends in part on the match between their students and their cultural backgrounds.

Local Literature

Sociology is a science of society. It focuses attention to all kinds of social interaction such as social acts, social relationships, social structures and social processes.

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Being a science of society, it is interested in the study of a wide variety of current issues and problems such as family life, poverty, divorce and population problems. (Kindall 2000)

Anthropology, on the other hand, is concerned with the study of biological, cultural, social and psychological aspects of human nature, origin and development. It is also a science that studies mans behavior, works and modes of production. (Ember 1999)

As cited by del Rosario (2006), Dressler looks at anthropology as a study of the social heritage transmitted from one generation to another and shared, it consists of the number of people and transmitted to their children. A number of observations can thus be made of the nature of anthropology:

1. It is a science that studies both the physical and cultural aspects of man. 2. It is holistic; it studies man in his totality. 3. It is cross-cultural or comparative. 4. Its main concern is man who is seen as not only the measure of all things but is the main focus and unit of investigation and analysis. 5. He is studied in his infinite variety. 6. The study focuses on his works, his body, and his achievements in time and space. 7. It is a liberating science. 8. It is interdependent with other sciences.

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9. It relies heavily on field work

The Relationship between Sociology and Anthropology

Tayle (2012) posted on scribd.com about anthropology and sociology. Anthropology studies how and why man has changed; how and why societies across culture and time have different customary ideas and practices; and the belief, politics, religion, social life, aesthetics, and health. It answers the following questions: Who are you? What makes you? What is your place in this world?

On the other hand, sociology answers the following questions: Who are the people around you? What is their story? How do these stories affect you?

According to del Rosario (2006), anthropology is closest to sociology. Both are interested in social organizations and social interaction. Both address social problems and issues like population, environment, poverty, delinquency, crime or even mental illness. Anthropologists also have shown concern over social problems related to poverty as well as in the social impact of industrialization and urbanization.

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Practical Applications of Anthropology and Sociology

Anthropology has practical uses.

It reduces ethnocentrism by instilling

appreciation of other cultures. Through a study of other societies and cultures, it contributes to education. It suggests the potential and general value of anthropology in inspiring government action. Researches on all aspects of culture are undertaken by anthropologists. Through anthropological studies, programs of aid in the military,

economic, and political fields are assessed and evaluated. Not only is there evaluation, but also inspiration of economic development and technical assistance programs. Through what is termed participant interference, anthropology acts as catalyzer and instigates action. (Lardizabal 1988).

Sociology and anthropology are both important in social institutions. One of those social institutions is education which is responsible for systematic transmission of knowledge, skills and cultural values within a formally organized structure. People must acquire certain knowledge and skills in order to survive.

Education is the total process that prepares people for life in their society. It transmits selected knowledge, skills and values to prepare individuals for effective membership in society. (Nael, et. al 2007)

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Education and Society

Nael, et al (2007) indicated in his book the different perspectives on the purpose of education in contemporary society. The first one is the functionalist perspective. Functionalists view education as one of the most important components of society. Durkheim explained that education is the influence exercised by adult generation on those that are not yet ready for social life. In order to achieve a cohesive social order, moral values should be the foundation. Schools have the responsibility of teaching a commitment to the common morality. In this perspective, teaching students to put the groups needs ahead of their individual desires and aspiration is needed.

In conflict perspective, education is used to perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities through tracking, ability grouping, and a hidden curriculum that teaches subordinate groups conformity and obedience. In interactionist perspective,

classroom dynamics, examining the interpretations that students and teachers give their interactions with one another.

The changing society and the demands for more effective programs create serious implications to education. In the words of Francis Brown, the curriculum of the school will markedly affected by the results of a study of the community where the school operates.

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On the other hand, Falsom stressed the value of the schools knowing community life and culture. He said that events in education and in the community have brought leaders in these two fields into an awareness of their relation to each other. Education has come into closer relations with life, in the homes and family, with the results that a new movement, education of family living is underway. (Palispis 2007)

Palispis (2007) also indicated in his book that in order to bridge the gap between the school and community draw on the community and its activities. Anthropologists point to the existing incongruence between what is learned in school and what is practiced in the family and in the community. Seemingly, the school becomes the word of the ideal, and the family, the world of the real. It is the main concern of

educational sociologists and anthropologists to narrow down the gap or existence incongruence between the school and the local communities.

Effects of Education on Individuals

Every school serves as a miniature society. Whatever realities prevail in the higher society is reflected in the school and its system.

The children in any given society are inducted into the special society and culture of schooling by a variety of mechanisms that are common to most schools in the greater society, as well as unique to their own elementary or secondary school.

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Children also learn the special traditions, folkways, and mores of their particular school. Its distinctive sub cultural patterns include its degree of emphasis upon the acquisition of basic skills as opposed to life adjustment competencies.

Implications for Education: Individual Differences

Lardizabal (1988) mentioned in his book entitled: Foundations of Education about the implications of Education. Since individuals mature at different rates, parents, and teachers should not expect the same degree of development in children. In the same class of pupils with the same chronological age, there will be individual differences. So teachers should not try to push children to attain the same performance as the bright ones. Parents should not try to compare their children with each other and expect the same level of performance from all.

In spite of individual differences, certain general characteristics go with every stage of life. Parents should be concerned if a child is behind his stage of development. For instance, if a child cannot walk yet at the age of three, the parents had better consult a doctor to find out what is wrong. If a child is growing too fast and has reached a height of five feet at the age of seven, it is also necessary to consult the doctor.

Parents and teachers should also help children and youth with the development tasks at each stage of life. Mastering the 3Rs (reading, writing, arithmetic) in the elementary school is a must. Teachers should drill the children well in the four

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fundamental operations in arithmetic so that they will not encounter difficulties when they take up algebra, geometry, or trigonometry. To be socially adjusted in college, the youth should plan to have parties where young men and women may have opportunities to practice their terpsichorean, communication and social skills.

Foreign Study

In the study entitled: Cultural differences in the non-verbal communication within the cross-cultural negotiations by the European Master in Business Studies Master Program (2012), they mentioned Jandt (1900) in defining culture as sum of total ways of living including behavioral norms, linguistic expression, styles of communication, patterns of thinking, and beliefs and values of a group large enough to be self-sustaining transmitted over the course of generations. GLOBEs definition includes shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and that are transmitted across generations (House et al., 2004, p15). Furthermore, De Long and Fahey (2000) describe culture more general, as a system of values, norms, practices that are shared among a group of people and that form a model for living. To define the meaning of culture helps to identify what the causes and effects are and how culture can influence negotiation outcomes.

The purpose of their study is to investigate the cultural differences in non-verbal communication. They concluded that non-verbal communication or body language is an

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important part of how people communicate and it is evident that there are differences from one culture to another.

In the study of Guo (2008), they define culture as an all inclusive system of communications which incorporates the biological and technical behavior of human beings with their verbal and non-verbal systems of expressive behavior. In a country of a region, culture is the sum total of a way of life: it is the pattern of values, traits, or behaviors shared by the people, at the same time, behavior practices that have a social meaning greater than the activity itself and which by their nature reinforce the culture, so the function of culture is to establish modes of conduct, standards of performance, ways of dealing with interpersonal and environmental relations that will reduce uncertainty and increase predictability, thereby it can promote survival and growth among the members of any society. Culture influences behavior and explains how a group filters information. Different cultures may have different values; different cultural theories also have different ways to analyze.

In Friesens (1972) study, the spontaneous expressions of Americans and Japanese were examined as they viewed highly stressful films in two conditions, first alone and then a second time in the presence of an older, male experimenter. In the first condition, the American and Japanese participants were similar in their expressions of disgust, sadness, fear, and anger; in the second condition, however, cultural differences emerged. Whereas the Americans continued to express their negative emotions, the Japanese were more likely to smile.

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Other researchers have also examined cultural differences in emotional expression. In the study of Matsumoto and Kupperusch (2001), European American females were classified as either individualistic or collectivistic based on their responses to an individual difference measure and were then videotaped unobtrusively as they watched films designed to elicit positive and negative emotion, first alone and then in the presence of an experimenter. They self-rated their emotional responses to both films in both films in both conditions, and samples of their emotional expressions were judged by a separate group of decoders.

Ekman and Friesen (1969) coined the term cultural display rules to account for cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. These are the rules learned early in childhood that help individuals manage and modify their emotional expressions depending on social circumstances. Ekman and Friesen used the concept to explain the American-Japanese cultural differences in expression they observed, suggesting that in the first condition of their experiment there was no reason for display rules to modify expressions because the participants were alone and their display rules were inoperative; in the second condition display rules dictated that the Japanese mask their negative emotions in the presence of the experimenter.

Matsumotos (1990) study examining display rules in Americans and Japanese. Participants saw faces portraying seven emotions and rated the appropriateness of each in eight social situations involving people of varying intimacy and status. Americans rated

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negative emotions more appropriately than did the Japanese in in-groups, whereas the Japanese rated negative emotions more appropriately than Americans in outgroups; the Japanese also rated negative emotions more appropriately than Americans toward lower status individuals. Matsumoto (1993) used the same methodology to document

differences in display rules among four ethnic groups within the United States.

Ekman and Friesen (1969; 1975) noted six ways in which expressions may be managed when emotion is aroused. Of course, individuals can express emotions as they feel them with no modification. But individuals can also amplify (exaggerate) or

deamplify (minimize) their expressions; for instance, feelings of sadness may be intensified (amplification) at funerals or minimized (deamplification) at weddings. People can mask or conceal their emotions by expressing something other than what they feel, as when nurses or physical hid their emotions when speaking with patients with terminal illness, or when employees in service industries (e.g., flight attendants) interact with customers. Individuals may also learn to neutralize their expressions, expressing nothing, such as when playing poker (poker face) and to qualify their feelings by expressing emotions in combination, such as when feelings of sadness are mixed with a smile, with the smile commenting on the sadness, saying Ill be OK.

Erickson and Mohatt (1982) address cultural differences between Native American and Anglo-American majority culture pupils. They draw on ethnographic data to show that Native American children avoid asserting control in ways that could be seen as limiting the autonomy of others. They do this in order to argue that Native and

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mainstream patterns of social and linguistic interaction differ in ways which are fundamental to learning.

Lipka (1991) bases his case for cultural congruence in teaching and learning on his study from the Bristol Bay region of Alaska of a Yupik teacher implementing what he refers to as Yupik pedagogy, which emphasizes cooperation, the use of overlapping speech and co-speaking as well as a cognitive style that is holistic in relating all elements to a whole. Lipka uses video to record the detail of classroom interactions noting especially the absence of lengthy teacher lesson introductions and the employment of modeling rather than direct instruction to encourage particular behaviors and values.

Local Study

According to the study of Ortega, Merylle Rose entitled: The Study of Sociology and Anthropology, the history of anthropology starts at 15th to 18th century during discoveries and explorations period. In 19th century, anthropology began to take shape as a separate field of study which had its roots in the natural sciences, social sciences and the humanities. Sociology is considered one of the youngest of the social sciences.

The ideas of sociology and anthropology were diffused in Europe. Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service of religion and government. Anthropology was elevated to an academic discipline in the University of the Philippines in 1914 by Otley Beyer.

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Sociology is the science of society and the social interaction taking place among individuals in a social group. There are various areas concern of sociology: a. Social organization b. Social Psychology c. Social change and social disorganization d. Population e. human ecology f. sociological theory and methods g. applied sociology.

Anthropology is also a science of humanity and its society. It is a scientific study of humanity. The similarities and diversity of cultures attempts to present an integrated picture of humankind. includes: a. Universalism b. Integration c. Adaptation There are subdivisions linked by unifying themes. There

The disciplines of sociology and anthropology have close attrinities and many sociologists and anthropologists recognize that two disciplines have much in common. Both disciplines synthesize and generalize data about human behavior and social systems. Both are related to the humanities.

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Sociology and anthropology are also related to history, which is the study of past events and which attempts to establish the social contexts that influence people.

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Discussion

How are sociology and anthropology related to each other?

Anthropology is closest to sociology.

They both study human society, how

societies are organized and how humans interact and behave within them. Sociology is a science of society. It focuses attention to all kinds of social interaction such as social acts, social relationships, social structures and social processes. Anthropology is

concerned with the study of biological, cultural, social and psychological aspects of human nature, origin and development. It is also a science that studies mans behavior, works and modes of production.

Both fields consider that some aspects of human behavior, culture, and action may have nothing to do with the group or society as a whole, and seek to understand how people who form into social groups or huge scientists work, live, develop their thoughts, beliefs, norms, and values.

Both are interested in social organizations and social interaction. Both address social problems and issues like population, environment, poverty, delinquency, crime or even mental illness.

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The knowledge of anthropology, physical as well as socio-cultural, is necessary for a sociologist. An understanding of society can be gained by comparing various cultures, particularly, the modern with the primitive.

What is the purpose of education as a social institution?

There are different perspectives on the purpose of education in contemporary society. These are functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspective. Functionalists view education as one of the most important components of society. Education,

according to Durkheim is the influence exercised by adult generation on those that are not yet ready for social life.

In order to achieve a cohesive social order, moral values should be the foundation. Schools have the responsibility of teaching a commitment to the common morality. Teaching students to put the groups needs ahead of their individual desires and aspiration is needed.

In conflict perspective, education is used to perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities through tracking, ability grouping, and a hidden curriculum that teaches subordinate groups conformity and obedience. In interactionist perspective,

classroom dynamics, examining the interpretations that students and teacher gives to their interactions with one another.

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Anthropologists point to the existing incongruence between what is learned in school and what is practiced in the family and in the community. The school is the word of ideal and the family is the world of the real. It is the main concern of educational sociologists and anthropologists to narrow down the gap or existing incongruence between the school and the local communities.

How are individuals different?

Human biological diversity can be approached in two ways: first, as the outcome of human evolution and second, as an ongoing process, as humans continue to adapt to environmental factors. Within this context, anthropologists seek to explain the diversity. Scientists examine the biological basis of human variability, including the complex interrelationships between genes, environment, and traits, and the nature of growth and development. In their efforts to explain the genetic and evolutionary implications of the diversity, anthropologists are particularly concerned with identifying the patterns by which specific traits vary among groups.

Natural selection may account for some of the differences because regional populations could have adapted to local conditions. Random evolutionary process may account for other differences.

The most astounding aspect of the diversity of modern humankind is the great variety of human cultural adaptations. Cultural mechanisms have partly circumvented

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the slow process of human biological evolution by allowing groups to adapt rapidly to a broad range of environments.

What are the effects of cultural diversity inside the classroom?

In todays diverse classrooms, sometimes cultural differences can be mistaken for student behavior problems. Cultural differences can affect whether or not a teacher regards a students behavior as appropriate, polite, fair, or moral. For example, in some cultures, people are brought up to be considerate of others while in other culture, youngsters are brought up to be tolerant of others.

Teachers who have been brought up to be considerate of others are more likely to perceive likely to students as interfering with the rights of others or as unwilling to share, conform, or go along with the group. As a result, they may intervene in situations that other teachers would accept as reasonable behavior.

Teachers are less likely to view the behavior of students who share their ethnic and socioeconomic class cultural backgrounds as problematic. Since cultures have

different expectations regarding active versus sedentary behavior, cooperative versus competitive and independent behavior, sharing, waiting ones turn, meeting conflicts, head on, apologizing for mistakes, speaking frankly, and so on, whether teachers view many behaviors as problematic depends in part on the match between their students and their cultural backgrounds.

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How can educators improve their ways of teaching to effectively engage the students with cultural differences?

Understanding that certain behaviors may be the cultural norm for some of the students may help the teachers to find ways to more effectively engage them in learning and classroom communication. For example, a student avoids eye contact. Keeping eyes downcast may be a way of showing respect. But, in some cultures, direct eye contact with a teacher is considered disrespectful and a challenge to a teachers authority.

What is the significance of both sociology and anthropology for educators?

Both sociology and anthropology has practical uses. It reduces ethnocentrism by instilling appreciation of their cultures. Through a study of other societies and culture, educators will understand the behavior of their students for them to improve their methods and principles of teaching.

Since anthropology studies how and why man have changed; how and why societies across culture and time have different customary ideas and practices; and the belief, politics, religion, social life, aesthetics, and health and answers the questions like Who are you?, What makes you?, and What is your place in this world? and sociology answers the questions, Who are the people around you, What is their story?, and How do these stories affect you?. They are concerned in individual differences.

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Both are important in social institutions.

One of those social institutions is

education which is responsible for systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. knowledge and skills in order to survive. People must acquire certain

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Conclusion

Sociology and anthropology are very much related. They consider some aspects of human behavior, culture, and action. They seek to understand how people who form into social groups, or huge scientists work, live, develop their thoughts, beliefs, norms, and values. Because of that, they are both necessary for educators.

Educators handle students with different behavior because of their culture. The most astounding aspect of the diversity of modern humankind is the great variety of human cultural adaptations. Cultural mechanisms have partly circumvented the slow process of human biological evolution by allowing groups to adapt rapidly to a broad range of environments.

Cultural differences can be mistaken for student behavior problems. Cultural differences can affect whether or not a teacher regards a students behavior as appropriate, polite, fair, or moral.

Through sociology and anthropology, teachers will understand the differences of their students. It is necessary for them to learn how to handle those differences.

Understanding their students will make them improve their ways of teaching and classroom communication.

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Recommendation

In the same class of pupils with the same chronological age, there will be individual differences. Teachers should not try to push children to attain the same performance as the bright ones. They should also help children and youth with the development of tasks at each stage of life. They should master the 3Rs (writing, reading, and arithmetic.)

Teachers should have the following behaviors:

Appreciate and accommodate the similarities and differences among the students cultures. Effective teachers of culturally diverse students acknowledge both individual and cultural differences enthusiastically and identify these differences in a positive manner. This positive identification creates a basis for the development of effective communication and instructional strategies. Social skills such as respect and cross-cultural understanding can be modeled, taught, prompted, and reinforced by the teacher.

Build relationships with students.

Interview with African-American high

school students who presented behavior challenges for staff revealed that they wanted their teachers to discover what their lives were like outside of school and that they wanted an opportunity to partake in the schools reward systems. Developing an

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understanding of students lives also enables the teacher to increase the relevance of lessons and make examples more meaningful.

Focus on the ways students learn and observe students to identify their task orientations. Once students orientations are known, the teacher can structure tasks to take them into account. For example, before some students can begin a task, they need time to prepare or attend to details. In this case, the teacher can allow time for students to prepare, provide them with advance organizers, and announce how much time will be given for preparation and when the task will begin. This is a positive way to honor their need for preparation, rituals, or customs.

Teach students to match their behaviors to the setting. differently in different settings. ceremonies.

We all behave

For example, we behave more formally at official

Teaching students the differences between their home, school, and

community settings can help them switch to appropriate behavior for each context. For example, a teacher may talk about the differences between conversations with friends in the community and conversations with adults at school and discuss how each behavior is valued and useful in that setting. While some students adjust their behavior

automatically, others must be taught and provided ample opportunities to practice. Involving families and the community can help students learn to adjust their behavior in each of the settings in which they interact.

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Teachers should also practice the following strategies for teaching culturally diverse students:

Use a variety of instructional strategies and learning activities.

Offering

variety provides the students with opportunities to learn in ways that are responsive to their own communication styles, cognition styles, and aptitudes. In addition, the variety helps them develop and strengthen other approaches to learning.

Consider students cultures and language skills when developing learning objectives and instructional activities. Facilitate comparable learning opportunities for students with differing characteristics. For example, consider opportunities students who differ in appearance, race, sex, disability, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, or ability.

Incorporate objectives for affective and personal development.

Provide

increased opportunities for high and low achievers to boost their self-esteem, develop positive and self-attributes, and enhance their strengths and talents. Such opportunities can enhance students motivation to learn and achieve.

Communicate expectations. Let the students know the classroom rules about talking, verbal participation in lessons, and moving about the room. Tell them how long a task will take to complete or how long it will take to learn a skill or strategy, and when appropriate, give them information on their ability to master a certain skill or complete a

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task. For example, it may be necessary to encourage students who expect to achieve mastery but are struggling to do so. They may need to know that they have the ability to achieve mastery, but must work through the difficulty.

Provide rationales. Explain the benefits of learning a concept, skill, or task. Ask students to tell you the rationale for learning and explain how the concept or skill applies to their lives at school, home, and work.

Use advance and post organizers. At the beginning of lessons, give the students an overview and tell them the purpose or goal of the activity. If applicable, tell them the order that the lesson will follow and relate it to previous lessons. At eh end of the lesson, summarize its main points.

Provide frequent reviews of the content learned. For example, check with the students to see if they remember the difference between simple and compound sentences. Provide a brief review of the previous lesson before continuing on to a new and related lesson.

Facilitate independence in thinking and action.

There are many ways to

facilitate students independence. For example, when students begin their work without specific instruction from the teacher, they are displaying independence. When students ask questions, the teacher can encourage independence by responding in a way that lets the student know how to find the answer for him or herself. When teachers ask students

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to evaluate their own work or progress, they are facilitating independence, and asking students to perform for the class also promotes independence. (Brunette)

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