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Aerodynamics 2

CFD Assignment
Advanced Aerodynamics

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Aerodynamics 2

Introduction
This assignment is going to show how modifications on wings such as flaps, slats and spoilers, create clear aerodynamic effects. Research will be done on the various wing modifications used to change the surface shape of an aerofoil. A model of a wing modification along with the wing itself will be created and imported into CHAM Phoenics CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) software. The wing model will be tested without the modification, and then with the modification in two positions. The results will then be analysed to show the effects of the wing modifications, including coefficients of pressure.

Wing Modifications Flaps

The flaps of an aircraft are high lift device surfaces at the trailing edge of the wings, which are connected by mechanical hinges. These surfaces are deployed during takeoff and landing to increase the lift produced by the wings, and stowed as part of the wing during the remaining flight. As the flaps are deployed they alter the camber of the wing and usually the surface area too; which increases the lift coefficient of the wing thus generating more lift and decreasing the stall speed. Flaps increase the climb rate on takeoff, and reduce the speed of approach while steepening the glide on landing which is their primary role. As well as generating more lift, they also increase the drag coefficient of the wing and so increasing the drag produced; which can help slow certain aircraft down giving them a shorter takeoff and landing distance, but could hinder other lighter aircraft during takeoff up to the point where flaps are not recommended. Increasing drag also creates a pitch down movement due to the flaps protruding below the wing, however this can be counteracted. Flaps are deflected at more of an angle during landing than takeoff due to this added drag they produce, and the fact that they become airbrakes after a certain point of deflection where the grad is greater than the increased lift. Below are diagrams showing two types of flaps and their location on the wing.

Reference (Left Image): http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov/aeronautics/3.html Reference (Right Image): http://lifesflightplan.com/2011/11/01/techie-tuesday-when-do-you-deploy-the-flaps/

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The use of flaps during takeoff and landing allow an aircraft to fly at speeds that the original wing wouldnt allow without the aircraft stalling. This is down to the increased coefficient of lift and wing surface area, as can be shown in the lift equation.

Where: L = Lift = Density V = Velocity S = Surface Area CL = Lift Coefficient As this equation shows, when the lift coefficient and surface area are increased, the lift will also be increased. This extra lift produced allows the velocity to decrease, so the same amount of lift is produced from the original wing shape, but with a slower velocity so the aircraft can land or takeoff in a shorter distance. As the flaps are deployed, they also increase the coefficient of drag and the surface area as stated earlier. This is shown by the drag equation below.

Where: D = Drag = Density V = Velocity S = Surface Area CD = Drag Coefficient As the surface area and the drag coefficient increase due to the flaps, so does the drag. This drag helps slow the aircraft down during takeoff and landing helping reduce the distance required.
Text Reference: http://www.propdesigner.co.uk/html/basic_formulas.html

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Flaps come in many forms, giving various increases in lift and other effects. Below is a diagram with some various flap designs compared to the original aerofoil, showing the estimated percentage of increased lift produced and the angle of attack used to gain the maximum lift, as well as general remarks on effects of the flaps.

Reference: http://www.rcgroups.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1344306&page=5

Here it is shown how the flaps affect the airflow around the aerofoil, deflecting the flow down further and increasing the negative pressure on the top, generating the increased lift.

Reference: http://ground-effect.com/2007/11/18/ground-effect-part-deux.aspx

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Slats
The slats of an aircraft are surfaces at the leading edge of the wing, which are usually hinged just like flaps. They are deployed during takeoff and landing to increase the angle of attack the aircraft can fly at, which increases the lift produced. This is done by increasing the coefficient of lift, because a higher angle of attack will increase the coefficient of lift as it is one of the factors that make up the coefficient. Increasing the angle of attack reduces the stall speed and increases lift, so the aircraft can fly slower and land in a shorter distance as well as take off quicker due to more lift and increased climb rate from the higher angle of attack. Slats differ from flaps in that they mainly increase the possible angle of attack without stalling the aircraft, whereas flaps focus on mainly producing more lift due to the bigger camber alterations. During flight the slats are retracted to reduce drag on the aircraft just like flaps, except on some small aircraft where the slats are in a fixed position. Below is an image of a slat on the outer leading edge of an aerofoil.

Reference: http://www.scientistsandfriends.com/aircraft.html

Slats reduce the velocity of the airflow as it reaches the main aerofoil due to circulation, which reduces the pressure peaks on the wing helping the boundary layer to stay attached. As the flow travels off the slat onto the main aerofoil, it creates a fresh thin boundary layer, which stays attached to the wing much easier than thicker ones, helping the aircraft to increase its attack angle without losing lift and stalling.
Text Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_edge_slats http://www.desktop.aero/appliedaero/airfoils2/highlift.html

Below is an image from a CFD package showing the pressure surrounding an aerofoil with slats deployed; it is clearly visible that there is increased pressure at the front of the main aerofoil caused by the slat, creating a new boundary layer.

Reference: http://www.desktop.aero/appliedaero/airfoils2/highlift.html

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Here we can see the difference a slat makes, in the left diagram the first aerofoil has stalled by losing the boundary layer on top, the second aerofoil with the slat deployed still generates lift with an attached laminar boundary layer. In the right diagram, the lift coefficient and angle of attack are shown to increase with the flaps, and even further with the slats. Meaning the difference between the green and red line is due to the slats, increasing the angle of attack much more than the flaps.

Reference (Left Image): http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/fxd_wing/sec_cont.htm Reference (Right Image): http://tbausyd.wikispaces.com/Flaps+and+Lifting+Devices

Slats also come in various forms, and are usually used in conjunction with flaps to create the best aerofoil camber. Below are some examples of slat and flap configurations with the percentage of increased they generate, the optimum angle of attack and informative remarks.

Reference: http://www.cheffers.co.uk/cl1des.html

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Slots
Slots are either built into the front of an aerofoil, or are a result of slats. It is essentially a span wise gap near the leading edge of the wing to reduce stall speeds and increase aircraft handling at low speeds during takeoff and landing. The slot allows air to flow through it from below the front edge of the aerofoil onto the top of it smoothing out turbulence, which allows the aircraft to fly at higher angles of attack. The left image below shows a Stinson 108-3 with a slot built into the leading edge of each of its wings, which can increase the lift coefficient by a maximum of 40% thus increasing lift. The image on the right shows fixed slats on a STOL aircraft which create slots between them and the wings, which can increase the coefficient of lift by up to 60%, greatly increasing lift. Lift coefficient can only be increased using slots by having an angle of attack above 0, unlike flaps.
Text Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_edge_slot

Reference (Both Images): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_edge_slot

Diagram showing how the air flows through the two types of slot compared to an aerofoil without one.

Reference: http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/fxd_wing/sec_cont.htm

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Slot shape is also important, as it must be wider at the opening than the exit to compress air inside it. The exit must also be parallel to the top of the wing so that the air flows smoothly from the slot over the wing. If the slot is formed from a slat, then the pressure peak from a high angle of attack occurs on the slat, leaving the air on the main aerofoil unaffected; retaining lift. Stall is further delayed on the main wing by the high energy air from below that is being compressed to a higher speed through the slot. This accelerated air in the slot means a lower pressure, creating a pressure differential from underneath causing lift. This high energy air then energizes the boundary layer helping it stay attached to the wing, enabling a higher angle of attack. Below is a diagram showing these effects.
Text Reference: http://www.fubarhill.com/stol.html

Reference: http://www.fubarhill.com/stol.html

Spoilers
Spoilers are surfaces on the top of an aerofoil that form part of the wing surface itself, and are then raised to destroy the lift and create extra drag. By raising the spoilers, the area behind them is stalled which greatly reduces the lift from the wing where the spoiler is located. Spoilers can also be used as control surfaces during flight alongside or instead of ailerons to control the roll axis and reduce adverse yaw at high speeds by raising them on one wing. They are also used to control the decent rate on gliders and sometimes on airliners when descending from cruise altitudes. There are two types of spoilers on large commercial jets; flight spoilers and ground spoilers. The flight spoilers can be activated on the ground or in flight, being used as spoilerons during flight and general spoilers to dump lift on the ground. Ground spoilers are only activated when the aircraft has landed and the weight of the aircraft is on the landing gear; destroying the lift and making the brakes more effective by applying downforce onto them.
Text Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoiler_(aeronautics)

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The diagram below is showing the spoilers dumping lift, as the air behind them has become turbulent, drastically lowering the lift produced by the wing. Drag is also produced as the surface is protruding upwards into the airflow.

Reference: http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov/aeronautics/3.html

An example of spoilers on an airliner; the surfaces which are protruding upward on the top surface of the wing.

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoiler_(aeronautics)

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Vortex Generators
Vortex generators are various sized fins or bumps that are located on aerofoils. They are aerodynamic surfaces that produce controlled mini vortexes to delay the boundary layer separation by energizing it; enabling lower airspeeds with higher angles of attack and lower stalling speeds. They are usually placed near the leading edge of the aerofoil in a spanwise direction. Below are images of vortex generators and where they are located on the top of the wing.
Text Reference: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Micro-VG.html

Reference (Left Image): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex_generator Reference (Right Image): http://www.hallwindmeter.com/vortex.php

The vortex generators create vortexes that draw high energy air from outside of the low energy boundary layer onto the wing surface; energizing the boundary layer. Below is a diagram showing the comparison of an aerofoil with and without vortex generators; flying at various speeds including the stall speed. It is clearly shown how the vortexes twist high energy air onto the surface of the wing reducing boundary layer separation and delaying stall.

Reference: http://www.microaero.com/pages/v_howvgswrk.html

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There are also other devices related to vortex generators; such as leading edge notches and dogtooths, more common on military aircraft due to the high maneuverability and angle of attack requirements. These modifications work in the same way as standard vortex venerators, by creating controlled mini vortexes that energize the boundary layer with high energy air from outside it enabling a higher angle of attack without stalling. Below is a diagram of similar vortex generators.

Reference: http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0228.shtml

CFD Simulation
The simulation will take place in a CFD package called CHAM Phoenics, and the chosen wing modification to simulate will be a spoiler. The aerofoil will be simulated with the spoiler inactivated, activated to a certain degree angle, and finally activated to a higher degree angle. The chosen speed to simulate the wing at will be 70m/s, which is roughly 160 mph/140 knots; a standard approach speed for a typical airliner. The simulation will simulate the velocity and pressure around the aerofoil, as well as the coefficients of lift and drag to show the effects that the wing modification has made to the camber of the wing. In order to obtain the coefficients of lift and drag in CHAM Phoenics, the text F1 must be placed inside the box NAMGRD; this will now give these coefficients at the end of each simulation. Below is a screenshot showing the location of this process.

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Aerofoil Simulation No Modifications

The first simulation is of the chosen aerofoil without any wing modifications present. Below is a screenshot of the simulated velocity, showing a peaking velocity of around 120 m/s on top of the leading edge where it would be expected as it is being sped up by the aerofoil. It also shows where the boundary layer grows along the trailing edge of the aerofoil as the velocities decrease; shown in blue. This slow velocity trails behind the wing causing the surrounding air to be drawn in due to the pressure gradient; increasing its speed, producing the high speed airflow shown in the corner in red.

The pressure around the aerofoil is shown below, showing a higher pressure at the front and underneath the wing as well as lower pressures above; all as expected to produce lift.

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As the pressure values are given after the simulation is run, coefficients of pressure can be calculated at various areas around the wing. These pressure coefficients show relative pressures at certain points in the fluid flow that do not change if they are scaled up or down, and are thus very useful for determining pressure points around an actual aerofoil. Below is the pressure coefficient equation:

Where: = Coefficient of Pressure P = Pressure (Taken from various points around the aerofoil from the simulation results) = Relative Pressure of freestream (Air pressure at sea level is 101.325 kPa) = Relative fluid density (Air density at sea level is 1.225 kg/m2) = Velocity of body through fluid (70m/s in this scenario)
Text Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_coefficient

Using this equation and the pressure values given from the simulation, a graph of pressure points can be shown using the coefficients of pressure. Below is a graph showing the coefficients of pressure of above and below the aerofoil, in equal intervals from the front to the back.

2 1.5 1 0.5 0

CP

-0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3

Upper Surface Lower Surface

Distance along aerofoil

It is clear in the graph that the pressure coefficient on the upper surface has a negative peak on the leading edge, which is where the airflow is at its maximum speed over the aerofoil. The pressure on the lower surface is higher than the upper surface, and it gradually decreases along the aerofoil, as expected.

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Coefficients of lift and drag of the simulated aerofoil can also be calculated from Phoenics itself. Below are the two coefficients shown at the end of the simulation.

Aerofoil Simulation Spoiler partly deployed

The next simulation is the original aerofoil with spoilers half way deployed. As seen in the screenshot below, the boundary layer behind the spoiler has become very slow and turbulent, consequently destroying the lift. The velocity still peaks at the front of the aerofoil as expected, and slows down just before the spoiler as it is slightly compressed.

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Here the direction of the airflow can be seen; showing a vortex has formed behind the spoiler causing some drag, however the main effect of the spoiler is to destroy lift which is shown by the turbulence behind the spoiler destroying the boundary layer.

Pressure peaks form due to air compression at the front of the aerofoil and in front of the spoiler. There are also negative pressure gradients on the leading edge of the aerofoil due to fast flowing air and behind the spoiler due to the slow turbulent airflow drawing in surrounding air.

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The high pressure peak caused by the spoiler in the centre of the aerofoil is clearly visible on the upper surface.

1.5 1 0.5

CP

0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

Upper Surface Lower Surface

Distance along aerofoil

The coefficients of Lift and Drag for this particular aerofoil - a slight increase in the drag coefficient from the previous simulation and a huge decrease in the lift coefficient.

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Aerofoil Simulation Spoiler fully deployed

The final simulation tests the spoilers at full deployment on the original aerofoil. The flow behind the spoiler has now become extremely turbulent wiping out all possible lift behind the spoiler. This turbulence has also caused surrounding air above and to the rear of the wing to increase speed due to the negative pressure formed behind the spoiler.

The direction of this airflow can be seen clearer in the image below, clearly showing the turbulence caused from the spoiler and the resulting effects to the airflow.

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The high pressure peak in front of the spoiler has increased due to its increased angle; this has also caused pressure at the front of the aerofoil to disperse and equalize due to the buildup of compressed air. The same negative pressure occurs behind the spoiler, as well as another negative pressure peak forming on the other side of the high speed air caused by the first low pressure peak behind the spoiler.

The coefficient pressure peak caused by the spoiler in the centre of the aerofoil has increased, and the coefficient has generally decreased towards the rear of the wing.
1.5 1 0.5 Upper Surface Lower Surface

CP

0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

Distance along aerofoil

There is a further decrease in the lift coefficient from the previous simulation and a large increase in the drag coefficient.

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Data Evaluation
Below is a graph with the pressure coefficients from the upper aerofoil from all the simulations. The differences are clearly visible from when the spoiler is deployed both halfway and fully.
1.5 1 0.5 0 Original Aerofoil Spoiler - Halfway Spoiler - Fully -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3

CP

Distance along aerofoil

Below is the graph of the pressure coefficients from beneath the aerofoil from all the simulations. The pressure of the lower surface of the aerofoil uniformly decreases as the spoilers are deployed, showing the reduction in high pressure under the wing meaning a decrease in lift.
2 1.5 1 0.5 Original Aerofoil Spoiler - Halfway Spoiler - Fully

CP

0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

Distance along aerofoil

The following table shows the coefficients of lift and drag from the three simulations. The lift coefficient is quickly reduced as the spoiler is deployed halfway and the drag coefficient only increases slightly, this is because the spoilers main function is to destroy lift not increase the drag. However, when the spoiler is fully deployed the drag coefficient increases by a larger amount due to its large surface area acting almost perpendicular to the airflow. Lift Coefficient 6.76 1.04 0.854 Drag Coefficient 0.351 0.389 0.622

Original Aerofoil Spoiler Halfway Spoiler - Fully