Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The
Digital
Byte:
30 years ago persist in Miami Herald in 1968 transcribed and analyzed 13,000 keypunch cards to examine Dade
technology more than
how
the
ofcrime. The result was a revealing series entitled Look at Dade Crime" and the inception ofa potent genre of public service journalism. But, as the Herald learned, technology does not make a reporters work easier, just potentially more incisive. Understanding the difficulties the Herald encountered in 1968 gives perspective to the slow
County's uneven prosecution
"A Scientific
ment," the 1994 computer analysis documenting the faiHngs of the local judicial system evoked a strong response.' Readers demanded reform. Attorneys volunteered to serve
gratis as
When
the
& No Punish
The
eight-day series was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize and deservedly
won
Reporters and Editors, and the American Bar Association.^ Less heralded
was another computer analysis exposing Dade County's flawed judicial system. That analysis also produced a series of investigative stories in the Miami Herald 26 years earlier.
School of Journalism and Commmiication at the University of Oregon. at: smaier @oregon. uoregon. edu.
Fall
2000
American Journalism
75
first
computer
analysis
of public records
and examines
how many challenges posed by technology more than 30 years ago persist in today's digital newsroom. While many academic and industry commentators contend the computer age has brought profound changes to
journalism, few have explored the history of this transformation.
Almost entirely overlooked in the Hterature is how the Miami Herald 1968 transcribed and analyzed 13,000 keypunch cards detailing Dade County's uneven prosecution of crime. The result was a revealing series entitled "A Scientific Look at Dade Crime" ^ and the inception of a potent genre of public service journalism that has become a mainstay of everyday reporting as well as the award-winning expose. But, as the Herald ruefully learned, technology does not make a reporter's work
in
Understanding the difficulties encountered by the Herald in 1 968 gives perspective to the slow and faltering advance of computer-assisted reporting.
easier, just potentially better.
Articles in trade
won
Journalists
at times
win
contends that
illiterate as
"a journalist
who
of magnetic tape
as
Making
Anthony Smith
in Goodbye, Gutenberg
communication" on
scale
7G
Maier
Fall
2000
press. ^
These
historical
computer, but the point remains that the news business has undergone fundamental change. Notes DeFleur, "A decade ago, few journalists would
craft.
have regarded the history of the electronic computer as relevant to their However, it is now a critical analytical tool. Like it or not, it has
become a part of the intellectual heritage of journalism, just as other major technologies, such as the power-driven press, the telegraph, and the
linotype did in the past."^
Computer-assisted reporting
is
is
less
it
an extension of the time-honored tradition of watchdog and investigative journalism. '"Computers enable skilled journalists to follow the data,
to dig deeper
Drawing on an even
newsroom
government records."
well with the concept of public
fits
happening in a community.'^ But whether employed for new forms of journalism, technology augments but does not replace basic "shoe-leather" reporting or the need for skilled storytelling. As proponents have insisted fi"om the early days of computer-assisted reporting, the computer is akin to the telephone it is "just another
what
is
traditional or
it
was not
until late
on
election
night that Walter Cronkite and other newscasters accepted the computer's
call,
prompting
remark, "The
people."'^
1963,
The print media's use of computerized survey data dates at least to when Newsweek published its reports on the "Negro in America."''
Meyer turned to computers of African Americans living in an inner-city community buffeted by race riots. '^ The resulting story in the Detroit Free Press, "The People Beyond M"^ Street," 'Splayed a major role in the Free Press staff's award of the 1968 Pulitzer Prize for local general reporting.'^
In 1967, precision journalism pioneer Philip
to analyze survey data
Fall
2000
American Journalism
JJ
A year later, Miami Herald editors and business officials pondered how
they might harness their state-of-the-art computer to perform research
tasks
capabilities
of the reporting
series,
staff. ^^
Out of their
Look
at
conceived.
On
it
the
first
had
of time. Though
common
practice today,
drew little attention then or in more recent years. For example, the Freedom Forum's Newseum displays several examples of the early use of computers in the newsroom, but missing from the exhibit is mention of
the Herald's pioneering work. This account seeks not only to establish the
Herald's place in history, but also to help explain
why
as
is
it
had intended to expose the corruption of a prominent judge. But the judge died while Jones was collecting the evidence against him. Rather than abandon his work, Jones decided to expand the investigation to search for a pattern of corruption in the Dade County judicial system.
The scope of the investigation was ambitious. Jones and his editors wanted to track how every major criminal action was handled over a year, from arrest to final disposition.^^ Calculating that it would take more than two years to singlehandedly compile the information, the Herald hired a dozen University of Miami law students to cull through police and court records. The newspaper also figured the crime investigation would
be ideal to showcase the newspaper's high-powered
IBM
360.^"*
project.
Herald editors considered Jones a natural choice to lead such a He was intelligent (four years earlier, he had received Harvard
University's prestigious
Nieman
fellowship), he
the
minded. "The clincher," Herald Executive Editor John McMullan explained in his weekly column, "was the important fact that Jones
knew
enough about mechanics to perform the periodic checkups on the family Volkswagen."'^' At age 32, Jones already had made his mark as a journalist on the rise. He began working full-time as a reporter while still in journalism school at the University of Florida. By the time he joined the Herald
78
Maier
Fall
2000
in
as a
Union and
Technology's Downside
The
project proved
more
difficult
The
law students discovered the court documents frequently were inaccurate and incomplete.^'' Coding the information was a labor-intensive process
that required
arrests
for each
of the 3,000
by the newspaper's management as the ''Herald's resident genius in computers," was brought in to handle the technical details.-^^ Lambert and other Herald programmers wrote computer programs in COBOL, a high-level computer language, for each calculation.'" Frequently, the programs had to be reworked because the results either did not make sense or invited new questions to be answered. IBM officials, intrigued by the novel use of computers in the newsroom, dispatched two programscribed
mers to
assist
the Herald}^
own newspaper, as the demand by the Herald's production, advertising and departments. The computer generally was free for newsroom use
in high
late afternoon. In desperation,
19^**
only in the
cards.
But the counter-sorter could only crosson the same computer card (each data set
IBM
360. Repeatedly, Jones would have to wait for idle computer time, only to
results. "The most important thing I learned," Jones 1968 interview, "is that a computer can only count. If we aren't smart enough to tell it what to count, all we get is garbage."'^ The computer produced so much "garbage" that Jones abandoned the project, packed his bags, and moved with his family to Washington, D.C., for a
be frustrated by the
said in a
plum assignment
But the project was unwittingly revived by a //(?m^/ publicist who, working far in advance of the intended publication of the crime series,
had ordered
image of a grinning
IBM 360
crime
(Figure
"Reporter
Clarence Jones.
tion barrier
on Dade County's
The
advertisement,
Fall
2000
American Journalism
5?-< ,
({'f
~i
"!
a i
fi,
A He rio cow
It,,
i3>
f-J^
'<_(Ji'
t-t-yr'
<
Pi
ot)
Ddd*- Co.
iy
1!
J
!
1
..
r<<J
,,r
tif
wj^
fi(> y^ jl
vj
^r*,,
n
o
rit
fn
h "
rr
^/^
irfif
r>i
-SO
Figure 1
A November
published.
80
Maier
Fall
2000
from Washington, Jones resurrected the project and finally made sense of Publisher had the data. The crime series ran three weeks after Editor
&
Sifait
accompli?^
"Computer
}
Scieiitific
Look at
The
Hit
the
Figure 2
DADE GRIME A
logo for the Herald's crime
series.
1,
1966 and
one of the nations highest crime rates - and one of the lowest rates of arrest. Even more troubling, the data showed, most arrests for major
crimes never resulted in
jail
or prison time.
also
young people,
ages 17 to 20.^'
that African
showed
The
series also
documented
that vice
a low-risk proposition.
Only a
and less than 7 percent of those ever went to jail.^^ In an article would not meet todays standards of gender sensitivity, readers were
told that
(their
women
it
passionately"
predomi-
Perhaps most interesting was what the Herald could not determine.
After a
angle,
is
really
war."'^
and incomplete
nobody
an
arrest
is
made."^'
Fall
2000
American Journalism
81
But the Herald discovered it knew more than the poHce when Dade SheriflF E. Wilson Purdy made an unexpected call on the newspaper. His internal affairs squad, the sheriff explained, needed to track the arrests made by three deputies under investigation. It would take hundreds of hours for the sheriff's staff to sift through the files to find the information. Purdy asked, "Can we get any help from you and that computer?" The newspaper agreed to help, and in minutes produced a printout of more than a hundred arrests made by the deputies and the disposition of each case. An investigator later visited the newsroom to
County
discuss the
computer
findings.
When
gathered up the printout. "Wait a minute," the deputy said, "those belong
Department." No, Jones explained, they were Herald "You mean we have to come to you to find out what our own men were doing last year?"^^
to the Public Safety
A Model Ignored
In his
column "Report
to
Our
Readers" (Figure
3),
McMuUan
would "point the way to similar But few paid much attention to the
series neither
won
little
series
evoked
little
No
Not
until 1972,
York
Times tracked
uneven response
to crime, did
newspaper
estab-
method of reporting.^'
made
it
so.
The
"We
didn't get
start
body buried somewhere. We may not have found but what we found certainly was worthwhile."'*^
a
its
Despite
shortcomings, the
series
82
Maier
Fall
2000
DEC15WI
^iLCi
unfleaders
From JOHH
McMULUK
A New
G)ncept
Is
Born
.Reporter ^l arence Jones^ya s deep in computer print-oTirTheet?lhat lie oenma ihe front-page court survey beginning today when he received an -unexpected visit a couple of months ago from Sheriff .E. Wibon Pmidy. .-,..._ t^..... .... ;^.,.,. .. ,. His intenjal affairs squad, Purdy explained, needed to find out who had bees arrested by certain deputies mM whit happened in court. Without hundreds of hours of record searchinf, that was no way fbr the department to fimd or anyone else out
.,
..
..
.inquired Purdy,
any help from you and that computer?** of The Herald's research projki:!. Jones made a quick check with Clark Lambert, The Herald's resident genius m computers, and replied:
"CAN
WE GET
who knew
it
Within a few minqtes, th^ IBM 360 computer printed ever/thing it had stored in its v; St memor}^ about more than a hundred arrests made by the th ee deputies * following each case all the way through its infolved court travels. The IBM
Figure 3
officials
Herald
McMulian
Fall
2000
American Journalism
83
beyond
When
ards Scanned
by pohticians with
By
;
the
Thomands
this gUivej? for r^atferi d*
Pattmg tagethar
MmM
mk
la
volved aadertskiag. fOT thr^^ manths., a team of students im&sr tJbe 4im^&ti of Hersid reperters collected data on more thajs 3,000 arrests boftked at Cmn*
Uw
ty Jail
between Ju3y
1,
1966,
md Jutve 30,
IS6?,
concern.
pro-
tlilN weat to th fites ef the CriHilaal C<5sirt Clerk to find out what happened
to each case, tlie previous aimiisal activity ot
eacfe def^jisdarst
THE TEAM
was iC5DnJed.
"
All th?
computer-assisted reporting,
in
cak, Tbe hiGnsetusn drt mch defendant flOed four cards. Tben !& Hrld'$ Data Proc^sfeg D^pMtmmt h^iP-S. to program tJtie information isa yearly 13,tX3 ear^ and feed It lute csmput-
mfortobk$l0ai
,-
Ito
kmd
on how
hfe,
mdjed 1 cot^idered absolule. There i& t seriem problt^a of commuBseatkin witfein tlie Judidsl system, partly because of a" lack of fijn.45 and partly btcsuse of & hck of adirjinistnjr
sions
shown
that
Dade County
To know completely what happenms!
statistically wllhln
officials
^e
tMs
posM
to etjpe with
.lem.woald take about three yar$ of such data ^ collectiRg and pn?giamming.
,
Figure 4
Journalism's
first
information,
why
couldn't
reporting.
Dade County made a similar effort, the Herald know who is winning the crime
Technology's Challenge
Technological advances have eliminated
many of the
challenges the
agency
84
Maier
Fall
2000
be performed on a $ 1 ,000 desktop personal computer. Datacrunching that used to be excruciatingly slow now takes nanoseconds to
conduct.
now can
A person can get done "in a blink of your eye what would take
1
you
968]
The
difference
is
who
many of the
issues in
can
now
is
more than 30
tell it
computer
humans
lacked the
relatively
statistical skills
needed
methods of precision journalism. As the Herald noted in 1968, computers provided only a starting point for investigation; then "the old familiar reporting job had to be resumed."'^ A quarter century afiier the stumbling computer investigation was published in the Herald, reporters were still being warned about the "dirty little secret" of computer-assisted journalism - technology does not make reporting either easier or faster.'^ In short, the difficulties faced by the Herald in its pioneering work represent challenges with computerassisted reporting that news organizations are still trying to understand. Several explanations can be given why the Herald ^zs the first newspaper to use computers to analyze government records. In 1968, the Herald already was a technological leader, using the computer for business purposes to predict areas of population growth and make the newspaper's advertising and circulation departments more efficient. There was a predisposition "to go as far as computers would take us," said McMullan.^'' Top management not only supported use of computers but also understood them. General Manager Harold Jurgensmeyer was a former IBM salesman, as was Lambert. Moreover, they were willing to serve as interpreters for the non-technologically minded. "I didn't talk too much geek - I guess it was my sales background," said Lambert.^' Jones also credits McMullan's willingness to take risks: "McMuUan's great gift:, as far as I was concerned, was his willingness to take on monumental, unusual reporting projects where the odds were not good for success. The computer project was one of those. And if you failed (as many of them did) there was no blame. He stood behind the people who worked for him like nobody else I ever knew."'"" Also, it probably is no
coincidence that the two earliest pioneers of computer-assisted reporting
fellows.
The
Fall
2000
American Journalism
85
and the
brightest,
Newsroom
1
968
Converting paper into electronic form is a laborious process that only the most doggedly determined reporters are willing to endure. For example,
and James Steele of the Philadelphia Inquirer had to from more than 10,000 documents and 20,000 pages of transcripts to produce their prize-winning 1973 story on inequiBarlett
Donald
transcribe information
ties in
By 1978, when
established another milestone in comMorin and Fred Tasker became the first and analyze government documents compiled
tax assessments in
computer form. Using a high-powered statistical program to analyze Dade County, they showed that expensive properties
effectively taxed at a lower rate
were
The
and a repeat of the analysis the following year showed the disparities had been significantly reduced. ^^ Despite these early success stories, newsroom use of computers languished for many years. In
assessor resigned
the 1970s, reporters resisted use of new technology even for such basic
tasks as
still
word
members
in the audience
when
As
late as
1997, a
commentary published
spread
in Journalism
The
Digital
Newsroom
Only in recent years, as the technology became friendly and cheap enough for wordsmiths, has computer-assisted reporting evolved into a mainstay of American journalism.^^ No longer relegated to the newsroom "nerd," computer analysis has become a staple of beat reporting as well as
86
Maier
Fall
2000
Computers routinely
Institute for
are used
The National
has trained
journalists,
rooms now employ in-house trainers to fiirther spread technological Use of technology is now well-established in most university journalism programs. Computer-assisted reporting has become so commonplace that Debbie Wolfe, technology training editor at the St. Petersburg Times, declared, "The revolution is over."^^
skills.^^
The Internet accelerated the transformation to digital reporting. From reporting a breaking murder story to covering school test scores, online research has become standard practice in the newsroom.^* The Internet also has taken computer-assisted reporting to new frontiers. From virtually anywhere in the world, journalists now can use a laptop computer and an Internet connection to gain access to the same information
newsroom. ^^ In fact, online newsgathering has surpassed all other applications of the computer in the newsroom.^" Notes Garrison, who has tracked the meteoric rise of online research in the newsroom, "Journalists are experiencing a metamorphosis in newsgathering in the newsroom. The new technologies of computer networking at a global level are altering journalism in a manner that will, ultimately, compare to the change brought to newsrooms by the telephone or typewriter."''' In a 1 968 Newsweek article titled "A Computer Reporter," Meyer is quoted as saying that he felt "like a missionary" espousing the power of computer data analysis, "It's the wave of the future," he predicted. "So many questions can't be answered in any other way."''^ He still is proselytizing. While computers are commonly used today for their communication and search capabilities, Meyer laments that deeper analytical techniques are not applied more ofi:en to unveil misdeeds and reveal system-
and databases
that reporters
draw on
in the
development
as a journalist's
newsgathering tool perhaps has slowed the advance of the kind of computer data analysis that
much
Meyer and Jones pioneered in the 1960s. With so information available a click away on the World Wide Web, many
their resources
on newsroom remains
paced and uneven. Computer and statistical skills in the newsroom still need to be sharpened and made more broad based if newspapers are to take full advantage of the technology the HeraWmtroduccd to the
American newsroom.
Fall
2000
American Journalism
87
Just a Tool
The Herald's series on crime stands as a major milestone in the development of computer- assisted reporting. The newspaper overcame substantial technical barriers to become the first to use computers to analyze government documents. The lack of acclaim for this early use of computers does not diminish the Herald's historical accomplishment. It is instructive that technological breakthroughs often go unnoticed. The example the Herald set more than 30 years ago took years, and in some cases, decades, for many other news organizations to follow. The diffusion of computer-assisted reporting remains ongoing as more journalists learn the technology and discover new ways to put it to use.
Yet those involved in
series said
they had
little
we knew in a sense we were but we never were making too much of being first,"
guess
said. He recalls telling the computer research team the technology was not the story. "I probably said, 'I don't care how it's done, as long "^^ Perhaps that is the most important lesson to be drawn as we do it.' from this account of the Herald's foray into computer- assisted reporting. The computer is only a tool, capable in the right hands of bringing depth and breadth to a story. In a technological age, the traditional qualities of a enterprise, tenacity and resourcefulness remain good journalist paramount. But journalists today must apply these bedrock qualities to the mastery of new technological skills. Only then can the stories of our
McMuUan
times be told.
Endnotes
'Jeff
Leen and
Don Van
Narta,
Jr.,
"Crime and
No
Punishment,"
1994.
^Bruce Garrison, Successful Strate^es for Computer-Assisteei Reporting {Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence
53.
Scientific
Look
at
December 1968.
36, 41;
example, William Webb, "Unlocking Data Power," Editor & Publisher, 20 May 1995, 32The Freedom Forum Center for Media Studies, "Harnessing Computers to Cover the News,"
The Forum, September 1993, 4-7; Cecilia Friend, "Daily Newspaper Use of Computers to Analyze 1 5 (Winter 1994): 63-72; and Philip Meyer, The New Precision Journalism (Bloomington, IN.: Indiana University Press, 1991).
Data," Newspaper Research Journal
88
Maier
Fall
2000
'[Quoted
in]
"Ibid.
'^See, for
IREJournal
6 (1995): 3-5.
The News
& Observer," in
(St.
Words Collide: Reflections on the Development of Computer Assisted Reporting Poynter Institute, 1999), 32
Petersburg, FL:
'''The role of the computer in the 1952 election is recounted in Harry Wulforst, Breakthrough Computer Age (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1982), 161-171.
is
cited in
Meyer, "The People Beyond 12th Street: Riot of 1967," Detroit Free Press reprint, 1967.
^^Newsweek, "A
Computer
Reporter," 78.
is
New Concept
Born,"
Miami Herald,
15
December 1968,
Sec. A, p. 25.
"Computer Reveals
Miami Herald,
15 December 1968,
A,
p.
^'Making claims of "first" is always hazardous, but precision journalism pioneer Philip Meyer contends the Herald is justified in claiming its "place in history" (quoting from private correspondence from Meyer to Herald Associate Editor Gene Miller, 7 February 1992, letter in Meyer's personal files.) Meyer says he has never been challenged when, in numerous public forums, he has repeated the assertion that computer-assisted reporting began with the Herald series. As noted above, the Herald series has largely gone unnoticed in accounts of the early years of computer-assisted reporting, though DeFIeur cites Jones as the apparent first journalist to use computers to analyze public records
Semonchc listed the series as a work in her chronology of computers in investigative reporting (News Media Libraries: A Management Handbook (Westpon, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing, 1993), 364).
(Computer-Assisted Investigative Reporting, 74). In addition, Barbara
pioneering
^^For a discussion of the cold reception given many innovations, see Albert Bandura, Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1997), 72-75. Also consider Everett M. Rogers, Diffiision ofInnovations, 4th ed. (New York: The Free Press, 1995). ^'As Clarence Jones explains in private correspondence,
"Our
original goal
was to look
for the
ways
We knew that one technique was to have the case re-assigned to a judge who could be bribed or manipulated in some other way. We knew that an outside attorney was
that criminal cases were rigged.
often brought into cases that were fixed. His fee included the
ftx. 1
common
threads
money that would be spread among is the case flagged by the original
booking officer? The bondsman? If a certain officer makes the arrest, what percentage of his cases wind up before the same judge, defying the laws of chance in a blind filing system? Our original goal
failed
letter,
statistically significant."
19
May
1998.
series
^""This
is
based on
interviews with the principal staffers involved in the crime project. In addition, information
^'McMullan, "A
^^"Meet Author
Inc., accessed
New
Concept." Sec. A,
p. 25.
[biographical review on-line] (Video Consultants, 3 February 1998); available from http://winning-newsmedia.com/Services.htm;
Internet.
^^ones,
"Computer Reveals
1998.
^'"Cards Scanned by the Thousands,"
Miami Herald,
15
December 1968,
Sec.
A,
p.
24.
Fall
2000
American Journalism
89
^'McMullan, "A
'"Ibid.
New Concept
New
Concept
is
Born," Sec. A,
p.
25.
"McMuIIan, "A
is
Born," Sec. A,
p.
May
1998.
'^McMulIan, "A
New Concept is
Born," Sec. A,
p.
25.
March 1998.
1968,
1.
"Computer Reveals
Mmw/ //ifriiZ^,
p. 1.
"Computer Reveals
in
''"Women
Sec. A, p..24.
And Murder
are Specialties,"
Miami Herald,
16 December 1968,
''"Clarence Jones,
Sec.
C,
p. 1.
"Jones,
C, pp.
1, 8.
^McMiillan, "A
article.
New New
Concept Concept
Born," Sec. A,
p.
25.
The
direct quotations
were made
in the
news
"McMullan, "A
Is
Born," Sec. A,
p.
25.
22 April 1 998. Herald library files show that Jones won awards for his work the year preceding and following the crime series, but none for his work in 1968. E-mail correspondence from Elisabeth Donovan, Herald ^eseasch. Editor, to Barabara Semonche, Library director. School of Communication, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 29 April 1998. No mention of the Herald's pioneering work was made in the Columbia Journalism
^Clarence Jones, telephone interview by author,
Review
crime
series.
Libraries, 364.
"The
Is
Sec.
A,
pi.
'''John
December 1968,
Sec.
Sec.
A,
p.
24.
C,
p. 1.
May
1998.
Is
Born," Sec. A,
p.
25.
Quill,
May
1998.
May
1998
"Ibid.
^Bruce Garrison,
and Newspapers:
(cited in
Attitudes," Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism
Margaret DeFleur and Lucinda Davenport, "Innovation Lag: Computer-Assisted Classrooms Vs. Nev/srooms," Journalism Educator 48 (Summer
^'Randy Reddick,
It,"
in
Collide: Reflections
on the
90
Maier
FaU 2000
"^"Wendy Swallow Williams, "Computer-Assisted Reporting and the Journalism Curriculum," Journalism drMass Communication Educator 52 (Spring 1997): 67.
*'By 1997, 95 percent of large newspapers were engaged in computer-assisted reporting and smaller newspapers were scrambling to catch up with the CAR-driven big dailies (Bruce Garrison, "Newspaper Size as a Factor in Use of Computer-assisted Reporting," a paper presented to the Communication Technology and Policy Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication annual meeting, Baltimore, August 1998). Reporters have been going on-line to gather the news at even a more rapid rate. A 1998 survey by Steven Ross and Don Middleberg indicated that 98 percent of newspapers and magazines had Internet access ("Media in Cyberspace" [fifth annual national survey on-line] (Middleberg Associates, N.Y., New York, accessed 3 March 1999); available from http://www.middleberg.com/Keyfindings.htm).
&
Reflections
^Brant Houston, "Changes in Attitudes, Changes in Latitudes," in When Nerds and Words Collide: on the Development of Computer Assisted Reporting (St. Petersburg, FL: The Poynter
Institute, 1999), 7.
"^Debbie Wolfe, "Viva the Evolution," in When Nerds and Words Collide: Reflections on the Development of Computer Assisted Reporting {^x. Petersburg, FL: The Poynter Institute, 1999), 51.
^'Joel
Digital Revolution
is
Reaching
Warp
Ibid.
^"Scott Maier, "Digital Diffusion in the Newsroom: The Uneven Advance of Computer-Assisted Kc^onmg," Newspaper Research Journal 22 (Spring 2000): 101.
'''Bruce Garrison,
Luton Creativity and Consumption Conference, Luton, UK, 29-31 March 1999.
''^"A
Computer
Reporter," 80.
''Simon and Napolitano, "We're All Nerds Now," 22. Also see Meyer, "Discourse Leading to
Solutions," 3-5.
'"'Simon
''In a
less
survey, leading trainers and practitioners of computer-assisted reporting estimated that than 10 percent of daily newspaper reporters routinely use database or statistical software. Maier,
1998
"Digital DiflFusion."
'^John
Fall
2000
American Journalism
91