IEEE Transactions on Pover Apparatus

and Systems, Vol. PAS-95, no. 1, JanuarylFebruary 1976

INCLUSION OF DC C O N V E R T E R AND TRANSMISSION EQUATIONS DIRECTLY I N A NEWTON POWER FLOW DUANE A . BBAUNAGEL, MEMBER

L E O N A R D A,

K R A F T ,

"BER

JENEL L. WHYSONG, SENIOR bff3MBEE

COMMONWEALTH EDISON C O M P A N Y CHICAGO, ILLINOIS ABSTRACT

This paper presents the method used t o include the equations for DC converters and transmissio li nn d es i r e c ti ln y a Newton A C system power flow. The DC equations a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a p e r u n i t form t h a t i s comA C equations. The p a t i b l ew i t ht h ep e ru n i t DC equations can therefore be incorporated directly into the Jacobian of the Newton power flow. The convergence p r o p e r t i e s of t h e Newton, method a r e n oa t ltered. The DC model and equations used make i t possible two terminal DC t oi n v e s t i g a t e any number of l i n e s or multiple terminal DC networks a s component p a r t s of an A C system.
INTRODUCTION

but these methods a r e somewhat i n e f f i c i e n t becausethey do not solve the A C and DC systems simultaneously. The usual procedure is DC parameters, solve the te os t i m a tteh e A C system, and then use the A C s o l u t i o nt o DC arameters. This process r e a d j utsh te continueu s ntil 'convergence" i s obtained. Each timethe DC parameters are modified, an The e n t i r e A C s o l u t i o n must be calculated. DC modelling and the method used r e s t r i c t thetype of DC systems t h a t can be studied, This paper describes a method whereby thenecessary DC equationsareconverted by a per unit system i n t o equations thaa t re As a recompatible w i t h the A C equations. s u l t of t h i s c o n v e r s i o n , t h e A C and DC equat i o n s may be solved simultaneously, rather It p is ossible t o solve tha sn erially. w e la ls two multi-terminal DC networks a s Furthermore, it i sa l s o terminal DC lines. p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e unbalanced DC networks,
ASSUMPTIONS

The Commonwealth Edison Company became a c t i v e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n HVDC transmission some yearsago when i t became apparent that such a system might provideaneconomicalanswer to some urban transmission problems which were or middle 19801s. A anticipated for the early preliminary economic studywiththe ASEA Co. of Sweden was s u f f i c i e n t l yp r o m i s i n gt o warrant a more detailed engineering study. (1) One purpose of the detailed study will be t o examine how DC l i n e s w i l l i n t e r a c t w i t h t o normal t h e e x i s t i n g A C systemwithregard and emergency power f l o w s , fault duties and e f f e c t s on system s t a b i l i t y . Another purpose of the detailed study i s t o provideaneducat i o n a lo p p o r t u n i t yf o r some of theengineers who mightbe involved i n t h e work i n t h e f u t u r e i f a DC l i n e , were authorized. Although AC/DC power flow programs were thought that there a v a i l a b l e , i t was the would be some advantages i n producingour own DC power flow so t h a t i t could be t i e d t o our e x i s t i n g A C power flow i n t h e most e f f i c i e n t manner. Furthermore, w e were i n t e r e s t e d i n a program t h a t would handle DC networks as well a s two terminallinesbecausebothpossibili t i e s a r e underconsideration. The conventional Newton power flow,used by Commonwealth Edison, was o r i g i n a l l y deA C networks. ( 2 , 3, 4 ) signed to solve only Methods havebeen devised for solving AC systems with a few DC l i n e s (5, 6, 7, 8, g ) ,

The following basic assumptions have been made i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n of the equations re resenting the AC-DC converter: (10, 1 1 , 127
1) The A C

source delivers a constant voltage of sinusoidal waveform and constant frequency. Three phase voltages and currents are balanced.

2)

A l l higherharmonics

of voltage and current produced by the converter a r ef i l t e r e do u t and do notappear i n t h e A C system. The transformers associated with the converter have no resistance and no e x c i t i n g impedance.
i-

3)

4) The valves of theconverterare

dealand ripple, have no arcvoltage

drop.

5 ) The DC voltage and current

have no

6 ) I n a 6 pulse converter, the valves

f i r e a t 600 i n t e r v a l s , and f o r a 1 2 pulseconvertertheintervalis300.

MODEL OF AC-DC CONVERTER

Paper F 75 425-9, recommended and approved by the IEEE Power System Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEEPES Summer Meeting,& Francisco, Calif., July 20-25,1975. Manuscript submitted August 28,1974; made available for printingApril 28,1975.
76

Figure 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e b a s i c c o n v e r t e r model used i nt h i sp a p e r . The A C supply i s assumed t o be a 3 1 6 system, however only a s i n g l el i n e diagram i s shown. A l l symbols in Appendix I. The area enare defined closed by t h ed o t t e dl i n e shows the repres e n t a t i o n of t c ho e n v e r tie tr self. The transformer within the converter i s .represented by anidealtap-changingtransformer with a s e r i e r se a c t a n c e . The valves, with

t h e i r 3(6 connections, are represented by the diode symbol. This model i s v a l i d f o r e i t h e r 6 o r 12 pulse converters.
Id

EQUATIONS F O R AC-DC CONVERTER

~ ~ / l / l / / ~ / ~ l ~ / " ' / ' / " / ' / ' / ' / ~ / ' / ' / ' / / / / / ' / / /

Fig. 1 Singlebridgeconverter

model

Forthemultiplebridgeconverter model transformer reactance, shown i n Fig. 2 , the Xt, i s assumed t o be the same f o r a l l transformers. Tap r a t i o sa r ea l s o assumed t o be equal.
r-----------

The b a s i c c o n v e r t e r e q u a t i o n s t h a t have been developed by others (10, 1 1 , 12) w i l l be A s l i s t e d below, these used in t h i sp a p e r . a single bridge equations are valid only for unit form. c o n v e r t ea rn d a rn e oitn per These equations are basedonthepreviously l i s t e d assumptions and use the symbols def i n e d i n Appendix I. Power leaving a bus i s d e f i n e da sp o s i t i v e . Assume T = l .

I,,

= I ,

j I ,

I n a more convenientform,

/%/'/%/I//////'///'//~~///l/f////'////r

Fig. 2

Multiplebridgeconverter

model

The power

relationshipsareasfollows:

These models may be adapted t o permit the use of three wlfding transformers. As shown i n Fig. 3, a T " model of transformer i s used. The model of the converter itself remainsthe same a s that shown i n Fig. 1. X t i s included within the converter, while X1 and X 2 have t o be p l a c e d in the A C system. I no r d e rt o mesh the A C and DC equations directly in the Newton power flow, the converter equations must be expressed i n a p e r unit system ,that i s compatible with the A C p e r unit system.(13) Both A C and DC per unit systems are l i s t e d below.
A C PER UNIT SYSTEM

= VA3@
/I////////I///////////////I//////////~/////////1//'////f

Ebase = E1-g Ibase = VAbase 1 3Ebase Zbase = Ebase / Ibase DC PER UNIT SYSTEM VAbase = VAac base Ebase 'base

Fig. 3

w i t h 3 windingtransformer

Singlebridgeconverter

model

When t h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e b r i d g e s , t h e n X1 and X 2 must be modified. If B equals the number of bridges and the primed quantities indicate values for multi-bridge configuration then,

E1-g =

base

sic
Assuming t h a tt he changed, then

B Sac
remain

/ Ebase = 31ac base

'base
= K2Zac base / 3

A C voltages

un-

'base - Ebase

77

Note t h a t t h e c o n s t a n t K may d i f f e r f o r For DC systemswithnegative eachconverter. i l l a l s o be negative. The DC polarity, K w voltage base must remain unchanged within a DC network, but each separate network may have a d i f f e r e n t b a s e . Before putting the converter equations wit form, c o n s i d e r the effect of into per multiple converter bridges and an off-nominal t a p r a t i o on thetransformermodelledwithin the converter. The bridges of a converter a r e connected i n p a r a l l e l on t h e A C s i d e and If the primed is ne r i e s on t h e DC s i d e . quantities indicate values for only one bridge, then for multiple bridges
vd = B
1

i l l not discuss i t f u r t h e r i n t h i s p a p e r . w e w For each type of converter control, there a r e two possible modes of control:

a variable, a variable,

y variable

y variable, while maintaining a minimum e x t i n c tion angle.

A detailed presentation

volvedcanbe

of the equations infound i n Appendix 11.

V&

E = E'

Id = Id

Iac = B d c

The v a r i o u sp o s s i b i l i t i e s of modelling t h e c o n t r o l f o r a converter may prove useful to t hp elanner when running power flows, For example, while some convertersarenormally current controlled, the current sett i n gi so f t e na d j u s t e dt om a i n t a i n a cons t a n t power flow. With t h e s e c o n t r o l equat i o n s ,t h ep l a n n e rc a nd i r e c t l ys p e c i f yt h e desired power flow.

I f E" i s t h e A C voltage on t h e DC s i d e E" = E/T. To i n of the transformer, then cludetheeffects of an off-nominal transforE/T f o r E i nt h ep r e mer r a t i o ,s u b s t i t u t e viousequations. The converterequationsinperunitare Xt is the per unir t eactance l i s t e d below, For t h e of the transformer on t h e A C base. remainder of t h i sd i s c u s s i o n ,a l lq u a n t i t i e s are expressed in per unit.

is Associated with each converter there additional an transformer equation. The purpose of t h e variable tap transformer is A C voltage going into the ta o l t etrh e valves of t h e c o n v e r t e rI .t fh i s were not done, t h e r e wouldbeno guarantee that there i s a f e a s i b l ei n t e r f a c e between t h e A C and DC systems. Changing t h f ei r i n g and comDC c u r r e n t mutation angle changes both the and voltage, however t h e r e are constraints By introducing on both of t h e s eq u a n t i t i e s . a transformerintotheconverter model, the A C voltage can be a l t e r e d t o a l l o w t h e v o l t age and c u r r e nc t onstraints to be matched slmultaneously.
DC l i n e s and buses are handled i n the power flow i n much t h e same manner a s AC q u a n t i t i e s , with few a restrictions. A DC l i n ec a n have resistanceonlyas a l i n e or shuntparameter. A DC bus h a s p l u s ' o r minus voltage magnitude w i t h no a s s o c i a t e d phase angle. A DC bus may haveonlywattsasgena e r a t i o n and load, and r e s i s t a n c eo n l ya s bus shunt element. Each DC bus introduces i n t ot h eJ a c o b i a n one equation, C Pdc = 0 , and one variable, vdc.

'aC

= 'dld
IMPLEMFNTATION OF DC EQUATIONS

(10)

Each converter w i l l add threeequations and variables to the Jacobian. Mathematically, the converter equations can be arranged tomaintain a constant A ) DC v o l t a g ea t V b , o r B) DC current through the converter, or C AC watts delivered to the DC system, or D ] AC vars c'onsumed i n the converter. The last option has been fully programmed and i s o p e r a t i o n a lb , uftop r h y s i c arle a s o ntsh i s type of c o n t r o in l so ptr a c t i c a l . Hence,
78

The n e u t r a l bus, Vn, i s handled just and l i k e anyother DC b u s .I ft h ep o s i t i v e then negative DC systems a r e unbalanced, i l l flow i n the neutral system. current w w i l l a f f e c t t h e v o l t a g e of This current flow The the positive and negative DC systems. r e s i s t a n c e between neutral buses, whether due t o l i n e o r ground r e t u r n , i s modelled in t h e power flow a s a l i n e . Any one o r a l l of theneutralbuses may beconnected d i r e c t l y t o ground. The n e u t rb au l ste h s a arte s o l i d l y grounded are designated as system swing buses with a voltage magnitude of zero. The power flow program has the capa b i l i t y ofhandling 25 swing buses, A C and/ o r DC. When a l l of t h e c o n v e r t e r s i n a DC n e t work a r e c o n t r o l l i n g t h e DC c u r r e n t , t h e a l system gebraic sum of a l l c u r r e n t s i n t o t h e If t h ce o n v e r t ea rr se must equal zero. A C watts, then a modelled t o c o n t r ot lh e DC network r e q u i r e s a "Swing" converter f o r the same reasons that the A C -system requires swing a generator. One converter must be a v a i l a b l et os u p p l yl i n el o s s e s and

system wide power mismatches. If there a r e converters i n a DC system, a t most, N - 1 converters can be c o n t r o l l i n th ge power. It i s our e x p e r i e n c e thaa tl teast one DC bus i n each network should be voltage controlled. The function of t h i s bus i s t o similar t ot h e definethereferencevoltage, fixedvoltageofthesystem swing bus i n t h e A C system.
N

Converter Parameters
For a l l converters: K =2 2.7E X t = .01 (P.U.)

B = 2

The c o n t r o l on each converter can be specifiedindependently of theotherconverters in t h e DC system. Mathematically, the model of the converter and t ha es s o c i a t e d i l l accommodate anyconfiguration equations w that he user desires to consider. However, a s i n a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e power flow, i t i s t h er e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h eu s e rt od e f i n e what i s reasonable. Special consideration must be g i v e n to DC parat h es t a r t i n gv a l u e sa s s i g n e dt ot h e meters when f i r s t beginning the iterative processes of the Newton method. When using previouslysolvedvalues, no problems a r i s e . However, when not using previously solved nhp e o s i t i vp eo r t i o n s values, DC buses i t should have s t a r t i n gv o l t of t h e DC system those in t hn eegative ages of +1 pu, and buses that are not portions -1 pu. Neutral grounded should be assigned voltages close to 2 .O5 have yielded z e r o .S t a r t i n gv a l u e so f satisfactor ry esults. The transformer tap be s e t t o 1. The f i r i n g and r a t i o , T, should commutation angles should be g i v e n typical

CONTROL MODE 1 ( a v a r i a b l e , y v a r i a b l e ) For individual converters : Control Control Control Control Value Value Type Type 21 Idc 4.900 c2 Vdc * 971 c3 Idc c4 vdc -971 -4.900 C5 Pac Idc c6 4.901 -4.900 DC LineParameters Resistance ( P . u . ) L1 = ,0002 L4 = ,002 ~6 = . O O ~ ~2 = ,0018 L5 = .002 L3 = .002

PerUnit

Base Q u a n t i t i e s

Table I.

Input Data

E a c ' l . 0 1 2

Idct4.9

er3.928.
I

79

values, remembering that the former e i t h e r p o s i t i v e or negative.

COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS

may be

4.

"Improved Load Flow Performance Through a More General Equation Form", PAS-Vol. 90,pp. 109;116, January/ February 1971
G. Hingorani and J. D. Mountford, SJiimulation of m c systems i n A.C,., LoadFlow Analssis b s D i g i t a l ComDuters

J. P. Britton,

The DC equations have b e e n fully programmed i n t o the Commonwealth Edison power flow program (PEPCE). Converters and DC l i n e s of various configuration havebeenadded t o a 500 bus A C model, Tolerances of l e s s than 5 MW and 5 WARS mismatch perbushave It has beenfound that been easilyobtained. the addition of the DC e q u a t i o n s d i r e c t l y i n to the Jacobian of the- Newton power flow d i d notincreasethe number of i t e r a t i o n s needed f o r convergence of the A C system alone. For i l l u s t r a t i o n p u r p o s e s o n l y , t h e s y s tem i n Fig. 4 i s o f f e r e d a s a n exampleof the I methods described in this paper. Table contains the input values. It should be noted t h a t t h i s i s a m u l t i p l el i n k DC network t i e d i n t o a l a r g e A C system.
A diagram of the Jacobian representing the portion of the network shown i n Fig. i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix 1 1 1 .

5.

6.

J. J. Vithayathil, "Digital Simulation of DC systems f o r LoadllFlow a n d Transien St a b i l i t Sy tudies unpublished notes

7.

A . Gavrilovic

a n d D. G. Taylor, "The Calculation of the Regulation Characteri s t i c s of D-C Transmission Systems", PAS-Vol. 83, pp. 215-223, March 1964

8.

G. D. Brever, J. G. Luini, and D. C. Young, "Studies of Large AC/DC Systems on t hD e igital Computer" PAS-Vol. 85, pp. 1107-1116, November 1966

9.

W.

CONCLUSIONS
A suitable choice of a p e ru n i t system DC components permits including the for the DC equations with the AC e q u a t i o n i sn the s o l u t i o n ofa Netwon power f l o w .

L. Powell,unpublishednotesdescribing Bonneville Power's implementation of DC i n t o t h e i r power flow

1 0 . C. Adamson and N. Hingorani,

High Voltage .Direct Current Power Transmission, London, Garraway Limited, l g b o

The modelling of DC elements may include multiple two t e r m i n a ll i n e s or a DC network The model cora s a p a r t of the A C network. rectly represents both the positive andnegat i v e p o l e s and separate neutral conductor for a l l DC l i n e s . There i s no degradation of the convergence p r o p e r t i e s of t h e Newton method a s t h e solutions of the DC and A C equationsare obtained simultaneously rather than sequentiall Y* Some a d d i t i o n a l . work must be done. Minor refinements'involveinclusion of converter transformer resistance and converter i l l be r e a r c drop.Considerably more work W DC converter model q u i r e dt oi n c o r p m a t et h e and the associated equations developed in this paper into the fault study and t r a n s i e n t s t a b i l i t y programs.
REFERENCES

1 2 . L. Neiman, S . Glinternik, A . Emel'yanow, and V. Novitskii, D-C Transmission i n

bv - v

Power Systems, t r a n s l a t e d from Russian I Trans- s r a e l Program f o r S c i e n t i f i c lations, Jerusalem, 1967.

13. A . G . Phadke and J . H. Hylow, "Unbalanc, PAS-Vol. 85, ed Converter Operation pp. 233-239, March 1966
APPENDIX I:

LIST O F S Y M B O L S

B. Skoglund, and R. A . 1. J. L. Whys;ong, Naata, Comparison High of Capacity A C and DC undergroundTransmissionfor Com-

'dc ,'de
Vd
Id

Idc

vb
2.
W . F. Tinney and

Solution PAS-Vol. 86, pp. 1449-1460, November 1967

J.

. E. Hart, by Newton's Method",

C

"Power Flow

V n
Xt T

3.

B r i t t o n , "Improved Area Interchangt Control for Newton's Method Load Flows , PAS-Vol. 1577-1581, pp. 88, October 1969
P.

Complex A C power, voltage and current A C voltagemagnitude,1-g,peak of Vac, A C voltage magnitude, 1-1, rms of Vac, Active and r e a c t i v e components of A C current flowing into conv e r t e r , rms DC power, voltage and current DC voltage developed across converter DC current flowing in converter DC cvoltage a t "high" side of converter DC v o l t a g e a t " n e u t r a l " s i d e of converter Transformerreactance Transformertapratio Ratio of A C and DC p eu rnit DC s i d e of the voltage a tt h e transformer within the converter Number of b r i d g e si nc o n v e r t e r Firing angle of converter

ao

Y
60

Bac j Bdc j
pb

Pn

Commutation converter of angle Minimm e x t ia nn cg t ilo en A C bus DC bus DC power going i n ct oo n v e ra te tr non-neutral DC bus DC power g o i n co g to n v e ra tt er n e u t r a l DC bus complex conjugate

The v a r i a b l e associated with this equation i s the firing angle, U The p a r t i a l s required are given below.

-b Pac = - 2 C B ba
bPac by

2 5S l ~ 2 ( U + Y ) ]

APPENDIX 11: DC EQUATIONS I N THE JACOBIAN When t h ef i r i n g and commutation angles rrv earied to . maintain of t h e c o n v e r t ea a constant DC c u r r e n t , or AC Watts, equations in addition to the normal bus power equations are introduced into the Jacobian. w i l l depend on Although the equations used thetypeofcontrol,the same types of equat i o n s w i l l beused f o r eachtypeofcontrol. The equationsthemselvesandthe'appropriate p a r t i a l s a r e g i v e n below.
1) Converter maintaining constant

5 h bT

2 P

Section 4 of Appendix I1 presentsthe equat i o n u s e d t o govern the relationship between the f i r i n g and commutation angles a tt h i s converter. Converter maintaining constant DC voltage, vb The implementation of t h i s type of control d i f f e r s somewhat from theprevious two des1 and 2 of Appendix 11. c r i b e di ns e c t i o n s Normally, an equation i s w r i t t e n f o r each DC bus t h a t sums the power around i t , c P d c f o . The v a r i a b l e associated with t h i s equation i s the voltage, vdc. when the converter cont r o l s t h e DC voltage, vb i s no longer variable. Since the power around t h i s bus must still s u m to z e r ot ,h e power equation remains the same b u t h e variable associated with i t now becomes t h e f i r i n g a n g l e of the t h i s equation converter, The p a r t i a l f so r 6 and 7 of aredescribedfurtherinSections Appendix 11. Section 4 of Appendix I1 presentsthe equat i o n used t o govern the relationship between the f i r i n g and commutation angles a tt h i s converter.

3)

DC

current. Using equation

1

The v a r i a b l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s e q u a t i o n is the firing angle, a . The p a r t i a l r se q u i r e d are given below.

4 ) Relationshipbetweenthefiringand
commutation anglesof Appendix I1 presentsthe equaSection 4 of t i o n used t o governtherelationshipbetween thf ei r i n g and commutation angles a t h i s converter.
2)

a converter.

Converter maintaining constant watts

:

AC

Whenever t h e firing angle i s changed, the i l l a l s o change. Neither commutation angle w of the other. Since angle i s independent the number of variables must equal the number of equations, an equation must be obtainedtogoverntherelationship between t h e f i r i n g andcommutation angle, Using equations 2 and 3,

Define the following variables

X=

cos(2a)

COS[Z(U+Y)]

Vb = ata=O

B=

sin(2a)

sin[2(u+y)]

v;,
Using t h e variablej su sd t efined tion 6
Pa,
=

m
2nKT

[coe(a) + cos(a+Y)]

v ,

2nKT

[l + cos(yo)]

+ vn

and equaor

81

where

The p a r t i a l s a r e g i v e n

6a
by

- sin(a) - sin(a+y) = - sin(a+y)

=

below.

normally vdc. When a DC bus i s connected t o the power equationforthe another DC bus, DC l i n e and t ha ep p r o p r i a tp e a r t i a la sr e presented i n Section 7 ofAppendix 11. Equat i o n s a r e a l s o needed t o c a l c u l a t e t h e power flowing into the converter from t h e DC bus. % i s given i n ~ q . 8. using equations 2 , 3 , 8, 9, 1 0 i t i s e a s i l y shown t h a t
Pb = -Pac

-n '

The equation f o r I d may a l s o be used to o b t a i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h fe iring and commutation angle I th f . is done, thefollowingequation i s obtained:
COS(^)

The p a r t i a l s f o r Pac a r eg i v e ni nS e c t i o n 2 of Appendix 1 1 . The p a r t i a l f so r Pn a r e % can be given below. The p a r t i a l f so r for Pa, obtained by combining t h ep a r t i a l s and Pn.

cos(a+y) +

COS(^,)

where

COS(Y0) =

- 6TX& KE

+l

Notice t h atthp ea r t i a l s of t h ie sq u a t i o n a, y d i f f eo r nly by conwith r e s p e ctto s t a n t from t hr ee s p e c t i vp ea r t i a l s of I d . This means t h a ti nt h et r i a n g u l a r i z a t i o n of w i l l become the Jacobian, one diagonal term w i l l not zero and the standard algorithm work. Since the usage of the voltage equat i o nt od e r i v et h er e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e yti e ltd h id si s a s t r o u s two angles d i d n o result, i t was chosen. Upon convergence, the same r e s u l t . both methods w i l l give

7)

Power equationfor

DC l i n e s

5)

Transformer equation associated each converter.

with

The e q u a t i o n thai ts used is obtained equations 2 and 3.

from

s= S l E
2nKT

coos(a) + oos(a+y)] + vn

- vb

The v a r i a b l e a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s e q u a t i o n i s T, of t h ec o n v e r t e rt r a n s f o r t h et a pr a t i o , mer. The p a r t i a l sa r eg i v e n below.

Note that i f DC busesareassigned a magnia n d DC l i n e s a reactance tudeandzeroangle of zero and a linechargingvalue of zero, A C l i n e power equations then the standard w i l l compress t o t h o s e g i v e n above.

8 ) Power

equations for converter terminal buses.

AC

A C bus

Two equationsarenormallywrittenforeach that sum the watts and vars around that bus. The variables associated with these equations are normally the voltage magnitude and angle. Equations a r e needed tc oa l c u l a tte he power flowing into the bus. The converter from t h e A C terminal paC a r e given in Section 2 equations for of Appendix 11. The equation for &ac i s given below. Note t h a t Pac and kc a r e of t h e A C bus. not dependent on the angle
2 of

Using t h ev a r i a b l e sd e f i n e di nS e c t i o n Appendix I1 andEquation 7

6 ) Power

equations terminal buses,

for

converter

DC
DC

Q , ,

(2Y +

An equation i s normallywrittenforeach bus t h a t sums t h e power around that bus. with t h ie sq u a t i o i ns v a r i a b la es s o c i a t e d

The
82

The

necessary
bQao ba

partials

are

given below,

2FX

At the time of this writing, the best way to maintain converter control and simultaneously maintain a minimum extinction angle has not been determined. Two possible methods are currently under study: a) Set up the converter to maintain a desiredvoltage,anddynamically (between iterations) change the voltage. This will force T, a ? y to vary and perhaps the minlmum extinction angle can be obtained. Even if this method works, it is neither desirable nor computationally efficient.
b)

9)

Convertercontrolwhilemaintaining minimum extinction angle,

When operating at minimum extinction angle, thefollowingrelationshipmust be maintained :

Include specifically this relationship into the equation associated with the'transformerratio.One possibility is

ha
A7 A a AY Aa AY A a AY

c5 c5 C1
c2

A a AY

Id

AU
AY

AT AT

c3 c4 c5 c5
3ac~
3ac~
%c3

AT AT
AT AT
Ab

A E/E A6 A E/E Ab A E/E

Ab

3x4
3ac5
Bdcl

A E/E Ab

Bdc2 3dc5 Bdc6

3dc8 3dc9 adc 1 1

m
A

v/v
v/v

rn
LP

m A V/v m Fig. 5 Jacobian of Sample AC-DC System

a3

If t h i so p t i o n works, and t h e r e is no apparentreason why i t w i l l not, i l l be a verydesirable t h e nt h i s w and e f f i c i e n t method. APPENDIX I 1 1

Figure 5 shows a diagram of theJacobian For purf o r t h e AC-DC system i n Figure 4. poses Of t h i s . diagram Vac = 1EI-&, V = Vdc, AP a n d a Q represent he watt and var mismatch a t a bus. The equations for R and S are given i n Sections 4 and 5 of Appendix 1 1 . Those positions occupied by . a n X i n d i c a t e that ;the a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t i a l must be c a l c u l a t e d andplaced i nt h a tl o c a t i o n . The c o n v e r t e r o r bus t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n i s writt e nf o ri si n d i c a t e d on t h e l e f t hand s i d e of t h e c h a r t , and t h e v a r i a b l e s on t h e r i g h t hand side correspond to the same converter or bus.

Using the equations of Reference 8 for a two terminal Dc line, our results are given in Figure 2 in parentheses where different from those in the paper. It should be noted that our solution requires specification of 7 , the inverter margin angle, and the inverter power and voltage. The LTC transformer adjusts the commutation voltage to achieve the requiredinverterconditions. The rectifierconditions are calculated frominverterconditionsandtheIRdrop with adjustments of its commutation voltage to amve at the required delay angle, a. The derivation in appendix 114, although yielding essentially correct results for a R / h and aR/&y, appears to warrant some clarification. The DC voltages for a = a and a = 0 cannot be equated unless the effective commutation voltage E/T is allowed to vary (since the commutation angle is a dependentvariable). This implies that lowering u to zero will increase the DC voltage unless the tap ratiois used to reduce the effective commutation voltage and thereby theDC voltage to maintainVb=Vb. 'IhusforVb=Vb E E '

r {cos a + cos (a + y) 1 =
E
a

11 +

cos y

and
R = $cos

cos (a

+ y))-

E ' T

{1

cos y

1- 0

The partials are now

Discussion
Carl E . G m a d , k e y H. Happ, andRay V. Pohl (General Electric Company, Schenectady, N.Y.): 'Ihe authorshave made a major contribution to the solution of system powerf l o w by formulating the solution of general AC/Dcnetworks in theform of the Newton power flow. Our review has resulted in the following comments and questions. As an independent check on the validity of the solution we have set up the two terminalDC line between convertersC3 and C4 of Figure 4, setting Vn to zero at both converters. To achieve consistent results we had to resolve a few differences in conventions. For three-phase power systems the normalbase voltage is the line-to-line voltage rather t h a n the line-to-neutral voltage used for single phase AC systems.'Iheconventional defintion of angles (Reference 11) is given in Figure 1 with parenthetical values as used in this paper.

Would the authors please comment on the assumptions used for their derivation of R(u,y). We agree with the authors comments on the desirability for W i g able to specify a desired inverter margin angle and adjusting the effective commutation voltage E/T to achieve the desired inverter DC voltage vb. We would recommend operation with margin angles b a t e r than 4), typically about 18 those calculated in the sample system (Figure degrees rather than 13.2 degrees.

ii

G. T. Heydt (Purdue University, West LaFayette, Indiana): The economics of bulk power transmission by underground conductors is increasingly movingin favor of direct current (dc) transmission over conventionalalternatingcurrentcircuits. The dc links augmentthe alternating current network, and electric power flow studies must be expanded to include the high voltage dc converter and the dc network. This paper presents the details of the method to handle dc transmission in electric power flow study techniques. Apparently the authors have had considerable experience in the area, and I would like to take the opportunity to raise a few points and inquire their opinion on certain technical matters. The fixing angle a is generally considered a valve control parameter, but the commutation angle 7 is not usually regarded as an authentic control parameter.The latter is the case since 7 is largely determined by the converter transformer reactance which is clearly not variable. It is

Fig. 1. Relationships for Angles of Rectifier (left) and Inverter (right) Valve Currents
(130.5) 1.012 '37*3
I

Q=

Manuscript received July 28, 1975.

( 136.9)

'37*0 0.990

13.2 (12. I )

T=0.993

c3

477.3 480.6 (480.41

sso.'s

475.8
a4

T = 0.977

=4

(475.6)

(480.61 vb=o.981 Vb'0.971 (0.966) (0.975)

Fig. 2. Comparative Solution Using Reference 8. (Values in parentheses where different)

Manuscript received August 25,1975.

true that a and y are interrelated in a complex fashion (Equs.(1 -10) in the paper), and y maybemade to varybyvarying anode voltage or other valve parameters. Nonetheless, y is not generally a control parameter and this quantity does not always appear in the postmultiplying vector to the Jacobian (Figure 5 of the paper). In order to minimize the required reactive power (Q)to be dispatched at converter busses, the angle 6,
6=Ct+y

must be minimized. Underthiscondition, y appears in thesolution vector. Under other control methods, y may or may not appear in the vector. This point needs t o be clarified since control to effect minimum 6 is not the exclusive form of converter control. On a different topic, the several converter transformers associated with a converter may not have tap changerswhichare tied together (Le., the tap setting on each transformer may be different). How can this feature be incorporated? In the example shown in Figure 4, it is not clear whether the five ac busses are interconnected by adjacent ac transmission. If this is the case, then theac network will contain a single swing bus. Ifthe ac busses are not interconnected to each other by ac transmission, then there will be multiple swingbusses one bus per acisland.Each isolated ac system is unable to transmit phase angle information to other isolated ac islands; therefore each ac system will have its own reference bus. Ihis point is raisedbecause often times dc is used to connecttwo separateac systems (eg.:New Zealand, Northern Manitoba). In these cases, multiple swing busses will typically occur in the ac network. On the same topic, in work with Sheble reported in [A], we did not use a dc swing bus in the dc network. Sheble and Heydt did not investigate multitenninal dc networks, but in the conventional two terminal balanced bipolar case, or the two terminal monopolar case, the dc bus voltages are determined by Equations (1-10) [B] . With this in view, the dc bus voltages are determined by converter firing angles, controls, and acsystem voltages and angles. Whyis a reference bus or swingbus required in the dc network?.I believe that bus Bdc4 is actually a voltage controlled bus (V=O), not a swing bus. Finally, a question on line filters may be of interest. Should line filters be treated as constant impedance loads? Messrs. Braunagel, Kraft and Whysong have done an excellent job in presenting a timely topic. Their conclusions agree with our fmdings that acanddc busses should be intermixed in theJacobianmatrix (rather than iterating alternatelybetween ac and dc solutions)[A]. The authors and their colleagues at the Commonwealth Edison Co. deserve recognition for their forward approach to system design and analysis.

We are presently also developing a Newton power flow program to include the DC representation and we therefore find this paper of.value and interest. In the development of the basic converter equations the parameters Em,E, /El , EL%, y d Vac all appear to refer basically to the same voltage. In dealing with the DC power equations I prefer to relate all equations to the parameter E, unless special conveniences dictate otherwise. E is taken as the rms, line-tdine, magnitude of the commutating voltagereferred to the valveside oftheconvertertransformer. The as the AC base voltage. If my internominal value can also be chosen pretation of the per unit system in the paperis correct the resulting base quantities would be:

VAdcbase Edc base base Idc

= v%c base = EdcbaseIdcbase = &c

base

= base

f l %c base Iac base

K%c K2Eac base

E
K

Iac base

zdc base

flIac base

= K2Zac base

REFERENCES

G . Sheble, G . Heydt, Power How Studies for Systems with HVDC Transmission Proc. Power Industry Computer Applications Conference - New Orleans, La., May, 1975. L. Neiman, S. Glintemik, A. Emelyanow, and V. Novitskii, D-C Transmission in Power Systems, translated from Russian by Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1967.

In the per unit equations (1 ) to (IO) the corresponding current and voltage equations would be multiplied by fl. The power equations remain the same but the complex power equation (4) could be divided by the transformer tap ratio T. The complex AC power and power factor or displacement factor calculatedfromthe basic DC equations are all referred to the commutatingpoint as shownin Figure 1. In this case X, is thetotal commutating reactance to the commutating bus with sinusoidal voltage. In the simple case of a two winding transformer this will usually be the leakage reactance of the converter transformer. The DC equations then include the reactive drop across the transformer and in effect they need not be a part of the AC solution except for the tap ratio. For a three winding transformer, for example, if a synchronous condenser is connected to thetertiarythesolution becomes more complex because the condenser and tertiary reactances form a part of the commutating reactance.Also, if the transformer is placed in the AC system as depicted in Figure 3 of the paper it must be ensured that the reactive drop is not accounted fortwice - once in the AC solution, and once more in the DC equations. The interface between the DC and AC solutions is then somewhat confusing. Can the authors comment on how the program handles this situation or if they foresee any difficulties in this respect with the simultaneous type solution?

Xc= 10 A ON VALVE

SI DE 230/127kV
+pV=
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada): At Manitoba Hydro we have been using load flow programs incorporating DC representation for some time since the early installation stages of Nelson River bipole-one. Our present load flow program utilizes a DC subroutine where the DC is solved sequentially or serially to the AC as described in the paperas the usual solution method.
C.

vd=150kV Pd = 270 m w

V. Thio (Manitoba Hydro,

2.7p.u. 9.Z 1.059p.u. h =0.94p.u. SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

Id

1800amps

s= 18

Fig. 3. Simple practical example of DC power flow

X,

Fig. 1. Basic Diagram for Converter Equations

Manuscript received July 14,1975.

a5

E V Xvalve

f-,Q

pv

tertiary

T
A convenient interface between the DC and AC solutions can be established at the valve terminals on the DC side of the commutating reactance as depicted in Figure 1. The complex power and line-tdine voltage magnitude at the valve terminals then completely defines the DC system for the AC solution as shown in Figure 2 as an example. To facilitate this solution the following DC equations are established further to those given in the paper:

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

Fig. 2. Example of AC and DC solution interface

current magnitude. The AC current magnitude corresponds to the case of zero commutation angle and leads to an approximate fundamental power factor sometimes referred to as the displacement factor (references 10 and 11). For the exact fundamental power factor considering the fuing and commutation angles the AC current magnitude should be multiplied by a factor which for most practical cases is very close tounity. It is our experience that the approximate equations are sufficiently accurate for power flow calcualtions and in any case they give a pessimistic var requirement for the converters.

cos $ =

[ c o s a + c o s (a+?)] =

3d7E

(displacement factor)

E,

= I E COS $ f j (E sin $

+ rectifier - f i X, IIacl)l inverter

Using the base quantities given above the corresponding per unit equations are :

cos $

K T n vdp.u. =-

Ep.u.

Qvp.u.

= vdp.u.

k l p.u.

tan $

IIacp.u.l

&pa.

The per unit equations were applied to the example shown in Figure 3. The base quantities are: VAbase K &p.u,
= 100 MVA; Eacbase = 450/127 = l o x 100/1272 = 0.062

simple practical

= 127 kV; E& b e = 450kV

The example exercise clarifies that the per unit system chosen in the paper is indeed quite convenient. The equations given above and those in the paper contain assumptions relative to the power factor of the converters and the AC
86

J. Reeve, C. Fahmy and, B. Stott (University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada): Being actively engaged in formulating comprehensive ac/dc load flow programs which ammodate a multiterminal dc network,we have particular interest in the paper. It is evident that there is not a unique method of either interfacing the ac and dc system analytically or incorporating the control and operating constraints imposed on the dc system. Formultiterminal HVdc systemrepresentation,theextent to which the possible steadystate control strategies [ 141 must be accomodated is crucial, and this aspect is the least developed in the paper. The difficulties in implementing preferred inverter modes are illustrated described in Appendix 11, section 9, and yet the sample study in Fig. 4 purports to representvoltage control in Converters 2 and 4. At the same time, the respective delay and extinction angles are approximately the same as for converter 6on current control. This is unreasonable for practical purposes. (Thesameillustration, unless we misunderstand it, appears to provide a power flow of 9.8 p.u. in dc line 6 between 2 dc buses having the same voltage to ground). The concept of one dc terminal providing voltage control is part of a well established philosophy for a parallel multiterminal system [ 151. In general, thetransformertappositionsmust be constrainedand provision must be made for modifying the control strategy between iterations if a tap limit is reached. There is no indication in the paper that these features are included in the authors program.If so, how are they computationally realized? Can the authors clarify the criteria they have usedfor tap-changing at both voltage or current bower) controlling terminals, in relationtopreferredsystemoperation as opposed to providing a feasible interface between the ac and dc systems? The direct inclusion of the dc system into a combined Newton ac/dc load flow solution has certain attractions,as in the case of simpler controlled transmission devices, and is consistent with previous directions of load flow program development at Commonwealth Edison [3], [4]. The combined Newton ac/dc solution was successfully applied i n k s in [ 161 ,having greater flexibility for specifyfor two-terminal dc l ing nonstandard control schemes and fully representing control action i m i t s are reached. The main price paid for when the various operating l these additional features was extra complicated sparsity programming to cater for structural changes in the Jacobian matrix, which can include zero-valued diagonal elements with certain control modes. Our experiencewithtwo-terminalandmultiterminalsolutions, including nonstandard controls and onerous operating conditions, supports the authors fmdings that the Newton process converges reliably and rapidly in this application. In spite of this, we seriously
Manuscript received August 15, 1975.

questionwhetherthecombined Newton ac/dc approach is themost promising for more detailed modeling of the dc system and its controls. Whenever the number of load flow iterations is not minimal, there is scope for conductingseparatealternatesolutions oftheacanddc systems without penalizing the total computing time, compared with ordinary ac solutions. Good interface techniques are available to promote rapid and reliable mutual convergence of theacand dc equations. In the Newton load flow solution of practical large power systems, limits on various quantities will always tend to make the total number of iterations significantly more than the 3 - 5 often quoted. be In the separatesolution dc program can approach, the advanced features whose with more developed independently and representation would be detrimental to thesimplicity and efficiency of the papers combinedscheme. As anadd on facility,suchadc program requires no essential modification to any existing ac program. is not restricted to Newtons Thus the choice of ac load flow method the use of the fast decoupled method, for instance, offers substantial overallsavings [ 171, [ 181.It would be very helpful t o knowthe the typical number of iterations for large power systems with generator VAR limits, LTC transformer limits, etc. using the authors load flow program. The dc system equations in the paper could have been formulated in alternative ways. The use of overlap angte as a variable, extensive use of trigonometric functions, and nonlinear dc network equations can be avoided in theinterestsofanalyticalsimplicityandcomputational efficiency. Finally,can we assume that the authors have accomodated the shunt capacitance aspects of W d c conversion on the converter ac bus?

REFERENCES K.W. Kanngiesser, J.P. Bowles, A Ekstrom, J. Reeve and E. Rumpf, HVdc multiterminal systems, CIGRE, 1448, Paris, August 1974. J. Reeve andJ. Carr, Review of techniquesfor HVdc multiterminal system, IEE Int. Conf. Publication, HV AC/DC Transmission, London, Dec. 1973. B. Stott, Load flows for aC and integrated ac/dc systems, Fh.D. Thesis, University of Manchester, 1971. B. Stott and 0. Alsac,Fast decoupled loadflow, IEEETrans. Power App. Syst.,vol.PAS-93, pp.859-867,May/June1974. A.M. Sasson, W. Snyder and M. Flam, and separately R.D. Masiello and B.F.Wollenberg,Comments on Review of load flow methods, IEEE Roc., pp. 712-714,April 1975.

H.L. Forgey and J.D. Osborn (ConsumersPower Company, Jackson, Michigan):The authors are to be commendedforincorporatingthe method of representing HVDC systems described in this technical paper into the large modem load flow program which has been developed in their Company. Representation of HVDC systems instead of a limited number of DC tie lines in working load flow programs is of great value because of the economic alternative offered to the future expansion of power systems through theuse of HVDC facilities. received help fromCommonWe have recentlydeveloped,and wealth Edison in this effort, aHVDC tie line representation for the load flow program which is presently being used by our Company. We have added to this tie line representation the ability to represent converter transformer resistances which the authors indicate are yet to be added to the representation discussed in this paper. viewpoint, it is very possible that any Fromasystemplanning planned HVDC system would be connected to AC EHV systems (for example, 345,500 and 765 kV) made up of transmission lines which are of significant length. Since the present practice is to non-transpose transmission lines in theseEHV ACsystems, it is possible that significant voltage and power unbdances between phases would occur. Presently, a considerable amount of investigation is being carriedout on &@tal three phase representations of AC systems in order to adequately study these unbalances. It wouldbe appreciated if theauthors would give their opinion on the need to include this DC system representation in a three phaseloadflowprogram inorder to adequately simulate expected system performance. As notedin the conclusions, it appears that Commonwealth W o n is planning additionalwork forfuture incorporation ofthis HvDC system representation intoother programs in use in their Company as well as adding refmements such as converter transformer resistance and converter arc voltage drop. The indication of plans for these future developments is encouraging and we would like to ask the authors to briefly discuss an expected time schedule for the inclusion of these developments into the various programs mentioned and to state any Plans forthe preparationofcompanion papers describing this additional work. Manuscript received July 28,1975.

L. Carfsson (ASEA Ludvika, Sweden): This is a very interesting paper, which presents an elegant method of includingHVDC transmission in a load-flow program. The authors have used a sound approach inmaking a simultaneous solution of theAC and the DC equations. The most interesting aspect of the program seems to be its ability arbitrary network of treating multi-terminal HVDC schemes with topology. To the discussors knowledge this is the first time that such a feature has been described. It would be very interesting to know if any work is going on conceming a similar inclusion of multi-terminal HVDCscheme models into a transient stability program.
Manuscript received July28,1975.

Ku and D. R. Nevius (Public ServiceElectric & G a s Comuanv Newark, N.J.): The authors should be commended for their innovkve approach to incorporating a more exact simulation of DC transmission in the AC load flow program. Since flows on point-to-point DC ties are normally fixed for specified steadystate system conditions, there does not appear to be an overwhelming need for using such a sophisticated program in comparison with the application of the simple block-loading method of representingDC ties in AC load flow. However, if the evaluation of a DC network is required, a more sophisticated simulation of AC and DC flow interactions appearsdesirable. For transient stability and short circuit studies, a more rigorous representation of DC transmission would be highly desirable for pointto-point DC ties as well as DC networks. We assume that in order to incorporate a more accurate simulation of DC transmission in studying transientand dynamic system conditions, it would be necessary to provide such a feature in the load flow program as the first step. We would like to encourage the authors to continue their successful efforts and expand their work into the area of incorporating the DC simulation in the transient stability and short circuit programs. Perhaps it would also be desirable to incorporate the automatic DC control functions with respect to the specified AC requirements in both the load flow and transientstability programs. The authorsindicate that the inclusion of DC equations in the Newton Power flow does not increase the number of iterations needed for the convergence. If so, would there be a significant increase in the timerequiredforeachiteration?Theauthorscomments wohd be appreciated.
Manuscriut received A w t 4.1975.
87

D.A. Braunagel, L.A. Kraft and J.L. Whysong: Theinformationand questions presented by the dicusson are very welcome additions to the paper, and are much appreciated by the authors. Our closing remarks will generally follow the same order as the items are mentioned in the discussions. We agree thatthereshould be somestandarizednotationfor converters. Unfortunately, the notation in Reference 11 is not the only notation available. We have kept identical notation for both rectifiers and inverters to eliminate the problems associated with maintaining and programming two sets of equations. In our equations the AC base voltage w a s assumed to be the lineto-ground voltage. However, to conform to common usage, the voltage ratio, K, is input using the line-to-line AC voltage. The program then immediately multiplies K by fl In our scheme, only the inverter current, power, or terminal DC voltage can be maintained while holding fixed the inverter extinction (margin)angle.If the terminal DC voltageisheld constant by the inverter, then the desired power or current must be specifiedby the
Manuscript received September 18, 1975.

rectifier. This differs somewhat from the General Electric AC/DC program. We are verypleased thatthesolution by the General Electric our sample system(Fig. 4) yielded essentially AC/DC programof part of thesame results.However, the voltagedevelopedacross Q is -.974 (pu), rather than -.966. From the discussers comments, we are led to believe that the solved tap ratios at C3 and C4, and the commutation angle at C3, did not differ significantly from the values presented in Fig. 4. The method of obtaining the equation governing the relationship between the firing and commutation angle (Appendix 11-4) is a common used mathematicaltechnique to defmearelationshipbetween two variableswhen there is only one relevant equation. This technique is presented inReference 10, p. 30. However, for the reasons given in Appendix 11-4, we chose touse thevoltage equation.Upon convergence, using eitherthe voltage orcurrentequation will resultinidentical relationships between the firing and commutation angles. The method presented by Grund, Happ, and Pohl requires the calculation of E , T, cos (70) and Sy/Ga, and we are not sure how thiswould be accomplished. Since the equation defining R is an attempt to specify the relationship between the two angles, thepartial derivativesof this equation should not contain a 6y/Ga term. While the commutation angle is not an actual control parameter, it is nevertheless a variable. Since the commutation angle has a definite l i relationship to the firing angle, which does change, the two angles w always appear in the vector post-multiplyingthe Jacobian. Themulti-bridgemodelused cannotaccount forthesituation where thetransformers in a multi-bridge configuration might have different tap settin@, If it were necessary to study this situation, each bridge could be modelled separately with the appropriate connection of the DC terminals. The five AC buses shown in our test system are all part of a large network requiring only one AC swingbus.However, the program is capable of considering several AC islands, providing each has its own swing bus. DC buses 4 and 10 are swing buses with voltage magnitudes of zero. At least one bus in each separate neutral network should be grounded. The voltage at a swing bus is a defined rather than a controlled quantity. Since the voltage at a ground bus is a defined quantity and since there is no controlby either theAC or DC systems t o hold the voltage of a ground bus to the prescribed value, the labelling of these groundbusesasswingbuses with V = 0 is aconvenientmethod of maintaining a reference neutral voltage. We do not have any experience with line filters and do not feel that we can make any judgements regarding their modelling in a power flow. In the model we use, the AC/DC interface occurs at the converter AC terminal bus. Mr. Thio assumes his interface to be at the valve side of the converter transformer. Moreover, in his per unit systemhe chose as a base the line-to-line AC voltage. We do not agree with his assertion that ourequations contain assumptions regarding the AC current magnitude and the power factor of the converter. Mr. Thios equations, however, do _makethese assumptions. Our modelling of three winding convertertransformers differs from that of the Westinghouse AC/DC program. Both models represent the high side and tertiary winding in the AC system. However, Westinghouse has the tap changer on the high side, whereas we have it on the low side. Our arrangement does introduce some error because the tap is actually on the high side, but we believe that this error will be small compared to those introduced by some of the otherassumptions associated with the converter model. In order to adjust the tap in the solution process, Westinghouse must include it in the AC/DC interface. Thus using a Thevenin equivalent of the high side and tertiary windings, a new commutating voltage andreactance is calculated. Since our scheme has the tapchanger on the low sidewinding, this extra computation is not required. We are aware of the fact that the impedance of the low side winding in the T model of a three winding transformer is often very close to zero. At the present time we dont know how this problem can be resolved.

W e agree that -a converter model for use in a power flow must be capable ofrepresenting the various steady statecontrol strategies. At the time the paper was written, the methodology for maintaining a minimum extinction angle at an inverter was not fully established. The scheme proposed in Appendix 11-9-b was eventually adopted, with one minor modification. Because of the small values involved when angles are expressed in radians, the program would converge without achieving the required accuracy. Therefore, the equation in Appendix 11-9-b was changed as follows:

n For inverters maintaining aminimum extinction angle, the equationsi Apkndix 11-5 should be modified appropriately. In Fig. 4, the voltage at DC buses 8 and 2 appear to be the same only because they are printed t o three significant figures. More accurately, the voltage differencebetween buses 8 and 2 is .00020, resulting in a flowon Lg of 9.8025 MW. Our program allows for many types of control for eachconverter. We could devise no general and workable algorithm for changing control strategies that would be appropriatefor DC networks when some converter parameter limits are reached in the iteration process. When firing or commutation angie limits are reached, they are merely reset at thelimitand processing continues.There are no tap limitsforthe transformer. With the voltage, power and current effectively specified for each converter, the program will determine the required transformer ratio. If the tap differs by more than 5% from unity, the user is warned appropriately. We believe that an unsatisfactory solution is better than none. We do not modify any user data to amveat a preferred system operation. T h e model and methods presented in the paper will never result in zeroelements on the maindiagonal. The diagonal elements forthe five AC converter terminal buses do contain some zeroes (Fig. 5 ) . However, since these buses are connected to other AC buses, these diagonal terms will be added to other non-zero diagonal terms. Our Ac power flow converges in 3-10 iterations, with an average of 5-6. These numbers are typical of all production and test models, including a test model of nearly 10,000 buses. The AC/JX test system used for this papercontainedabout 600 buses and converged t o a tolerance of .5 MW and 5 MVAR in 4 iterations. We can not determine precisely the additional time required for each iteration resulting from the inclusion of DC into the AC model. Our sample DC system had a total of 17 converters and DC buses. The increase in time required is no more than would be normally required by the addition of 17 AC buses to the same model. We agree that the converter equations could have been formulated differently, However, we did not value analytical simplicity and computational efficiency enough to eliminate trigonometric functions and non-linear networkequations. It appeared that some severe and unnecessary assumptions would be necessary if this were done. Any shunt capacitance associated with the filtering of harmonics is connected to the converter terminal AC bus. We have assumed that the entire AC system has balanced voltages and currents. If this is not true, thena three phase representation would be required ofboth theAC system and the converters. Depending on the purpose of the study and view in of some of the other assumptions made in the convertermodel,theadditionalcomplexity of the converter model and the equations may not be justified. We did not consider converter transformerresistance and arc drop. These refinements could be include later. The expansion of our model to include dynamic and transient effects will require substantial effort in boththe engineering andmathematics involved. Regretfully,the publication of this paper completes this phase of our work on the DC Power Flow Program. We do not anticipate doing any work on a DC in the near future. Fault Study or Transient Stability program

88