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3. 4. 5.
THEORY: SUPERPOSITION THEOREM STATEMENT In any linear bilateral network containing two or more energy sources the response at any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by the individual sources. i.e. While considering the effect of individual sources, the other ideal voltage sources and ideal current sources in the network are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across the terminals. This theorem is valid only for linear systems. RECIPROCITY THEOREM STATEMENT In any linear bilateral network containing the response at any branch (or) transformation ratio is same even after interchanging the sources is V/ I1 = V/ I2 THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
RECIPROCITY THEOREM: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (1). 2. Note down the ammeter reading as I1.. 3. Now interchange the source and ammeter as in fig (2). 4. Note down the ammeter reading as I2.. 5. Now verify that Vs/ I1 = Vs/ I2 theoretically and practically which proves reciprocity theorem.
R1
IX + VS1 A
+ _
R3
+ _ VS2
R2
Fig-1
R1
IY + VS1 A
+ _
R3
R1
IZ A
+ _
R3
+ _ VS2
R2 R2
Fig-2
Fig-3
R1
I1 + VS A
+ _
R3
+ I2 A _
R1
VS
R3
R2
R2
Fig-1
Fig-2
When both the sources are acting: fig (1) Theoretical VS1 VS2 IX IX Practical
When V1 source alone is acting: fig (2) Theoretical VS1 VS2 IY IY Practical
When V2 source alone is acting: fig (3) Theoretical VS1 VS2 IZ IZ Practical
TABULAR COLUMN OF RECIPROCITY THEOREM: Before interchanging the sources: fig (1) Theoretical values Vs I1 Vs/ I1 Practical values I1 Vs/ I1
After interchanging the sources: fig (2) Theoretical values Vs I2 Vs/ I2 Practical values I2 Vs/ I2
RESULT:
3.
Rheostats
4. 5. 6. 6.
DC Power Supply Multimeter Double Pole Double Throw Switch Connecting wires Digital as per need
THEORY: THEOREM STATEMENT It states that the maximum power is transferred from the source to the load, when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
1. Make the connections as shown in fig (1). 2. By varying RL in steps, note down the reading of ammeter IL in each step.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (2), measure the effective resistance Rth. with the help of digital multimeter. 4. Calculate power delivered to load PL in each step. 5. Draw a graph PL Vs RL and find the RL corresponding to maximum power from it. 6. Verify that RL corresponding to maximum power from the graph is equal to the Rth (which is nothing but source resistance RS).
MODEL GRAPH:
PL Pm
o RL corresponding to Pm
RL
R1
+
R1
VS
RL R2 R2
Rth
DMM
Fig-1
Fig-2
IL
+
R1 DMM R2
RL
VS
_
Fig-3 IL
+
R1
To measure RL
DMM R2
RL
VS
_
Fig-4
To measure IL
Tabular column:
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
RESULT:
Range
Type
Quantity
as per need
R1
R3
+ + VS
R2
A _
IL
RL
Fig-1
R1
R3
+ V
R2
+ VS
Vth _
Fig-2
R1
R3
DMM
Rth
VS= 0
R2
Fig-3
Rth
+ A + Vth RL _ ILI
Fig-4
6. Thevenins theorem can be verified by checking that the currents IL and IL1 are equal.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
THEVENINS THEOREM:
RESULT:
Theory: Open circuit characteristics or magnetization curve is the graph between the generated emf (Eg) and field current (If) of a dc shunt generator. For field current is equal to zero there will be residual voltage of 10 to 12V because of the residual magnetism present in the machine .If this is absent then the machine can not build up voltage. To obtain residual magnetism the machine is separately excited by a dc source. We can get critical field resistance (RC) and critical speed (NC) from OCC. Critical field resistance: It is the value of field rresistance above which the machine cannot build up emf. Critical speed: It is the speed below which the machine cannot build up emf.
3 point starter F A DPST Switch + + 400/ 1.7A A V A F G AA FF Fuse (0-300)V MC A M AA + (0-2)A MC DC Exciter
DPST Switch
230 V DC Supply
FF
Fuse
If (A)
Average Eg (V)
PQ N rated PR
Result:
Type
MC MC MC MC Wire wound Wire wound
Range
0-250v 0-30V 0-5A 0-2A
Qty
1 1 1 1
400/1.7A 1 1 100/5A
Theory:
DPST Switch
+
230 V DC Supply V (0-250)V MC A
400/ 1.7A
+ (0-2)A A MC
F
M AA FF Fuse
+ A (0-2)A MC
+ M
AA
(0-250)V MC
Fuse
No - Load input = VI L0 =
No - Load Armature current = I L0 I f =
WC =
To Predetermine Efficiency as a Motor:
Motor input = VI L =
Total loss = WC + I a R a = WC + (I L - I f ) 2 R a =
2
Efficiency, =
Generator Output = VI L =
Total loss = WC + I a R a = WC + (I L + I f ) 2 R a =
2
Model Graph:
Output
Output,
Pout = VIL I a = I L + I f
Input,
2
S.No
=
I a Ra
Pin = Pout + WT
WT = WC + I a R a
Efficiency (%),
Pout 100 Pin
Input,
Pin = VIL
Output,
2
S.No
Ia = IL If
I a Ra
Pout = Pin W T
=
WT = WC + Ia Ra
Efficiency (%),
P out 100 Pin
Equipment Voltmeter
Ammeter Ammeter Rheostat Tachometer Connecting wires
Range 0-250V
0-20A
Type M.C.
M.C
Qty 1
1 1 1 1
Theory:
Model graph:
Circuit diagram:
DPST Switch L A A F
+
A (0-2)A MC (0-250)V MC A F M AA FF
400/ 1.7A
S1
S2
230 V DC Supply
Fuse
S.No Pout =
Voltage, V (Volts)
Efficiency (%), =
Pin = VI L
S1 (N-m)
S2
2 NT 60
1- TRANSFORMER Capacity I/P voltage I/P current O/P voltage O/P current Frequency
Apparatus required:
S.No 1 2 3 4
Range 0-150V, 0-75V 0-2A, 0-15A 2A, 150V, 60W, LPF 15A, 50V, 600W, UPF 230V/0-270V
Qty 1, 1 No 1, No 1, 1 No 1 No
1- wire wound
1. Connections are done as per the circuit diagram. 2. Supply is Switched on and rated voltage is applied to the LV side by varying the auto transformer. 3. The readings of Ammeter, Voltmeter & Wattmeter are noted down.
SC Test:
1. Connections are done as per the circuit diagram. 2. Supply is Switched on and rated current is set through the HV winding by varying the auto transformer. 3. The readings of Ammeter, Voltmeter & Wattmeter are noted down.
OC Test
(0-2)A MI 115V
L V C
Circuit Diagram
230V
Ph
DPST
Open Circuit
Circuit Diagram
115V
Ph A
DPST
Short Circuit
V0
I0
W0
VSC
ISC
WSC
Model Calculations:
Cos0 =
W0 = V0 I 0
IW = I 0Cos0 =
Xm =
V0 = Im
I m = I 0 Sin0 =
R0 = V0 = IW
R02 =
Wsc = 2 I sc
Z 02 =
Vsc = I sc
2 2
X 02 = Z 02 R02 =
Efficency =
Where, x = Fraction o f Full loa d current Wi = Iron losss , W sc = Cu loss = (xI 2 ) 2 R02
% Re gulation =
Full
Calculations Table:
P.F
1) The Dimmer stat should be kept at minimum O/P position initially. 2) In OC test, rated voltage should be applied to the Primary of the Transformer. 3) In SC test, the Dimmer stat should be varied up to the rated load current only. 4) The Dimmer stat should be varied slowly & uniformly.
Result:
3 4 5. 6.
Connecting wires
PN Junction Diode: EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Regulated Power Supply DC Ammeter 10mA. DC Voltmeter COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Diodes Resistor Breadboard Connecting wires Zener diode: EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Regulated Power Supply DC Ammeter 30mA DC Voltmeter COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Zener Diodes Resistor Breadboard
FORWARD BIAS: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure 2. Connect the milli ammeter and voltmeter of suitable ranges 3. By vary the power supply voltage gradually in small steps and measure the forward voltage Vf in incremental steps and note the current If at each incremental step of 0.1 voltages. Tabulate the readings. 4. Draw the graph between Vf and If taking Vf on X-axis and If on Y-axis. 5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of the diode REVERSE BIAS: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure 2. Connect the micro ammeter and voltmeter of suitable ranges 3. By vary the power supply voltage gradually in steps and measure the Reverse voltage VR in incremental steps and note the current IR at each incremental step of 1 voltage. Tabulate the readings. 4. Draw the graph between VR and IR taking VR on X-axis and IR on Y- axis. 5. Calculate the reverse resistance of the diode.
Model Graphs:
PN Junction Diode
Zener Diode
PN Junction Diode:
Zener Diode:
RESULT:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. 2.
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure. Use milli ammeters of proper range For input characteristics, first fix the collector - emitter voltage VCE at 5 volts. Now vary base-emitter voltage VBE in steps of 0.1 volts and note down the corresponding emitter current IB.
3. 4. 5.
Repeat the above procedure for collector emitter voltage VCE at 10V, 15V etc. Plot the graph between base-emitter voltage VBE and Base current IB for a constant collector emitter voltage VCE. Find the h parameters :( a) hre: Reverse voltage gain (b) hie : Input impedance
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: 1. For out put characteristics, first fix the Base current IB at 20A.Now vary collector-emitter voltage VCE in steps of 1volts and note down the corresponding collector current IC Repeat the above procedure for Base current IB at 30A, 40A. Plot the graph between collector Emitter voltage V CE and collector current IC for a constant Base current IB.
2. 3.
Model graphs:
V BE IB
CE
= cons tan t
Result:
hie = hfe = hre = hoe =
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
CRO trace) DC Voltmeter 0 20 M hz (Dual 0--30V
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Diodes 2Nos. Resistor (Variable) Breadboard Connecting wires (1N 4007) 10K
THEORY:
dc
8. Remove the load and measure the output DC voltage (DC mode) and calculate the percentage of voltage regulation using the formula: ( ) Percentage regulation = vnoload vload 100 %
noload
9. To measure ratio of rectification, observe the power (DC and AC) using wattmeter across the load. The ratio of rectification is given by Pac/Pdc
With Capacitor: 1. Calculate the value of R by assuming C = 1000 F and f = 50 Hz using the formula = 1/ 4 (3fRC) (assume as 0.002 or any small value) 2. Connect the capacitor across the load resistance and proceed with the above Procedure from steps 1 9 as shown above. Follow the above- mentioned procedure for Full Wave rectifier.
Calculations:
Half wave rectifier:
1. Vrms =
Vavg =
2. ripple factor =
3. 4. 5. 6.
v v
2 rms 2 avg
Efficiency = Percentage efficiency = Peak inverse voltage (PIV) = Vm Form factor = Vrms / Vavg
2v
3. ripple factor =
v v
2 rms 2 avg
Result: