Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Deniza Gashi Jeton Maliqi Marigona Bekteshi Rozafa Kelmendi Valdon Bytyi
May 2013
Contents
1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................4 2. Remittances and gender inequality: literature review............................................................5 3. Kosovo context ................................................................................................................... 8 3.1 Macroeconomic overview ................................................................................................ 8 3.2 Position of women in Kosovo .......................................................................................... 9 3.2.1 Education ................................................................................................................ .11 3.2.2 Employment............................................................................................................. 11 4. Impact of remittances on female headed households in Kosovo......................................112 4.1 Evidence from exisiting literature ................................................................................. .13 4.2 Findings from in-depth interview .................................................................................. .14 5. Conclusion and recommendations..............................................................................................16 References ............................................................................................................................... .17 Appendix: Questions used for in-depth interviews.......................................................................18
1. Introduction
Remittances are recognized by governments and international organizations as an important external source of capital for developing countries with an increasingly socio-economic impact within recipient households and communities. Remittances have been for decades an important financial source supporting wellbeing of Kosovo households. Acknowledging importance of remittances there is a sound literature analysing the impact of remittances though in more general terms rather than focusing on women and girls specifically. There is a growing literature that assesses the impact of remittances on life of females. According to literature remittances can have positive and negative impact. Remittances can influence gender roles within a household, can influence labour force participation of women and their employment. Due to lack of data not all these dimensions can be analysed in the case of Kosovo. However this study is among the first attempts focusing solely on the impact that migration has on female headed households in Kosovo. The objective of this study is to contribute to efforts aimed at maximizing the potential of remittances in Kosovo, through the integration of a gender perspective in the study of the flows, uses and socio-economic impact of remittances within recipient households and communities. The main aim is analyzing the gender dimensions of the sending, use and impact of remittances. Specifically, this research seeks to increase knowledge and understanding through a gender analysis on: The contribution of migrants to the development of Kosovo and the relevance of that contribution to female empowerment; How the migration is affecting gender roles and decision making processes in households and community. To address the above mentioned aims the study has made an extensive use of existing literature on remittances. Due to lack of data in the field few in-depth interviews have been conducted with female headed households that have their husband abroad. Although generalisation from undertaken in-depth interviews cannot be done, it can be used to provide the first insights and also as a pilot for further investigation in the field.
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In other cases, womens position in the family was exacerbated as their duties and responsibilities increased but their decision-making power was limited until their spouses return, or taken over by parents in law. (UNDP, 2009). The level of control over money also differs from one woman to another. Because households are marked by power hierarchies, it is essential to look at who receives, manages and decides on the use of remittances, as well as societal aspects such as womens access to banking services. (IOM, Gender, Migration and Remittances 2010). Remittances help to improve the economic situation of receiving households and are sometimes the only or prime source of income. In addition, remittances act as a social security and safety net for those left behind and for returning migrants. Where women have a high degree of control over the use of remittances, these are usually spent to meet the nutritional, educational and health care needs of household members, especially children (UN-INSTRAW, 2005). Because of this, womens use of remittances has often been considered unproductive, though it can be argued that investment in food, education and health is an important factor in alleviating poverty and thus, for furthering development (Datta et al., 2006). Beyond the household, remittances may be used in the form of collective investments at the community level, for instance, if municipal- or provincial-level diaspora organizations build a community library, secure water supply through infrastructure investment, or provide emergency provisions after a hurricane. These measures essentially fill gaps in public services. As such, they may have particular significance for women who are generally the ones most affected by the absence of these services. However, due to cultural norms, women are often absent from positions of power in diaspora and local associations and hence are excluded from the decision-making process on how to use collective remittances. (IOM Gender, Migration and Remittances 2010) However, where women are direct recipients of remittances, the likelihood of greater economic empowerment and decision-making for themselves and for the household is increased (Debnath and Selim, 2009).
Though remittances may be a factor leading to a renegotiation of womens position in the society, socio-cultural factors such as education, religion and womens political participation play a significant role in determining gender roles. Macroeconomic events, such as the decline in remittances during the economic and financial crisis of 2009, can threaten the sustainability of changes, as they can negatively impact not only household welfare, but also girls enrolment in schools and overall gender equality (Buvinic, 2009). Decision-making among women often increases with education, age and the duration of marriage, if the money is sent by the spouse (Debnath and Selim, 2009). In general, it may be assumed that womens active role as senders and recipients of remittances can act as a catalyst for change in gendered power relations, by improving womens decision-making, economic status and inclusion in the labour market. As senders of remittances, migrant women may acquire a new role as primary provider for the family, whereas women staying behind may assume more responsibility, thereby obtaining more autonomy in managing household resources and taking on traditionally male roles in the community (UN-INSTRAW, 2007).
3. Kosovo context
Although Kosovo has been a source of migrants since the beginning of the 20th century, the exact number of them remains unknown. Recently, the number of Kosovan emigrants residing abroad was estimated to be between 220,000 and 500,000.(UNDP KRS 2012) Migration and remittances have made an enormous contribution to the Kosovan economy since the 1960s. On a household level, they are considered a coping mechanism for the disadvantaged households lacking employment and earning opportunities. (UNDP, 2010). UNDP KRHS 2011 data show that remittances are a major source of income in Kosovo, second only to income from permanent employment. In the post-conflict years, Kosovo has seen some economic progress, which has been mainly fuelled by foreign aid in the form of official development assistance and humanitarian aid. While the international donor assistance for Kosovo has gradually decreased, remittances have been a more constant source of external financing, ranging between 11 and 16% of its GDP. (UNDP KRS 2012)
The particular structure of Kosovos economywith limited financial linkages and a small export basehas implied that, similar to the aftermath of the global crisis in 200809, spillovers from the worsening Eurozone crisis have been less severe than in neighboring countries. In particular, remittances (recorded as transfers in the balance of payments), foreign direct investment (FDI), and other non-debt-creating flows from Kosovars living in Germany and Switzerland are expected to remain relatively stable. However, Kosovos current growth model is unsustainable over the longer term. Increasing private sector activities and investments will become increasingly more critical as engines to generate growth and, in turn, improve job and income perspectives. With per capita GDP estimates of around 2,600, Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe. With 29 (8) percent of its population of 1.8 million1 living on less than 1.61 (1.09) per day (2010 data), povertywhile on a gradually declining trendremains widespread. However, Kosovo has a relatively low Gini index and flat consumption distribution. No significant differences exist between urban and rural poverty, but there are notable regional differences. Extreme poverty is disproportionately high among children, the elderly, households with disabled members, female-headed households, and certain ethnic minority households (especially in the Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian communities). As in many other countries, there is a strong negative correlation between education and poverty. Widespread unemployment and a lack of quality jobs have contributed to poverty and income insecurity. With an estimated unemployment rate of above 40 percent and an employment rate of only 29 percent, Kosovo has the weakest employment record in Europe.2 (World Bank Group in Kosovo- Country Snapshot 2013)
------------------1 The census from April 2011 revealed that the population of Kosovo (even when adding the estimated number of residents in northern Kosovo) is smaller than previously estimated, resulting in higher than previously estimated per capita GDP figures. 2 These figures are based on 2009 data, the quality of which has caused some observers to question the above (un)employment rates.
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3.2.1 Education While education is vital to womens economic empowerment, Kosovos cultural and economic incentives favour male education over female education. For families in dire material situations male education has a higher return on investment, as men generally stay with their parents after marriage while women tend to leave their parents homes to join their husbands households. (CIPE 2012) Kosovos education system does not yet provide its nearly one-half million students with adequate curricula and instruction to produce the skills that the evolving labour market requires. The system needs to improve quality and relevance throughout and address access issues at the secondary and post-secondary levels, where students from the poorest households and women/girls from all income quintiles are underrepresented. However, moving towards universal access to secondary education requires additional efforts to increase the access of girls and women to secondary and post-secondary education and significantly raise enrolment. Similarly, attention needs to be paid to means of raising secondary school enrolment for children from the poorest households, of which only about two-thirds attend schools at that level.(World Bank Group in Kosovo-Country Snapshot13) 3.2.2 Employment Kosovos difficult labor market conditions have been especially severe for youth and women. Estimates suggest that unemployment among 1525-year-olds exceeds 75 percent. At 56 percent, unemployment is very high among Kosovos women. There are also large differences in female/male employment rates, with only 11 (68) percent of working-age women (men) employed.(World Bank Group in Kosovo- Country Snapshot 2013) In Kosovo, marriage and inheritance issues limit womens access to property ownership. By law, men and women should receive equal inheritances, but in reality women either give up their right to property or the parents decide so for them. In marriage, the husband generally owns property, so when a divorce occurs the property stays with him. In turn, without property, women cannot secure the loans necessary to start a business. (CIPE 2012)
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According to KRS 2012, the mean ratio of remittance investments on human capital is the same regardless of whether the decision-maker or household head in Kosovo is a man or a woman.
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According to KRHS 2011, 19% of female household heads in Kosovo have not completed primary education: three times the figure of Kosovan men and almost five times the figure of emigrant women. (UNDP KRS 2012)
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The average education of all Kosovan household heads is 11.3 years, but there are statistically significant differences between heads of recipient and non-recipient households and male and female household heads. Remittance recipients report to have completed 0.4 years less education on average. The average education for women is 9.6 years, 2 years less than men. Interestingly, women from recipient households reported to have completed 0.5 more years of education than their non-recipient counterparts. (UNDP KRS 2012) The differences in education across gender groups by remittance receipt are small yet statistically significant. The average education level of men in non-recipient households (12 years) is 0.3 years higher compared to their counterparts in recipient households (11.7 years). The average education level of non-recipient women (10.9 years) is only a fraction higher compared to their recipient counterparts (10.8 years). (UNDP KRS 2012)
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Most of women dont choose to go beyond the simple day-to-day management of the money and most of remittances received are spent on consumption and children education. Regarding to the approach towards financing children based on gender, female household declare that they aim to provide same opportunities to their sons and daughters. "I have always treated my children equally. My greatest wish is that my children complete their studies, therefore I help them with their homework ". (Interview, Drenas, 29/04/2013) In all this, we see the impact of remittances on the possibility of participation, influence and empowerment of women in the family and society, through her further education and improvement of her position. Kosovo Remittance Study of UNDP found that the proportion of households receiving remittances is higher among households that are headed by female. While the findings of the UNDP report for 2012, show a growing trend of remittances received by female households. In this report are presented in percentage remittances received by employed and unemployed women, where a worrying fact remains the number of women not seeking employment even though in the past years the number of female job seekers has increased.
Figure 2. Percentage of employed household heads, by gender and receipt of remittances Figure 3. Percentage of unemployed household heads, by gender and receipt of remittances
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References
Buvinic, M. 2009 Emerging Issues: The Gender Perspectives on the Financial Crisis, Written statement to the expert panel of the UN rd Commission on the Status of Women, 53 Session, 213 March 2009, Debnath, P. and N. Selim 2009 Impact of short term male migration on their wives left behind: A case study of Bangladesh, in Gender and Labour Migration in Asia, IOM, 2009, pp. 121151. Datta, K. et al. 2006 Challenging Remittances as the New Development Mantra: Perspectives from Low-paid Migrant Workers in London, http://www.geog.qmul.ac.uk/globalcities/reports/docs/ remittances.pdf CIPE 2012 (Center for International Private Enterprise 2012 ) http://www.cipe.org/blog/2012/04/19/womensempowerment-in-kosovo/#.UYZt2UobBkg) Contesting feminine identities , feminist and Muslim, post-socialist contexts in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, Sarajevo, 2012, Group of authors IOM Gender, migration and remittances (2010) IOM and UN-INSTRAW 2007 Survey on Remittances 2007: Gender Perspectives, Working Books on Migration 24, http://www.oim.org.gt/documents/ Working%20Notebook%20No.%2024.pdf IOM et al. 2007 Gnero y Remesas: Migracin Colombiana del AMCO hacia Espaa, http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pbnAM/cache/ offonce/lang/es?entryId=17065 Law on Gender Equality , Nr. 2004/2, http://assembly-kosova.org/common/docs/ligjet/2004_2_al.pdf Remittance Survey of Household in Kosovo, 2011 UNDP Kosovo Remittance Study 2010 UNDP Kosovo Remittance Study 2011 UNDP Kosovo Remittance Study 2012 UN-INSTRAW 2005 Crossing Borders: Remittances, Gender and Development, http://www.un-instraw.org/en/publications/conceptualframework/crossing-borders-gender-remittances-and-development/download.html 2006 GENDER, MIGRATION, REMITTANCES AND DEVELOPMENT 2007 Remittances, Working Paper 4, 2007, http://www.un-instraw.org/en/publications/working-papers/working-paper-4remittances/download.html World Bank Group in Kosovo- Country Snapshot 2013
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Age: ______ Place of birth (Municipality): _________________ Place of residence: 1. Country 2. Town
Highest education degree____________ Employment status: Employed; Unemployed and looking for job; Unemployed and not looking for job. How many children do you have: How many daughters? _______ How many sons? _______ Number of family members: ________________ Do you live with your husbands family? Who takes the decisions on your family? Did your husbands migration impact on your decision making power? Who holds the money (family budget)? Do you receive remittences and how often: __________ What do you spend your remittances for? Now that your husband is out of the country, has your approach towards financing your daughters and sons changed in your family ?
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