Intro

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Change of behavior is conformative, where you get people and try to change their behavior. Attraction and intimacy Scientific method It is a science because you follow the scientific method. 1. You make some observations. 2. Formulate a hypothesis about what you have observe 3. Test the hypothesis by making further observations Then formulate more hypothesis and test them, repeat many times, this is called replication. Human mind is very complex. Relationships Everything has a relationship. Variables are attributes or characteristics of individuals which vary. We usually measure these things into numbers. Measurement is the process of assigning 2 things according to certain rules. Scales are sometimes used to measure. What constitutes a good measure is understanding the difference between your score on a scale, and your actual score on the test. GSR Galvanic skin response, used to measure arousal level. People get aroused and release sweat within a second, which is measured via electricity that is conducted through it. Characteristics of good measure: 1. Reliability refers to consistency of measurement. Must have an instrument that gives you the same scores every time. 2. Validity refers to whether it measures what its supposed to measure. Relationship, you cannot have validity without reliability. But you can have reliability without validity. In other words, you can measure the wrong thing. Does the test of the measure behave the way its supposed to.

Correlation DOES imply causation. Weed (A) Cocaine (B) Drug friends (C) 3 things can happen, which all implies caustation. 1. A leads to B 2. B leads to A 3. Friends influence you to do A or B, and A can influence B, or vice versa. Correlation studies are used to find if theres a relationship at all. Correlation vs Correlational Study, they are two very different concepts. Correlation is a statistical mathematical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables. Correlational measure just measures how the two variables track each other. Correlational study does not need to use a correlation. You could use r or t to represent correlation, or use X1 or X2 Experiment Can also use r or t test to measure strength. They key is that YOU manipulate one of the two variables. Thats what makes it an experiment. Between groups vs repeated measures experiments Between groups studies or Post test only experiment randomly assign subjects to the various groups. Group 1. Experimental group sees a film Group 2. Control group -> no film or irrelevant film No pretest film post test No pretest no film post test Compare the attitudes of the groups An intervening variable is bad. What if the subjects were different to begin with? Random assignment is used to eliminate many extraneous variables that may affect the results of the test.

Repeated measures (or protest post test design) or experiment Pretest -> Film -> Post test Youre looking at changes in people before and after the experiment. Going to be on test *Expectancy effect is a significant disadvantage of repeated experiment results Testing effects Power- statistical power. Social desirability Anonymity is key. Evaluation apprehension

Attitudes
Attitudes a pro or con favor towards something.

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Attitudes towards the attitude objects predict future behavior. Metis a descendent who is from an aboriginal and a French, American, etc. Cerc type attitude Attitudes 3 related concepts. 1. Affective component refers to basic gut level feelings towards attitude objects. 2. Cognitive component refers to some fact that you have or think you have, about the attitude object. Can also be your perception. 3. Behavioral component Prediction of behavior towards certain attitude objects based on the individuals attitude. Relationship between attitudes and behaviors, referred to as behavior consistency issue. Behavior predictions. Specificity of attitudes increases predictability in attitudes. Social pressure gets in the way of predicting behavior. People conform to the normality of society and answer based upon such. Rewards - people often express attitudes that get them the most rewards. We are attracted to similar attitudes because they are rewarding. Priming You can prime people to bring their attitudes to money, or any other subject. The journal of personality and social psychology is where you wanna publish.

A lot of our attitudes are formed by experience. Many people will formed attitudes towards everyone based on one experience. This is called an anecdote. Katz is from 1960s, and he talked about the functions of attitudes. Said if you want to change these attitudes, you must understand them. Noted the instrumental function. 1. Instrumental function we have the attitudes we have because they get us what we want, or the attitudes help us to avoid something we dont want. 2. Knowledge function Our attitudes help us to explain things that otherwise, we cant understand. 3. Ego defensive function Sometimes we have an attitude to protect our self-esteem, and by having this attitude, we feel better about ourselves.

Projections are negative characteristics you see others in. Sometimes, finding fault with others, they defend themselves. This is called prejudice. Prejudice people tend to have lower self-esteem. If you can make someone else look bad and think theyre beneath you, it makes you look relatively better. Values vs attitudes: attitudes are always towards an attitudes object. Attitude cannot exist alone, must always be towards something. Attitudes more personal, object, etc oriented. They are fundamentals of life that we hold. We value life, which is why when you kill someone, it goes against our attitudes towards that action. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are values.

4. Value expressive function of attitude We decide which values we have based upon our attitudes. We choose the values that best express our attitudes and vice versa.

People will take on the attitude of pro life (for abortions) to be consistent and expressive of their values. Rokeuch presented Value confrontation as a technique for attitude change. Trying to convince their target that their attitude is inconsistent with some value or values they cherish, or is consistent with something they now they dont value.

Attitudes

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Cognitive dissonance (Festinger) Two thoughts the conflict with each other (I want a coffee, but the line is really long..) Source credibility Conventional Expectancy Petty and Cacciopo business of central vs peripheral roots to persuasion What techniques do you see being used and how effective is it? (fear, joy, etc) One-sided message, or two sided message where you present the other side, then trash the other Inoculation effects. Inoculation effect Denial Despair 1. Going to Drown. 2. I cant stop it. High authority people are easy to believe, even if they dont have source credibility. When you talk fast, you get more credibility. When the person is likable and seems similar to you, youre more likely to believe that person. Talking slow can be a disadvantage. Faster talkers are more believable or credible than slow talker. Central vs peripheral Routes to persuasion Movie, glaciers melting is peripheral. Polar bear

1/9/2013 7:42:00 AM Ceiling effect* - inconvenient truth Between groups experiments (post test) (gr1 saw it before, group 2 didnt, show film, then test) vs repeated groups experiments (within groups) (1 group, test them pre, show them film, posttest)(know for test) One sided vs two sided messages (test to inconvenient truth) Inoculation present a weak argument Cognitive dissonance (contradicting thoughts) Primacy vs Recency (Ch3) Primary argument first presented has strongest impact. First impressions. Recency occurs when u hear the most recent argument. When someone asks you to do something, you conform. Compliance means saying yes. A form of conforming. Obedience, obeying even if you disagree. Acceptance Leon Festingers (cognitive dissonance) Self perception theory vs cognitive dissonance (one guy fought with Leon) Central routes vs persuasion (Peggy and Cassiogis) Know the important people Sherif from 1930s, talked about how people will conform partly because they tend to agree with something over time. People can get you to conform to something that doesnt exist, or even idea thats wrong, even if you know it. Milgrams experiments, people conformed a lot to authority. Chameleon effect we do what others around us are doing. We conform and copy movements and actions.

Behavioral Contagion Imitation of things that become famous in the media We conform because we are afraid of stepping out of line Factor affecting obedience *Emotional distance Bringing issues close that are meaningful to you. Netiquette behaving appropriately on the internet. DONT DO THAT is the equivalent of yelling, except on the internet. In some states you can get away with murder, some you cant. Authority The more you have an authority figure to tell you to do something, you more likely youre going to apply. If the person is close to you (in person rather than e-mail), than you will be more likely to comply. Legitmacy of the authority figure makes higher chances of compliance as well. Institutional authority If someone tells you to do something, and theyre institutional authority is higher (like the government, instead of York exec), than you will be more likely to comply. Group Influence Wanting to conform within a group. If youre nonconformant, its easy for you to resist, and obey a law. Groups can counteract. Foot in the door technique (FITD) (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) Make a small request, then another larger request. They got people to get Drive Carefully sign, an ugly sign, in their lawns. In the control group, nobody showed up 2 weeks ahead of time. In the control group, the compliance rate was 17% compliance. In experimental group, 76% complied for the sign.

Door in the Face (DITF)

Provide your real request by an unreasonably large request. When you ask for something smaller afterwards, theyll be more likely to say yes. o Cialdini etal (1975) asked for a large request, followed by a small request, for kid supervision. Had 56% compliance for the experimental group Control group 32% complied, when they werent asked with the initial large request, but instead with the small.

Norm of reciprocity When someone makes a request on you, theres a need to make a request back. Bargaining between the unions and the employers. Low Ball Hide the real cost of the request until they have made a decision or comply. Get them to agree first, then get them to say what they agreed to. Experimental technique, they used the low ball technique, and then they reveal the real cost of the request such as; btw, you have to wake up at 7am. 53% complied. In control group, 24% complied.

Rule + Leger: I.V Functional value of aggression (shocks) Subjects told that shocks would hinder performance. The more shock, the lousier the learner is going to do Or told that shocks would help performance Electro Compulsive Therapy (shocking people into unconsciousness) is supposed to help you IV: Provocation: o Provoked o Not Provoked Used a 2x2 ANOVA Gave higher shocks to people who were provoked, and lower shocks to people who werent shocked. Withdrew the shocks to those who were provoked

Increased shocks to those provoked. Didnt want non provoked subjects. Wanted insulted subjects. Baron did similar research and conclusion. So he created Revised ESP Aggression Paradigm. o See whether they can modify behavior (with no learning cues). See whether subjects can learn ESP. This intended procedure is used to lure out aggression after being nice. o If you want to know what peoples perceptions are, ask them.

PEQ Post experiment Questionnaire Used PEQ with revised ESP Procedures. How much was your choice of noise levels determined by: Desire to help receiver (1 2 3 4) [not very much very much] Desire to hurt receiver Desire to help experimenter Social Desirability can suppress answers, but you only care about if it suppresses answers equally because you want to measure differences between other people. Reported desire to help due to social desirability didnt involve any aggression at all. We only wanted to see people who wanted to be aggressive or not, so those who wanted to help were irrelevant to the test. CH 3 9 10 plus readings 15 from each chapter no questions from applied judgments applied questions to law and courtroom with aggression

Violence and Aggression

Muehlenhard + McFall 1. Offered men a choice on what they want women to do: ask 50% hint 49% wait 1%

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Men would respond very positively when asked if the guy likes or doesnt mind the girl. 80% chance hell say yes. Different types of aggression: Nesdale and Rule talked about differentiating types of aggression: Instrumental - Aggression used as a means to an end, to get something we want or to avoid something we dont want 1. Personal Instrumental non-personal aggression. Aggression might be for surviving (killing prey, etc) 2. Prosocial instrumental goal isnt to get something or avoid, but to get something for someone else or for society at large. Can include capital punishment. Detergence if u kill this person, you might save others.

Hostile anger motivated aggression. Goal is to harm. *Bus teacher learner aggression paradigm (is a general term for a procedure, a way of doing things) Invented by Arnold Buss. Father of David Buss. Lying to the subject. Teacher and learner. Teacher teaches learner something. Teacher instructed to punish learner for mistakes (aggression). Teacher gets to choose level of punishment. Key element is that you allow the teacher to choose level of punishment. Learner never gives any shock, but receives shock (actually a confederate). Years later, Malamuth and Check used a type of Buss Paradigm. Designed the Bogus ESP Aggression Paradigm.

o How it works and types of aggression interested in: person sitting next to you (confederate) and u are assigned to be the teacher. Demonstrates that learning is greater when reward or punishment is immediately followed by response. Punishes through noise. Writes attitudes down and exchanges it with the subject, a negative review. Then write how much ESP and expectations and expressions they think theyre gonna have. Then start trials. o 20 trails, usually 15 get wrong, and thus are opportunities to punish. o Extra sensory perception ability to read someones perception o Right answer is Dont know. o Bus paradigm is flawed and sued since 50s. Many will do a Pilot Bogus ESP Aggressive Paradigm, a test run.

1/9/2013 7:42:00 AM Test on April 23 Altruism Women murdered, 30 people saw it, no one helped. Dont call out someone call an ambulance because no one will call. Point You call an ambulance. This helps eliminate the diffusion of responsibility (who provides help) Donor -> Aid -> Recipient 1) Help blind -> angry shut door 2) Help avoid trouble -> Angry Condo building 3) Help 2 friends who were fighting -> stupid understanding 4) Help suicidal friend -> found out he squealed & reaction was hopeless 5) Help friend chat -> justified/mad 6) Lend money to brother -> Denies need for money with anger 7) Matchmaker blamed for a lousy match 8) Help grandma Do you think Im old 9) Get a job! Dont give money to the person so they get a job 10) Help friend relate to daughter, friend got upset Just because you help, doesnt mean good things will happen.

Publish an article on Psychological bulletin or psychological review, to get famous.

Recipient reactions to aid Fisher, J.D, Nadler, A., + Whitcher Alagna, S. (1982): Recipient Reactions to Aid, Psychological Bulletin 91, 27-54 Theory: Equity theory o 1. People aspire or wish to have equity in their interpersonal relationships (balance, fairness). o 2. When equity is threatened (unbalanced), people are uncomfortable with this. o 3. This discomfort motivates people to restore equity. If helping creates an imbalance, then the person being helped all the time will be uncomfortable with it and want to do something about it, such as simply refusing to help. Say You buy this time, Ill buy next time so that people will not argue over who buys next time. Analyze the situation: Are you creating an imbalance here? Reactance theory o Jack Brehm o 1. We desire freedom of choice in particular. We like to be able to choose. o 2. Any reduction in freedom is uncomfortable. We call this psychological reactance. o 3. Motivates people to restore their freedom. o Reverse psychology works great on kids. If theyre doing A, and u want them to do B, tell them they cant do A like: You cant go to your room o Reactance theory affects perception of whether the helping act signals a restriction on their freedom, to choose what they want. o If the helping situation communicates to them, and helps them, they realize they cant do what they want to do. Attribution Theories

o An attribution is a perceived cost o Its an answer to the question Why did this happen or Why did she do this or Why do I need help You need to get into peoples head and find out the cause of why people do them. o If their attribution for helping bad, they aint gonna react bad. If the reason is good, then theyll react good. o Attributions you make can be very important. They like you, theyre very religious, have a need to help others, etc. o E.x I love you daddy What do you want? There is an ulterior motive. Threat to self-esteem model o Basic assumption of Fishers and Nadlers model: when we are helped, we extract self-concept information from the help. o In a particular social reaction, youll realize your doing the exact same thing. What does this say about me?

Factors affecting actors recipient reactions to aid. You can max out the recipient of help if he thinks positively of it, wants it, and will benefit from it. Factors: A. Donor characteristics. Who you are matters. o 1. Perceived donor attributes o If they hate you, theyre not gonna react positively 2. Intent of the donor Whether the help is deliberate or accidental or forced If deliberate, more concern for the recipient. Donor is liked more, and more likely to reciprocate. 3. Cost to the donor: If it costs the donor more, than to help, the donor is then perceived as more caring, liked more, and the recipient is more likely to reciprocate. One issue that arises when people give lots of help, is that people can become dependent on you

B. Aid Characteristics

Need

Amount of aid o Concerned, motivated, we are attracted to them. o We have a sense of obligation to help o People can feel resentment towards recipient because theyre obligated to help. Donor can feel hate for now having to owe him Cost to recipient With friends with you, I dont need enemies Sometimes that help comes at a cost. When help is embarrassing. Cost can be feeling stupid, etc. Can this cost affect the recipient something? A big cost is when the help must be requested. Is the help needed? If the help isnt really needed, but you help anyways, you are looked upon positively If help is clearly needed, and you ask if they need help, it wont be looked upon positively

C. recipient Self-Esteem o Low self esteem people react positively to help, high self esteem people dont o High self esteem people dont like being helped because they experience cognitive dissonance (two different cognitions [beliefs]). Youll encounter resistance. o Its a threat to their self-esteem. This is what made Nandler to make the Threat to self-esteem model. The more selfesteem one has, the more threats they perceive. o Low self-esteem people perceive their situations as needing help, and will accept help more willingly. D. Context characteristics The context of the situation o Interpersonal similarity how similar you are to the recipient

o If youre similar, theyre gonna react more negatively, since theyre more likely to attribute the need internally, and have proceed lower intelligence or ability o Social comparison theory judging ourselves by comparing ourselves to others. Info about the nature of the problem does the recipient think this is a helpable problem? Depressed people dont think it is because theyre hopeless. o A-A model (anonymous model) Once a drunk, always a drunk, so you must be absinthe of it, or you will end up binging. o Put a placebo in it, and you can have people acting like their drunk when theyre really not. There are things you can do about your social behavior. The liquor lets them misbehave, such as by expectations to misbehave, attributions (people will attribute negative behavior to liquor and wont apply sanctions as much). o When your depressed, certain emotions will well up inside and overwhelm you, and make you unable to think straight. People can blunt the emotion to think more logically and work out the solution. Ability to repay if they can pay you back, theyre more likely to accept the help.