Continuous professional development: emerging trends in the UK

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Continuous professional development or lifelong learning?

It is arguable that continuous professional development in the past has failed to be continuous, has been overly vocational/professional in its focus and has often been fragmented and less than developmental. Consequently it may have appeared to be employer-driven and narrowly focused on the short term upskilling of the workforce. The concern in the UK for lifelong learning as a ``national need'' has been acknowledged by the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education in their recent report (NCIHE, 1997, p. 13):
F F F we believe that the aim of higher education should be to sustain a learning society. The four main purposes that make up this aim are:
.

The authors Malcolm Shaw is Academic Development Manager, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK. Howard Green is Director, Centre for Graduate Study, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK. Keywords Continuing professional development, Learning, Workplace learning, Benchmarking, Curriculum development Abstract This article considers current developments in aspects of continuous professional development (CPD) in the UK, focussing particularly on areas which relate to the development and delivery of an appropriate curriculum. It questions the appropriateness of the traditional concept of continuous professional development in the context of the newly emerging notion of lifelong learning. Some of the major national initiatives and imperatives for change are identified and a range of the typical emerging responses and reactions of Higher Education Institutions are itemised and briefly described. The article was originally prepared for a seminar in Hungary. It will allow the current processes, perspectives and aspirations for continuous professional development in Hungary to be compared against the UK model to assist in the identification and transfer of appropriate practice into the Hungarian context. In so doing it provides a base from which other institutions and professions might consider the development of CPD and lifelong learning.

to inspire and enable individuals throughout life, so that they grow intellectually, are well equipped for work, can contribute effectively to society and achieve personal fulfilment; to increase knowledge and understanding for their own sake and to foster their application to the benefit of the economy and society; to serve the needs of an adaptable, sustainable, knowledge based economy at local, regional and national levels; to play a major role in shaping a democratic, civilised, inclusive society.

The emphasis here is clearly placed upon: continuity throughout life; on broader knowledge and intellectual skills as well as vocational skills; on ownership by the learner (rather than just the employer) through personal fulfilment; on a wider set of social and economic benefits beyond merely those of employment. So we can identify lifelong learning as extending considerably the concept of continuous professional development in a range of directions. Strategically the implications of this shift to lifelong learning are being identified. So, for example, the vice chancellor of a large vocationally oriented UK University (Wagner, p. 98) has suggested that:
In structural terms the essential need for students is the creation of a coherent and understandable qualifications system in which curriculum and progression links are clear. The framework needs to be related to credit accumulation with generally accepted tariffs between credit points, levels of attainment and qualifications F F F Here is a good example of where our existing structures are not compatible with a lifelong learning approach F F F What we need is an all-through framework and not demarcation disputes.

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . pp. 169176 # MCB University Press . ISSN 0968-4883

169

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

This concern is for a more comprehensive and holistic notion of lifelong learning and a framework of opportunity that embraces early years schooling through further and higher education to include mid-career as well as preand post-retirement needs. The needs of lifelong learning are already coinciding, almost coincidentally, with a range of national initiatives which are themselves reflecting some of the developments and practices that have been taking place for some time in the innovative work of some universities. In fact the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (NCIHE) surveyed and promoted in its report much good practice that was already taking place within higher education institutions. It is these initiatives and innovations that we shall consider in the next sections of this paper and that are mapped in.

is about transparency followed by accountability for standards and the expenditure of public funds. It is aspects of some of the national initiatives that are meant to achieve these intentions that we shall turn to now. Typology and levels of awards The final report of the NCIHE proposed a prototype typology of awards for HE. It suggested four levels of undergraduate study leading to the honours level of a first degree (see Table I). Here ``level'' is used to indicate different levels of intellectual challenge. So there is a progression in intellectual complexity as the student moves from certificate study through diploma study to first degree study. Similarly there is a progression in intellectual challenge as students proceed through post-graduate levels of study indicated here as Masters (H6), MPhil(H7) and Doctorate (H8). The NVQ levels indicated in this diagram refer to the awards available under the system of national vocational qualifications. This is a unified system which sits alongside and complements the university system and which now accredits study and achievement taking place in the UK outside the university sector. The purpose of developing this typology is to clearly define awards in a consistent way so that awards with different titles are clearly distinguished from each other and so that awards from one institution are broadly comparable to awards with the same title from other institutions. Standards and benchmarking In attempting to assure that awards are at an appropriate standard and that the standard is maintained over time, there have been notable attempts in the UK see for example Shaw and Stoney (1996), Moon (1996), SEEC (1996), Shaw and Green (1996) to define what might be appropriate outcomes for the different awards identified in the above
Table I A UK typology of awards for higher education Level H8 H7 H6 H5 H4 H3 H2 H1 Qualification title Doctorate MPhil Masters degree Higher honours/Postgraduate conversion diploma Honours degree Bachelors degree Diploma Certificate NVQ Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3/4

National initiatives
Major national initiatives related to the needs of a culture of lifelong learning had been taking place for several years under the auspices of the Higher Education Quality Council (HEQC). This body, which has now been superseded by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), was responsible for monitoring the quality of HE provision throughout the UK largely through the process of systematically auditing institutions' quality systems. It also had a responsibility for quality enhancement by means of consultation, project work and the dissemination of best practice throughout HE. This early work and the implications of the proposals in a number of recent national reports including that of the NCIHE is now being continued by QAA. Among the work being done is the development of national guidance frameworks, some of which may become codes of practice, around matters such as a rational set of awards, with commonly accepted and understood standards of performance which are expressed in terms of the learning outcomes that are expected of students. The intention is to reach a situation where: awards in higher education are clearly and consistently defined across the sector; awards with the same title are equivalent in the challenge that they provide to students; the outcomes of awards at the same level are broadly comparable irrespective of the subject of study and university; all this is clear to the variety of stakeholders (students, employers, sponsors, the public). It

170

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

typology. A synthesis of some of this work was carried out by the Higher Education Quality Council, before it was assimilated within the QAA, and is to be found in the final report of their graduate standards programme HEQC (1997). It proposed a whole range of skills and attributes that a student should have acquired as a result of completing a first degree within the broad headings of; subject mastery, intellectual/ cognitive, practical, self/ individual, social/people. These attributes are seen to define in some detail the nature of ``graduateness''. The emphasis to date has been on describing achievement at first degree level, since this is where most research has been done, but some pioneering work exists at postgraduate levels see Shaw and Stoney (1995, 1996) and Shaw and Green (1997). Closely associated with this notion of graduateness and the standards that might be expected to be achieved by students, is the notion of benchmarking. Benchmarking here is defined as:
... the systematic comparison and evaluation of practice, process and performance to aid improvement and regulation QAA (1998, p. 3).

In this context, some of the main functions of benchmarking are to allow: comparison of programmes of study across an institution; comparison of programmes of study in the same subject in different institutions; comparison of programmes of study in different subjects across different institutions. Benchmarking work is currently under way in the UK, beginning with first degree courses in history, chemistry and law, with a view to investigating the variability in outcomes achieved by students across courses and then reaching some consensus about the common standards that should be achieved by all students in these subjects. Course specification Once some agreement is reached about the appropriate attributes and outcomes of awards, it becomes important to convey that information clearly to all the various stakeholders students, employers, funding agencies, professional bodies, quality agencies, the public. For this reason, some sort of standardisation of the means by which courses are defined and described is thought to be of considerable potential value. To this end the QAA is trialling widely a programme specification template, which will set a common framework for the presentation of course information. The structure of the latest

version of the template includes sections on: purpose and distinctive features; outcomes in terms of knowledge, cognitive skills, subject skills, general transferable skills, personal and social skills and qualities; main subjects studied, their levels and credit gained; details of all assessments; indicators of course quality and standards. The intention is that this programme specification should be detailed enough to define the course. It should be an effective source of information for: general course publicity and marketing, prospective students, potential employers, external examiners, internal quality assurance purposes and external quality agencies such as professional bodies and the QAA it is an important and critical document! These are some of the national development contexts and trends that are setting the scene for the emergence of lifelong learning. Next we shall look at the sort of responses that are being made by universities both to accommodate to these national developments and, at the same time, deliver programmes of study that will impact on the local and regional needs of the recipients of lifelong learning and the companies that employ them.

Institutional responses
We identified four key areas in Figure 1 in which institutions are developing innovative approaches and mechanisms in response to the needs of lifelong learning which involve both the process and product of learning. In this section we will outline examples of these responses in order to indicate the nature of the developments rather than give a definitive list. Modularisation and credit accumulation and transfer As the view of awards moves away from the traditional undergraduate/ postgraduate taught course framework towards one which can accommodate and respond to the needs of lifelong learning, new ways of building up awards are needed. Modular structures driven by credit-based learning and credit accumulation and transfer (CATS) have been the popular way of achieving these new building blocks. A modular approach to the development of learning programmes is the first prerequisite for a flexible building structure. Programmes of learning, rather than being seen as continuous courses, are broken up into units

171

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

or modules. The strength of the modular system lies in its ability to allow flexible building of programmes of learning around individual modules. Credit based learning means that points can be earned from a wide variety of learning experiences, and not just the normal classroom approach or taught module. Credit can be built up in a number of ways, using the various approaches, such independent learning or learning contracts that have been described later in this paper. Credit is normally attached to taught modules by assigning a number of points, so typically for example: a module might be worth 12 points; a year of full time study might be composed of 10 modules; so successful completion of a year of full time study will gain 120 points. Many credit schemes also differentiate between different levels of study similar to those indicated in Table I. So in achieving an honours degree a student may have to achieve 120 points at level 1 (first year study), 120 points at level 2 (2nd year study) and 120 points at level 3 (3rd year study). The levels indicate the increasing complexity of the cognitive challenge as the student progresses through the years of the course. At the masters level for example, a postgraduate certificate might require the completion of 36 points (three modules), a postgraduate diploma 72 credit points (six modules) and a Masters degree 120 credit points (usually six modules and a 48 point dissertation). For such a modular credit based approach to work effectively, it has to be based on a common set of criteria with a standard metric. There are initiatives under way to achieve a national system for credit accumulation and transfer, in which common and standardised tariffs are associated with a defined framework of awards offered in higher education. Modules credited in these frameworks can then be transferred between programmes, faculties or institutions to build up to an award based on the common CATS framework. Modular structures operating within an agreed framework of credit accumulation and transfer then provide the mechanisms within which a credit based system of learning can operate. Accreditation of prior learning The accreditation of prior learning is of increasing importance as institutions address

the operational issues surrounding entry to awards posed by the lifelong learning agenda. How are mid-career students admitted onto courses when they have few formal qualifications? How do institutions give credit for forms of learning which have not been previously accredited or which do not come within more traditional accreditation processes for example learning that arises from life or vocational experiences. These issues have led to formal accreditation structures within schemes and programmes. For example, accreditation may be delegated to a scheme approvals board which will expect to see evidence covering: the nature of the experiences for which credit is sought; evidence, direct or indirect, to substantiate the experiences; the nature, scope and magnitude of experiences in terms of the learning that occurred; the relationship of the learning to the award or programme for which entry or advanced standing is being sought. Approval boards would then evaluate the evidence typically in terms of: authenticity has the applicant undertaken what is claimed; directness that the learning is specific, relevant and has been identified and categorised; breadth that the learning took place in a wider theoretical and vocational context which was understood by the applicant; currency the learning is sufficiently recent to be relevant to currently proposed award. Credit may simply allow entry onto the beginning of an award or entry with advanced standing. Alongside these broad operational criteria, institutions have developed rules affecting the maximum amount of credit that can be claimed towards an identified award. So, for example, it may be that the maximum credit that can be allowed towards a first degree is the first two levels (years) leaving level three to be completed by formal registration and study within the university. Key skills The development of key skills frameworks is fundamental to the accreditation of workbased learning. If each individual student programme is separately negotiated the key skills approach offers an effective way of ensuring comparability across and between programmes of work. There is of course no simple definitive answer to the question of what are the key skills and which are appropriate to the different levels of awards within any

172

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

programme of study. The HEQC (1997) graduate standards programme has attempted to define the expectations of a graduate in terms of a series of broad skills as we have indicated earlier in this paper. Table II provides a slightly more detailed breakdown. These represent the broad outcomes of any degree but they do not provide a definition of the specific skills within a particular award. There are other approaches to be found elsewhere. Within LMU, skills have been related more closely to levels and recent changes in education practice within the university have adopted a structure and taxonomy of undergraduate outcomes at the various levels which has been reported elsewhere see Shaw and Stoney (1996). It must be emphasised that there is at present only limited agreement at the national level on key skills. This is particularly the case at the postgraduate level. Recent work at LMU building on and extending the undergraduate taxonomy of outcomes (see Appendix) is beginning to shed some light on approaches for achieving equivalence. This taxonomy is helping to identify and discriminate the attributes within the range of research and taught awards at Masters level and above. In particular it provides a framework within which new forms of postgraduate awards such as professional doctorates, workbased research programmes and practicebased doctorates can be located. The approach however is experimental and remains to be fully tested. Without generally accepted agreement on key skills there is a major gap in the structures, leaving those developing programmes of study particularly workbased

programmes with limited tools for achieving comparability and equivalence of standards. Workbased learning All knowledge and learning is no longer seen to be held in one place, nor is it seen to be the exclusive property of schools, colleges and universities. The workplace for example offers opportunities for developing and accrediting knowledge and learning in the widest sense, and hence is capable of providing more immediate and relevant opportunities for learning. Although variously defined and conceptualised we can see workbased learning quite simply as the recognition and accreditation of learning achieved in the work place. The approach is not new; it has been and remains the foundation of the apprenticeship system and other practice-based schemes. It is however a more novel concept in some parts of higher education and one which continues to set challenges for those responsible for developing and delivering programmes. Institutional responses to workbased learning have taken several forms, all of which adopt innovative mechanisms for the specification, delivery and assessment of student work. Space will only permit brief reference here to a couple of illustrative examples learning power and professional doctorates operating within Leeds Metropolitan University. Learning power is an initiative developed by LMU in conjunction with the Leeds Training and Enterprise Council. In the words of the TEC, learning power is a new approach to learning for business. It helps drive the business forward through planned and targeted staff development. It combines learning from day to day activities with guidance from university staff and hence bridges the gap between more conventional business oriented staff development and university-based courses. It is open to all levels of staff in, or aspiring to, a wide range of managerial roles in all sectors and provides a basis for awards from certificate to doctorate. The programme involves four stages; enquiry, exploration, development, demonstration which make significant use of learning contracts, workbased mentors and modes of assessment that are particularly relevant to workbased projects. The professional research doctorate is an innovative route within the research awards portfolio designed to provide a research award framework more appropriate to workbased research enabling the university to enhance its

Table II First degree expectations 1 Grounding in a discipline, disciplines or other coherent programme of study 2 Possession of general academic skills and attributes 3 Awareness of the contexts and boundaries of the subject matter studied 4 The possession of self-motivated study skills, readiness for lifelong learning 5 Understanding of, and ability to undertake, one's own personal development 6 Possession of interpersonal skill and awareness 7 Communication and presentation 8 Information technology 9 Possession of general employment-related skills 10 Possession of specific vocational skills

173

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

research collaboration with industrial, commercial and professional communities. This route is currently being developed within the areas of Engineering and Education. Both are providing an environment in which specific workbased problems can be researched. Students are supported by both academic and workbased supervisors.

A portfolio of paper/project reports/working papers may provide a more appropriate medium for demonstrating research capabilities gained in the workplace.

Conclusion
The emphasis now being placed on lifelong learning is forcing both institutions of higher education and the professions to re-examine the ways in which they develop and deliver programmes of study. If continuous professional development is to be genuinely continuous, and lifelong learning take place throughout life, then the traditional approaches adopted by universities must change. This is exactly the challenge faced by Hungarian planning schools at the present time as the pressures for change in the way in which the regions of the country are managed and planned necessitates a fundamental reappraisal of how professionally trained staff can be identified in a very short space of time. There is no longer the time for the traditional routes on undergraduate programmes to provide professionals with adequate tools and experience to deal with these new challenges. For the institutions, key client groups are no longer in the 18-25 years group wishing to take traditional undergraduate or masters programmes. More frequently they will be mature, experienced people wishing to enhance their existing qualifications to meet changed circumstances; most importantly they wish to combine these with workbased activities. Parallels may be drawn between the needs of planners in Hungary and those of employees in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the UK. For entirely different historical reasons on the one hand mainly political and systemic on the other mainly economic but systemic professional development has been less than effective. Nevertheless the demands that both are placing on higher education are very similar, with the emphasis on: professional and vocational relevance, minimal disruption to the workplace, minimal costs in both time and money, immediate applicability and benefits in the workplace. The paper has illustrated some of the imperatives and challenges to institutions which these new client groups bring in their quest for lifelong learning. Many of these innovations are untried and untested and will require significant development and evaluation in themselves. Most importantly

Implications for teaching and learning

The development of approaches to lifelong learning involving learning in the workplace has led to the development of new approaches to the specification, structuring, recording and demonstration of learning. Traditional methods of classroom teaching are inappropriate to situations in which a considerable amount of learning takes place off campus. Specification and structuring of programmes Increasingly, learning contracts are being used to define individualised programmes of study typical of workbased learning. The learning contract permits the student to negotiate his/her programme, its context, lifespan, learning outcomes and its structure, content and assessment. Recording of learning process As the process of learning grows in significance in the workbased learning context, instruments such as learning logs, diaries and learning journals are playing an increasingly important role. Each offers the student the opportunity of reading and reflecting on the learning process as well as noting more context-based matters. Demonstration of learning outcomes Individual programmes of learning do not lend themselves to traditional assessment methods. It will be difficult to write an examination paper for a diverse group of workbased learners! Increasingly a portfolio approach of the demonstration of involvement is being adopted in which a variety of materials are presented. These may range from the more traditional project report to team meeting minutes and tapes of presentations. The key is the link between the learning undertaken and the appropriateness of the demonstration tool. The question is particularly relevant in the research award context where the traditional 40/60/80,000 thesis is inappropriate to workbased research projects.

174

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

they challenge the very heart of academic tradition, and as a consequence their adoption will require significant professional development of the academic deliverers themselves and perhaps a fundamental re-appraisal of the implication of lifelong learning in the career development of academics themselves. This latter observation will be the most significant challenge if Hungarian academic institutions are to support and assist an economy in major transition and restructuring.

References
HEQC (1997), Graduate Standards Programme Final Report, Higher Education Quality Council, London. Moon, J. (1996), Generic Level Descriptors and their Place in the Standards Debate in HEQC: Modular Higher

Education in the UK Personal Perspectives, HEQC, London. NCIHE (1997), Higher Education in the Learning Society Report of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (Dearing Report), HMSO, London. QAA (1998), Managing Quality and Standards in UK Higher Education Pilot Studies in Benchmarking Assessment Practice, QAA, Gloucester. SEEC (1996), Credit Guidelines, Models and Protocols, South East England Consortium, DFEE. Shaw, M. and Green, H. (1996), ``Standards in research awards'', Innovation and Learning in Education, Vol. 2 No. 3. Shaw, M. and Stoney, C. (1995), ``Assuring quality and standards in a large modular scheme'', Innovation and Learning in Education, Vol. 1 No. 2. Shaw, M. and Stoney, C. (1996), ``Assuring standards in a large modular scheme two years on'', Innovation and Learning in Education, Vol. 2 No. 1. Wagner, L. (1998), ``Higher education supplement'', The Guardian, March 31.

Table AI Postgraduate taxonomy of assessment domains Domains Organisation and planning Level M Ability to set, negotiate and meet own objectives and deadlines to identified standards and involving the sensitive organisation and management of others Ability to select appropriate styles and modes of communication for complex tasks and purposes Ability to interact sympathetically and ethically with individuals and groups, in varied settings, to achieve a major research task MPhil PhD Ability to set, negotiate and meet own objectives and deadlines in a wide variety of contexts, over extended periods of time with a high level of autonomy and involving the sensitive and ethical organisation and management of others from a wide range of cultural/social/political backgrounds and contexts Able to communicate effectively in the full range of formal styles appropriate to and consistent with research in the chosen cognate area, for the production and defense of extended academic theses and for a wide range of presentation and publishing goals and targets Able to interact sympathetically and ethically with individuals and groups from a wide range of cultural/social/political backgrounds in varied settings over extended and intensive periods of time with accurate notions of the precise impact of themselves on the settings in which they are operating Ability to develop ways of coping/ operating in novel settings with novel group/groupings Able to clearly delineate, negotiate and subscribe to agreed parameters and limits of responsibility in group/ team settings and ventures Information/data collection Ability to devise valid and reliable methods and instruments for data and information collection in relation to an extended piece of research Ability to carry out a full literature search and identify sources relevant to the field of research Ability to carry out a complete search, critical review and appraisal of all literature and primary sources of relevance to the research study

Communication

Group/ interpersonal

Ability to make reasoned judgements regarding the appropriateness of a range of typologies of methods and instruments for data/information collection Able to adapt and apply methods and Able to devise and design novel instruments appropriately to novel situations/ methods and instruments for contexts with due concern for matters of application in novel situations and/or reliability and validity contexts with a clear and critical perspective on the levels of reliability and validity achieved (continued)

175

Continuous professional development

Malcolm Shaw and Howard Green

Quality Assurance in Education Volume 7 . Number 3 . 1999 . 169176

Table AI Domains Theory and principles Level M Knowledge and understanding of a range of subject-specific advanced and contemporary theory, and of strategies and methodologies for investigation/ solution of professionally orientated research problems Analyses problems objectively using the main theoretical perspectives of the cognate area and the appropriate research methods and strategies with appropriate and rational sensitivity to the opinions and views of others MPhil Knowledge and understanding of the range of subject-specific contemporary theory and of appropriate methods and strategies for investigation and solution of identified issues/problems Analyses problems objectively using the main theoretical perspectives of the field of study and appropriate methods and strategies, with appropriate and rational sensitivity to the opinions and views of others PhD Knowledge and understanding of theory, methods and strategies in the specific and in related fields of study, with a clearly articulated contextualisation of this study within its wider subject environment Analyses problems objectively using critically evaluated novel (or extended) theoretical perspectives from this (or related) fields of study, with rational sensitivity to, awareness of and allowance for effects on the opinions/views/feelings of all others involved

Analysis and reflection

Application and reflection

Applies theories, methodology and strategies in rational and valid ways, demonstrating empirical/experimental rigour in identifying solutions to complex and significant problems. Reflects both extensively/objectively on methods, process, outcomes

Applies knowledge, theory, methodology and strategies in rational and valid ways, demonstrating experimental/research rigour in identifying solutions to complex and significant problems Reflects objectively, particularly on the Reflects extensively and critically on methods, the process and the outcomes of the all aspects knowledge, theory, study methods, process, outcomes of the study and on the implications for the wider context within which the study is located

Synthesis and evaluation

Critically evaluates outcomes and relates Critically evaluates outcomes and relates them to existing knowledge structures, them to existing knowledge structures theoretical perspectives and methodologies suggesting further topics for research and methodologies. Reviews validity of Reviews and reappraises knowledge theoretical perspectives, methods and and the validity of theoretical strategies applied perspectives and methodology in the wider context and proposes areas for research that will further explore these and other related fundamental issues Identifies modification to, and impact on, Displays originality and/or novelty in some (MPhil)/most (PhD) of the following: existing knowledge structures/theoretical . application of different existing methods/ . topic/focus of study frameworks. Proposes new areas for instruments to known area of study development and application of new . investigation/new problems/new transfer of existing methods/instruments methods/instruments for investigation . methodological approaches to a different/related context application of existing instruments/ . development and/or extension of existing methods to new/original contexts . knowledge and theoretical perspectives development of new knowledge and/ . application of existing research or theoretical insights . approaches to new populations new attempts to critically question . new attempts to corroborate earlier work and re-examine earlier research work . identifies implications for existing theory . critically examines the implications of . and knowledge structures the outcomes and proposes new identifies new areas for investigation theoretical perspectives and . knowledge structures opens up new areas for fundamental . and significant research

Creativity

176