Index Lag: rst- / second-order, 625627 time, 496, 497 Lag compensators, 415, 417, 424, 636, 639,

640, 642645 Lag prelters, 651652 Laminar owmeters, 179180 Lands (term), 395 Laplace transforms, 189, 322324, 448 456 inverse transform by general formula, 456 partial-fraction expansion and inverse transform, 452455 single-sided, 448450 table of transform pairs, 453 transfer function, 451452 transforming LTI ordinary differential equations, 450451 Laws of thermoelectricity, 139141 LBs, see Logic blocks LDs (ladder diagrams), 690 Lead compensators, 415, 417, 424, 633, 635641 effect of, 639641 rst-order, 636, 639 limitations of, 635 second-order, 637, 639641 stability of, 637, 638 Leadership, design requirements of, 293 Lead prelters, 652654 Lead wire effects, 8588 Leakage path, 613 Least signicant bit (LSB), 845 Least-squares t, 7, 196, 197 Least-squares line, 94, 95 Length standard, 116 Liapunovs stability theory, 441 Life cycle of systems engineering, 261 266 Limit of error, 125 Linear ampliers, 569 Linear in adjustable parameters (LIP), 793, 794 Linearity, 5, 6, 94, 103, 118119 Linearity theorem, 449 Linearize thermistors, 163 Linearizing approximations, 367368 Linear lumped two-ports, ideal, 42

891

Linear models, standard forms for, 314 321 converting I / O to phase-variable form, 321 I / O form, 315318 state-variable form, 318321 Linear-motion servomotors, 574576, 579580 Linear position servosystems, 593 Linear-quadratic-regulator (LQR) problem: continuous-time, 763764 discrete-time, 764766 disturbance accommodation, 768770 extensions of, 768776 frequency shaping of cost functionals, 772775 robust servomechanism control, 774 776 stability / robustness of optimal-control law, 766767 standard, 762767 tracking applications using, 770772 Linear-state-estimator design, 776783 observers in, 777781 optimal observers in, 781783 Linear systems analysis, 321350 response to periodic inputs using transform methods, 337350 transform methods, 322330 transient analysis using transform methods, 328339 Linear time-invariant (LTI) differential equations, 448, 450452 Linear transducers, 699 Linear two-ports, 4143 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), 114, 389, 390, 856857 Line as a whole condence limit, 20 Line regulation, 102 LIP, see Linear in adjustable parameters Load, 45, 4850 Load force (pressure) feedback, 613 Loading, 119 Load regulation, 102 Load transient recovery, 102 Logarithmic plot, 339 Logic blocks (LBs), 241242 Logic gates, 246248 Lookup tables (LUTs), 241243 Loop gain, 621625