This paper has been published by the International Council on Metals and the Environment (ICME) a s part of a series

of publications discussing issues

relevant to environmental andior health-related policies and mining and metals production. It is believed thal the topics examined are of concern, not only to the non-ferrous metal mining and producing sector, but also to the rest of Society, including policy makers, educators and the public at large.
I t is ICME's hope that these publications provide insight into what are often difficult and complex issues. 'i'herefore, the views in these papers are those of

and the information provided by them, in order to facilitate a sharing of information and to provide for greater understanding of the topics addressed. The Council also appreciates suggestions regarding other issues of public

the authors. ICME welcomes questions and comments on their perspectives

importance for future publications. Founded in 1991, ICME is a non-governmental organization that promotes the development and implementation of sound environmental and health policies and practices in the production, use, recycling and disposal of non-ferrous and precious metals. For further information about ICME. or to obtain additional copies of this publication or other ICME publications, please contact: The International Council on Metals and the Environment 294 Albert Street, Suite 506 Ottawa, Ontario CANADA K1 P BE6 Tel: (613) 235-4263 Fax: (613) 235-2865 "Mining, Metallurgy and Environmont in Mexico during the nYentieth Century," by Ins Herrera Canales and Eloy Gonzalez Marin. First Printing, May 1995.
ISBN 1-895720-04-4

Our aim in this essay is to summarize the history of Mexican mining during the twentieth century, to describe the growth. modernization and diversification of the mining and metals a report on environmental industry, and t conditions and progress made in protecting the environment.
This essay is divided into six sections. The first provides a brie overview of the state of research on mining histoiy. and mining and environment in contemporary Mexico: the second is a synthesis of the historical development of Mexican mining and metallurgy during the twentieth century. The next three sections provide an overview of environmental programs and policies related to mining in Mexico. We consider three main aspects of the issue: the historical development of poiicies for controlling pollution in the mining industry in Mexico; the actions of mining firms in support of environmental protection: and, some case studies showing how pollution arising from mining and metallurgical activities is being addressed. The inal section provides conclusions.

effluents in the areas surrounding mining operations and as a result o gaseous emissions from metallurgical operations. These pollutants can affect the natural environment: rivers, soi1 and vegetation. They have the potential to cause dramatic changes in the landscape, and their effects can have repercussions on hiiman health. In the history of Mexican mining before the twentieth century, there are references to the damaging impact of the exploitation and extraction of metals. mainly of gold and silver, upon the population and the natural environment. Even in colonial times, the viceregal government and private individuals voiced their concern about the negative impacts on the population and the landscape caused by gases emitted from foundry chimneys and by toxic wastes (specificaliy mercury) produced by the mining and production of precious metals. There are also accounts of the damage suffered by miners as a result of unhealthy conditions inside the shafts and galleries, and by those who were in contact with mercury vapour during the amalgamation process. Those Who lived in.regions which produced precious metals frequently complained that mining caused deforestation of the surrounding areas. particularly since trees were used as fuel and as supports in mines. This practice, which lasted more than four centuries, ended when coal replaced wood as fuel early in the twentieth century.
During the nineteenth century, techniques for exploiting and processing precious metals remained little changed. It was only during the last quarter of the century that dynamite,

The anaiysis of the relationship between mining and the environment covers a major segment of the Mexican mining industry (both private and government-owned) accounting for 90 percent of Mtal production in the early 1990s.
The impact of mining on the environment is an old probiem which miners have had to face throughout the centuries. It is well known that mining and metallurgical activities can generate pollution problems if they are conducted in an irresponsible manner. This can be as a resuit of accumulation of solid wastes and liquid

electricity, cyanide processing. railway systerns inside the mines mil compressed air for ventilation were witlcly introduced in the production processes. hc introduction of cyanide a s a replacement for mercury in gold recovery resulted in a markcd improvement in the health of workers and the natural landscape of mining regions. The growth and diversification of mining in Mexico during the twentieth ccntury. in conjunccion with changes in the extraction and refining processes, broadened the impact of mining-related activities on the environment. Kegulatioii by governmental

institutions to control the effects of mining on the environmenl was lirnitetl. Although the industry did implement practices such as baghouses and clectrostatic precipitators to capture dust from smelters and refineries in the 1920s. it was not until the late 1970s that pollution from mining became a widespread concern. and only since the 1980s that the environmental impact of mining has k e n systematically addressed in

Mexico.

[ns Herrera Canales Eloy Gonzhlez Marin Mexico. March 1995

The tatu o f Weearch on Contemporary ining and Environment in

Documentation of the twentieth-century history of Mexican mining and the environment of mining regions is scattered and not very comprehensive. The authors have uudertaken an intensive search for material in government, public and specialized libraries and information centres. The available sources of information a r e several general works on the twentieth-century history of Mexican mining. official statistics produced by the Mexican government, periodicals, essays. conference papers. and documents from Mexican mining firms.
This historical review draws on three general

Mexican government and examine the technical, economic, social and political problems of mining and metals production in Mexico and the rest of the world. Information on mining and ecology in Mexico is limited and is scattered widely in private and official files. The basic sources a r e reports produced by large mining firms, environmental organizations and government institutions which deai with environmental protection. Newspapers and magazines. conference papers and University research also address the subject. The approach and themes of these works Vary widely and depend on the objectives of the project and the background of the authors. Some a r e serious and scientifically rigorous papers; others are sensationalist and iack foundation We have limited Our research to those sources of information produced by responsible. private and officiai institutions. and endorsed by qualified individuals.

research works which cover the late nineteenth centnry to 1988.' It also includes articles, essays and monographs. written predominantly by economists, which address various periods and problems of mining history.' These latter contain analyses of production, markets, capital and prices. Most of the documents a r e from ministries of the

~~

Mlning lndusiry, 1890-1950.A iudg 0J lhe llllerUclion of Poiiiirs. Economics. and Technologg, New York. Slale University of NCW York. 1964: Hall. Robert Bruce Wallace. Lu dindmica delsecior mirlero en Mbuico. 1877-1870(con prnyecciones a 1980). Mexico. Ei Coiegio de Mexico. 1972. (Master in Economics lhesis):and Saricgo Rodriguez. Juan Luis. Luis Reygadas. Miguel Angei GOmcz and Javier Parrera. El eslado g Io mineria meXicona. Politica. lrabajo y sociedad duranie CI sklio XX. MCXiCo. Fondo de Cultura Econ6mica. 1088.
2

' ernslein. MarVin D.. The Mexico"

p errera canaies. ins. et ai.. Bibllogroflo minera iberoamericorio. I R ~ x - I W vol. ~ . IV of Scries: Minrfa ibcroamcricanri.cpertorio bibligr6fico y biogr3fico. lnstilulo Tecnol6gico Geominero de Espalla. Madrid.

Esparla. 1992.

Mexico has been a world miriing power for o the gi:oli)gical features of centuries, thanks C its tel'ritory. Mining and mctiils production have had a sisable impact on thc Mcxican economy. One cannot Fully desci'ibe tlw i:conomic life of Mexico without making rcfcreiicc to mining. However. il has evolved ncilher continuously nor a t the same pace as I l i f , KSI, of the economy. Although mining coiilribiited an estimated 1 0 percent of lhc gross tlomestic product (GDP) in 1929, ils sliarc diminished to 5.7 percent in 1940 and t,o 3 pcrcent in 1950. As the country coinploi,eil the first stages of ils industrializaiion process, the services and manufactui'ing iiidustrics developed much more rapicily l,han the

extractive induslries. Even si), mining continues 10 play a significant role in the generation of wealth. In 1992, it madc up 1.5 percent of Mexico's GDP.For cornparison, oil and natural gas extraction contributed less than 2 percent 10 the Mexican GDP."

As with othcr economic activities. mining creates jobs, which in turn generate income and taxes. II contributes to the demand for producis manufactured by otlier industries, provides prgducts for the domestic economy and increases exports. Because it depcnds on the geographical location of mineral resources. il lias had a significant role in shaping the patterns of population settlement and economic dcvclopment o the country.

40 30

Ll
1900
1905

20

1'>1<,

191s

1920

1925

1930

1935

1940

1945

l
1950

Source: Eiul-~orcited froni

tlii' ind<:y<s ofR. 13.

Wallace l - l d l , (1972j. iiurious tables.

-_
'Salinas de Gortari. Carlos. S<'SI<> iillonii<' cl? <)ol>ieriio.urlexo. 1094, MCxio. i>irccci6nGcncral dC Comunicaci6ri Social. PIcSKI<'II~ iii tic: 1 1 1 lteDfiblic3, IDLI4.

The first decades of the post-revolutionary period in Mexico, from 1920 onwards. were characterized by wide fluctuations in mining and metals production, Iow investment in infrastructure, a lack of prospecting and IitIk new mining activity. A determining characteristic was meeting the foreign demand for minerals and metals with no attempt to integrate with domestic industry. Furthermore, changing government policies aiternateiy thwarted and promoted the mining industry which rendered the sector increasingly lethargic. In 1950, the sector's production was about the same a s it was in 1910 (see Figure 1).

the US economy. The introduction of modern technology such a s selective flotation made it profitable to mine ore bodies and reduce iosses to tailings. This decade of mining expansion was followed by the world-wide Great Depression of 1930 to 1932 with its stagnating effects. The worid economic recovery in the late 1930s brought with il an increased demand and higher prices for mining products. These influenced mining activity in Mexico from 1933 to 1938: however, profit margins were low and foreign investment was restrained by governmem policies, increased labour costs and high taxes. It is Worth pointing out that even if the nationalist policies of the decade were not in the long run beneficial to the deveiopment o the mining industry (because there was iittle private investment), they heiped inance, by means of taxes, the building of inirastructure for the industriaiization of the country. During the 1930s and 1940s. taxes on mining were very important. constituting 28 percent of the federal budget between 1935 and 1944. During the 1940s there was great international demand for mining products. Production increased during the first years of the decade, but Mexico's interna1 conditions constrained the expansion of the industry. Domestic policies did not provide incentives or guarantees to foreign capital, taxed the mining industry heavily and kept tight controi over certain mining areas (considered national reserves), thus restricting their exploration and subsequent exploitation. The poor state of the railways maae it even more difficult to commercialize production. In summary, high production costs outweighed the good international situation, and by the end of the decade mining production had been reduced to levels lower than the average of the previous twenty years.

During this early period. the most notable development was the consolidation of mining into those areas which couid best contribute to industrial development, e.g. non-ferrous metais, minerals for the iron and steel industry. and non-metallic minerais (mainly sulfur). However, the,mining industry remained largely export oriented.
The political and legal outlook of the post-

revolutionary period was completely diferent from the pre-revolutionary one. The Constitution of 1917 and subsequent laws reconsidered colonial reguiations on property ownership and control of mining resources. Government policies had to be modified to meet capital. technoiogical and currency needs. After a spectacuiar temporary recovery iwthe late 1920s, the growth rate of Mexico's mining sector dropped to a levei lower than that of international demand and of the economy a s a whole. The single most important factor contributing to this was the Mexican government's nationalist policies which set out to integrate mining into the domestic economy.
The growth of the Mexican mining industry from 1922 to 1929 was driven by a boom in

Beginning in 1950, mining cnioyed sustained growth, slow and uncertain al. first (1950-60), but firm and continuous lacer (1980.70 and 1970-80). only to diminish again during thc 1980s as a result of domestic and intcrnaliiinal rccessions. (See 'ibble 1 and Figure 2).

Interestingly. during the stagc of rapid growth of the country's economy. the mining and metallurgical industry lost its relative importance. Its proportional share of Mexico's GDP dropped from 2.33 percent in 1960 to 1.72 percent in 1970, and to 1.39 percent in 1980. When the country's economic growth decreased i n the 1980s. the decline in the mining industry was l e s drarnatic. In 1990, its proportional share in the GDP increased to 1.57 percent. In 199092. the Mexican mining GDP grew al an average annual ratc of only 0.7 percent, resulting in rnining's share of total GDP falling to 1.5 percent. The performance of ihe Mexican mining industry shows Chat its growth. during Some periods, was more dynamic than that of the rest of the economy. even though in the long run it has deciineii in its share of the total GDP (Figure 3).

Sources: Banc de M&co

(1969):INEGl, S C N M . N o t e : t i D P O1 i900 (1950-1960).

and 1980( I Q ~ O - I C > . Croiistc~iii >~J pices.

F i g u r e 3 : hare of Mining GI>P in Total Gili',

1950 - 1992

(%)

30

29

:::
1.1

1.0 1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

SARIEG011988)

EST~MATED~ANX~CO

INEGGI

SOurCeS:

Banco de Mexico ( 1 969):INEGI, SCNM. Noie: GDP Of and 1980 (1960-1992) contanf prices.

1960 ( 1 950-1960)

Although during the 1950s the mining industry continued to show slow growth of output and iimited investments, international prices were good. Prices of metallic and non-metallic minerals increased 9 percent between 1950 and 1960. The mining industry in Mexico underwent important structural changes during this decade. On the one hand. an expanding. non-metallic mining sector emerged (sulfur. limestone, coal. fluorite and barite). Its growing production, together with increasing international prices, contributed to the increase in value of the decade's production. On the other hand. mining gradually became more integrated into the country's industry, and an increasing part of its output was consumed by the domestic economy instead of being exported. This change is apparent when the industry's contribution to tax income in Mexico is considered. As its contribution to GDP fell and as the government widened its income sources, mining's tax share fell rapidly to a

levei commensurate with its actual participation in the economy. in 1939, mining contributed 27.5 percent OC the government's net income. This dropped to 17.4 percent in 1948, 7.6 percent in 1955 and 3.5 percent in 1960." International dernand for mining products in the 1960s was reinforced by an increase in domestic demand towards the end of the decade. This led. in turn. to a significant recovery of the industryB production. In the early 1960s. mining was largely "mexicanized": that is. Mexican law established that more than 50 percent of the capital of every mining firm should be supplied by Mexican citizens. By the early 1970s. the entire industry had comDlied with the legislation. The non-metallic rnining sector continued to expand in the 1960s. with a positive net

Sariego Rodrigyuez. Juan Luis. et al.. o p . cil.. p.

166.

investment, although tliis was offset by a loss of investment in tlle metallic sBctor. lnvestment in mining, as a whole, dit1 noi iricrease in the 196Os:During the second hall of the 1970s.

the output of non-metaliic mining comprised 49 percent of the mining sector's share of GDP: it almost equalletl the value of the metallic minerals GI' (Sce 'Table 2 and Figure 4).

1955
1965

19.3
36.8

1975 1985

18.7 42.1

1 9 5 0 - 1991
1O 0

Between 1950 and 1970, the mining sector became a very significant contributor to Mexico's industrialization process, since it increasingly supplied important inputs to domestic industry. Some mineral products which were previously exported as raw materials were now produced in a refined state within the country. However, the relative contribution of the sector M Mexico's trade balance through exports decreased. This transformation is evident in trade figures: in 1950. 85 percent of the mining production (except for graphite) was for export; in 1960, it dropped to 47 percent. By 1970 it had decreased M 28 percent.
In spite of its stagnation during the 1940s. mining had been an important source of foreign currency. it accounted for 42 percent of total exports from 1939 M 1950. During the 1950s the share decreased ta 26 percent, and dropped M 19 percent from 1961 to 1970.5

fluctuated between 23 and 52 percent of mining GDP during the 1980s. The 1980s were a significant decade for Mexico's development,. Mexico's average growth was the lowest since the Great Depression of the 1930s. but it experienced the beginnings of liberalization and privatization of the economy, which peaked between 1988 and 1994. Given the difficult situation of the domestic economy and the recession in the rest of the world, mining has managed a favourable evolution. The average annual growth rate of mine production was 4 percent, and the mining sector's share of GDP of 2.9 percent a t constant prices grew aster than the 1.6 percent for the total economy (see Table 1j. Prices for most non-metallic minerals rose in the 1980s (sulfur, by 1 percent; gypsum, by 32 percent: and, barite, by 52 percentj. Although metal prices fluctuated. the overall trend was for prices to deciine. Gold, silver, lead and mercury prices dropped significantly (1 980-92: 44 percent, 81 percent. 15 percent and 50 percent, respectivelyj, copper improved slightly, and zinc increased substantially (1980-92: 5 percent and 68 percent, respectivelyj. These changes in production and prices modifed the share of the various commodities in the total value of mineral production. The ten rninerals which had the highest production value in 1980 accounted for almost 84 percent of Mial mining production value: whereas the ten most important products in 1992 contributed only 79 percent. This diversification of iniiiing production broadens the foundations on which the sector can grow and or linking it more effectiveiy to the domestic economy. Another shift during the 1980s as a consequence of the increasing integration of mining into the domestic industry was a decrease in exports. In 1990 and 1991, exports from mining dropped to 4.2 percent

The mexicanization program and efforts to promote small and middle-sized mining firms during the 1970s resulted in a consolidation of the mining industry. Remarkable industrial development took place, thanks to significant public and private investments and to the infrastructure built ta promote small and middle-sized enterprises.
Mining enterprises specialized in exploiting o their specific rneials and minerals according t size and capabilities. With 39 percent of mining GDP in 1983. the state-owned sector was the country's largest copper producer. The large private mining companies, which collectively contributed 49 percent of the mining GDP in 1983. dominated the field, producing lead, zinc and silver as well as arsenic, bismuth, selenium, graphite, gypsum and silica. However. firms of al1 kinds and sizes entered into exploitation of basic metals. Small and middle-sized enterprises, with 12 percent of the mining GDP in the same yar, dominated mercury, tin and tungsten exploitation. They also participaied in the production of other meials. such as gold. whose national production
Sariego Rodrigucz. Juan Luis. el al.. op. cil.. p.
166.

LEAD
lRON ORE

10

SALT
GYPSUM

11

13

20

Source: Macedo Palmcici. i7r>h<:rto i l 993). Note: According to ttieir production value in each year,

and 3.7 percent of Mexico's cxports respectively. The contribution of the miriing scctor to government revenues decrcased a s the industry lost its relative importanco in thc cconomy and a s the federal governmcnt thcrsified its sources of income. Mining licenses (tlerechos de mineria) accounted for almost 2 percent of non-tax federal income prior IQ 3991 when they were drastically reduced. Govcriiment fiscal measures that affect mining achvities are: income and value-added taxes: forcign trade duties: and. social seciirity lax which ai'e proportional to the imporuince of the sector in the economy. Mexican mining is signiicant no1 oriiy because it plays an important role in thr domestic economy of the country, but also because Mexico is a major international source of certain minerals. Silver. in whicli Mexico has traditionally occupied an important place, is the obvious example. Between 1980 and 1992,

Mexico was among the top three producers in the world of t,he following minerals: silver. celestite, bismuth and antimony (tweive years); graphite (1 1 years): fluorite (8 years): barite and cadmium (3 ycars): and. arsenic and sulfur (one year). Because the development of the mining industry has been more dynamic than that of the rest of the domestic economy, rnining appears to have adapted well 10 Mexico's rnodel of economic development. which was adopted in the 1980s and is linked 10 the world economy. The prospects of the mining industry largely depend upon providing a stable long-term environment for national and international investment. incorporating progressive technology and adapting to the nceds of domeslic and world markets. Several factors are a t play to cceate favourable conditions-privatization of the large and important. government-owned mining sector. the 1992 mining legislation and the North America Free nade Agreement which began in 1994.

10

a n the

exican

ining Indutry
preservation. The new mining law that took effect late in the nineteenth century took these situations inM account, but the problems of environmental pollution caused by the mining industry have not been well researched. Edgar Omar Gutirrez Ldpez. in his essay on the case of the Compaiia Rey del Oro Mining (The Gold King Mining Co.). provides an account of how the mining sector and a local community dealt with conflicting interests." In 1901, the company advised the municipal council of the Mwn of Mulatos that the people should not use water from the local stream because il \vas poisoned by the company's use of cyanide. The local population took their concerns first to the town hall, then M the district authorities, and finally. to the governor of the Statx of Sonora who decided in favour of the mining enterprise. The MulaMs town government was ordered to "allow the Company ... to begin again the exploitation of meials and M use water from the stream" for the development of the'state's mining industry. The mining company \vas asked M take due precautions M prevent any harm to the population.
The impact of mining on the environment during

As far back as the colonial period, some mining regions in Mexico experienced serious public protests against mining activity and metalproducing operations a s a result of environmental pollution and extensive lumbering activity. Complaints were heard by local authorities, Who either resolved the conflicts or referred them to higher jurisdictions. Colonial mining legislation regulated effluents, mineral waste. and gases vented to the atmosphere by foundry chimneys in order M limit the effects on the population. It addressed human health aspects rather than environmental ones.'
There have been only a few studies on topics related M environmental pollution in colonial Mexico. One of them analysed a protest demonstration in Chihuahua in 1732. The protesters opposed the building of smelting furnaces near their City because of the effects on air and water? Another described cases of mercury and lead poisoning in mining districts of New Spain! Town councils were responsible for maintaining the purity of the air, the soi1 and water, but since mining provided most of the income locally and for the vice-royalty, conflicts over environmenial problems often led M long, drawn-out legal processes. Colonial mining ordinances continued in force into the nineteenth century. Together with mining deputations and municipalities. they regulated conflicts between miners and surrounding populations over environmenial

the twentieth century has not been rigorously examined. As is the case for previous centuries, there has been little research on the subject. However, some evidence of the relationship between mining and environment before the 1970s can be found in the demands of Mexico's National Mining and Metallurgical Workers

R~CU~SO Nalulales S

ordenonzos del ivuet~o Cuodemo Expedidos por Felipe I Iel 22 de Agoslo de I5H4. opalia. 1629: Conscjo d e no Renovables. 'Ordenanws d e MinerfaOlorgadas por el Rey Carios III d e Espaiia".

Ordenonzas de Mineriu, Corncnlorios g Legislaci6n ,Miner0 husm 1874. Vol. 1, Mexico. Conscjo d e ReCUrSoS Naturaies no Renovables. 1961 7 Hausberger, Bcrnd. 'una inicialiva ecol6gica contra la industria minera e n Chihuahua (1732l"Eslsudiosde Hisioria Nouohispanicu. Vol. 13. Mexico. instililto de invcstigaciones Hisr6ricas. UNAM. 1993, p. t 15-134. * LAUD. Uoris M..The Making oJ o Slrike Workers lruggle in Red dei iMon1e. 17661775. (Lincoln-ILondon.1988).
pp. 2 1-27.
"Gutierrez. Edgar Omar. "Ei Noroesre y la mineria de metale indust~iales". XII impoio de HlslOriu g Aillropo1o~liu de son or(^, Hermosillo. Inslitulo de invesligaciones His16ricas de la Universidad de sonora. 1087. p. 2m216.

I I

Union (Sindicato de Pabajadores Mineros y Metaldrgicos de la RepUblica Mexicana). Founded in 1934, the union lias increasingly demanded hetter, safer and healthier working conditions for the miner. From the 1970s onwards, thwc has heen a greater concern for the environment on the part of the government, as evidencrd by new laws. regulations and decrees. ResponsihilIty is shared hy government ministrics such as the Ministry of Health (Seci,etarfa dc Salubridad y Asistencla), Ministry of Lahoiir (Secretaria del Pabajo y PrevisiOn Social). and SAHOP, the Ministry of Human Settleincnls and Public Works (Secretaria de Asentainlcnlos llumanos y Obras Publicas). During the 198Os, there was a radical shift in the environmental policies of Ihe Mexican government and in the attiliitlcs of Mexican Society. Environmental resporisibilities were now centred in SEDUE. the lilinislry of Urhan Development and Ecology (S(:crelariade Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologiai. New institutions, commissions, laws, standards and derees provide a stricter approach to the conservation of the environment and thi: crcation of specific programs. Some mining entcrprises had already begun to carry out ecological prugrams a s early a s the late 1960s. a trend which is generally more evident during the 1980s. The Federal Law for the Care of the Environment \vas decreetl in 1982."' In the same year, the Office of the Prcsident (Coordinacih de Proyectos de Desarrollo de la Presidencia de la RepUbiica) organized the first meeting on solid wastes and effluents with presidents of municipalities. SEDUE was placed in charge of formuiating and carrying out federal policics for the use and disposal of natural resourccs and for the preservation of the environment. It was to cooperate with state and municipal governments. Coinciding with this important
Io

change, the Ministry of National Patcimony and Industrial Promobion (Secretaria de Patrimonlo y Fomento Induslrial) would hecome SEMIP, the Ministry of Encrgy, Mines and Public lndustry (Secretaria de Energia, Minas e Industria
ParaestaCal). 'lb carry out its projects. SEDUE implemented a

series of studies on the environment and mining in Mexico. These included guidelines for
regional regulations controlling mining residues (1983) and on mining and the environment (1984). A hrief monograph wrilten hy engineer lgnacio Antonio Jarquin Nieto outlines proposals for the control of tailings." Because of the rapid growth of the miniiig industry in Mexico, the author emphasizes the need to quickly establish appropriate tachnical and administrative measures for controlling pollution from mines. The study contains data on the country's mining industry including specific information on the kinds of wastes the industry generates. the performance of tailings ponds, and diagrammatic descriptions of activities for controlling wastes generated by the mining industry. Another study of the management, treatment and disposal of soiid industrial wastes proposes the creation of a national inventory of residues and their sources on which ta hase a disposal plan.'* The first phase of the National Environment Plan (1984 to 1988) was finished in 1984. It considered environmental management as a responsihility to be shared hy al1 of Society and the three levels of government federal, state and municipal. For the first time, mining was included in the national development plan. The 1984-1988 National Mining Program, created hy the Ministry of Energy, Mines and Public lndustry (SEMIP), required rational exploitation of natural resourccs and environmental planning for the future. In order M assess the impact of mining, metallurgy and civil engineering-related activities. SEDUE commissioned three

Leg'Fcdcfalde i~riecci<lii < I d M<!dioAmhi<:nie. Mexico. 1982 "Jarqui" Nielo. ignaclo Antonio. ILiricumirnios paru el conllol de residuos mineros. Mexico. SEDUE. 1983. curso sobre rnancjo. ifaiarriiniio $1rlisrx~sicldn Jlnai de ~ s I d u o 5 sdlidos indusifiales. Mexico. SEDUE. 1984.

12

monographs M identify and characterize the impact of metallic and non-metallic mining and processing. and the smelting of non-ferrous minerals (specificailya copper smeiter). The purpose of these investigations was to identify concrete environmental impact projects reiated to mining activity.
Since 1986, there has been an increasing effort at al1 ievels to collect information on the environment and the problems caused by pollution. SEDUE pubiished a series of surveys of the natural resources of the country, and of the management and quaiity of environmental care. These publications include outiines of government policies (federai and state, as well as by economic sector). environmentai forecasts and the legal and institutional framework.

Waste Materials (Regamentode residuos peligrosos)of November 25, 1988, which contains rules specificallyrelated to mining activities. Between 1989 and 1992, other laws on ecological balance and environmental protection were enacted in each of the States of Mexico. Federal governrnent environmentai policies increasingly have been made clearer and more dynamic. The Federal Law on Metrology and Standardization (Ley Federal sobre Metrologi'a y Normalizacih - LFMN) of July 1992 established a uniform procedure for the development of OfficiaiMexican Standards (NOM) (Normas O.ficiales Mexicanas). Its objective, in addition M its activities of standardization, certification, verification and iaboratory testing. is to promote the involvement of Mexican societygovernment, private sector, the scientific community and consumers-in the deveiopment and enforcement of such iaws. With this law. the compulsoiy NOM replaces ail previous technical standards issued by the Ministry of Health and SEDUE. According M LFMN, the NOM should estabiish the characteristics of any product, process or service that may involve risk to health and safety in the workpiace or in public. to animais and plants or to the environment, or which may have a negative impact on natural resources. The law prescribes the creation of a National Standards Commission (Comisidn Nacional de Normalizacidn) M manage policies and to coordinat? regulatoiy activities of government institutions. Advisory committees (Comits Consultivos Nacionales de Normalizacidn), formed of representatives of the public Sector. induslry, the academic community, take part in setting standards and managing the National Standards System (Sistema Nacional de Normalizaci6n).

In 1986, SEDUE issued a publication which reported, for the first time. on the status of the In 1988, the National environment in Me~ico.'~
Commission of Ecology (ComisiOn Nacional de Ecologi"), a branch of the same ministry, pubiished a second report entitled General Report on the Ecology (Informe general de ecologh), and one in 1989-90 entitled Report on the Generai Stalus of Ecoiogical Balance and Environmental Protection (Informede la situcih general en materia de equilihrio ecoidgio y proteccih al amhiente), The fourth bienniai Deport, 1991-92. was presented by the National lnstitute of Ecology (lnstitutoNacional de Ecologfa) which is part of the recently created SEDESO, Ministry of Social Development (Secretarh de Desarmiio Social). The legal and institutional regulations which currently control the preservation of the environment in Mexico are included in the General Law for Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (LGEEPA).LGEEPA supersedes the 1982 Federal Law for the Protection of the Environment." In the meantime, several more regulations have been issued, including the Regulation of Dangerous

In 1989, the privale organization of mining companies known as CAMIMEX ( C h a r a

"Inlorme sobre el esludo del medl0 umbienre en iMXlc0. Mexico, SEDUE.

28,1988.

1986.

"'Ley generai dei equilibrio ecoi6gico y proiecci6n ai ambiente". Diori0 Oflaai de la Federuci6n Mexico. Janualy

13

Minera de Mxico -the Chaniber of Mines of Mexico) and SEDESO established an ecological commission linking represeniativcs of various mining enterprises with the National lnstitute of Ecology. The current CAMIMEX Ecological Commission (ComisiOn de Ecoioga de CAM/MEX) is made up of representatives of the major rnining cornpanies of Mexico: Industrial Minera Mxico. Frisco, industrias Penoles, Minera Mexicana Sombreretc, Mexicana de Cobre, Cobre de Mxico, Minas de San Luis (Durango). Compafiia Real del Monte y Pachuca, Minera las Cuevas (San Luis Potosf), Minera Carbonifera Rio Escontlido (Piedras Negras. Coahuila), Materias lrimas Monterrey, Minera del Norte (Nuevo Leon). Altos Hornos de Mxico (Monclova, Coahiiila). ivision Aceros Planos de HYLSA (Montcrrey). Minera Cuicuilco (Jalisco),and Exploracion y Mincria Independencia. In 1991 SEMIPs Directoiale Gencral of Mines (Direccidn Ceneral dc Minas). Sb:I>UE and CAMlMEX collectively devclopcd criteria for a project entitled Technical Standards for Preserving and Restoring liie I~ciilogical Balance. A technical working toani was trained in Denver, Colorado, for this ~iiirpose. SEDUEs ecological responsibilitics were transferred in May 1992 tu thc riewly crcated Ministry of Social Developincnl (SLDESO). where al1 the activities rclated tu the preservation of the environmmt and natural resources were concentrat,cd. SEDESOS National lnstitute of Ecology (INIS - lnstituto Nacional de Ecologh) and the Fcderal Environmental Protection Office (Procuraduria Federal de ProtecciOfl a/ Amhiente, PROFEPA) were also created in 1992. The purpose of INE is ic put inic effect environmcnlal standards, while the Environmental Protection Officesrole is to oversee the enforcement of standards in accordance with legal criteria and public demands. There now exists tlirough these institutions a combination of prccautionary, enforcement and corrective measures.

Other important structural changes were made in 1992: offices for the management of the environment were decentralized to the various States and municipalities. State delegations (Delegaciones estatales) of the Federal Environmental Protection Office were ,created, and environmental protection boards (Regidorlas de Protecclh Ambientan and citizen ecological councils (Consejos EcolOgicos de ParticipaciUn Ciudadana) were established. In 1994, the first stage of the General Environmental Priorities Program of the Mexican Territory (Programa General de Ordenamiento Ecoldgico del Terriwrio Nacionai) was completed. It diagnosed Mexicos environmental situation and defined rgional policies and standardized criteria for development in the regions of the country which require more attention. Mining is one of twentyfour environmenial priorities.
SEMIPs Directorate General for Mining and Metallurgical Operations (DirecciOfl Ceneral de OperaciOn Minerornetalfirgica) has been working sincc 1992 with CAMIMEX on research carrietl out by thc Directorate General for Environmenial Standardization (DirecciOn Ceneral de NorrnatividadAmbien:ntalJof INE to cstablish Official Mexican Standards (NOM)for environmental issues in mining. A NOM project for the design and building of tailings ponds is being considercd.

In addition, SEMII is collaborating with INEs Directorate General for Ecological Planning (DirecciOn General de PlaneaciOn EcolOgica)
and with CAMIMEX 10 harmonk rnining development with the ecological surroundings. Several environmental studies are being carried out in the regions of Guadalupe, Zacatecas; Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua; and, Nacozari, Sonora.

The three institutions have also agreed ta work together to assure success of the following environmental goals relakd M mining:

14

prevention and control of water pollution in effluents from mineral extraction and processing and from metal and ferroalloys processing; reduction o emissions to the atmosphere of various particles and of sulfur dioxide from the smelting and refining of non-ferrous metallic minerais (copper and zinc); design, construction and operation of tailings ponds; COntMl of atmospheric emissions of sulfur dioxide from the mining and pmcessing of nonmetallic minerals; guidelines for environmental impact assessmenb for open pit and underground mines: and, development of environmentai criteria for mining activities and the treatment of waste rock from mining operations.

Four environmental NOMS for mining. two guideline booklets and the development of criteria for waste materiais disposai were planned for 1993. However. to date oniy the projects on the design, construction and operation of tailings ponds are under way.
The 1990-1994 Mining Modernization Program (Pmgrama de ModernlzaciOn de la Mlnerfa 10001904)includes a specific program for the prevention and control of pollution. It gives priority to reducing pollution generated by the mining and metallurgical industry to permissible levels within technical and economic limits. This prcgram also recommended a new mining law. which was issued in June 1992.
The 1992 Mining Law allows for several significant modifications to increase the sector's development. These are: the participation of long-krm risk capital and foreign c a p h i in exploitation activities; the development of technology essential for an efficient and cornpetitive industry: and. the creation of a legal framework.

During the past two decades the large miniiig companies, both government-owncd and private. have carried out scveral programs for the protection of the environment and for the recovery of already affectcd m a s . The various associations of entrepreneurs and mining professionals have also assirmcd their responsibilities with an opcri coinmitment M establish a harmonious reiationship between mining and the environment. Activities to protect the environment by the major Mexican mining enterprises lake two directions: the installation of ncw plants and pollution prevention equipmcnt; and. the creation of environmental programs for the rehabilitation and control of oldcr facilities. Figures on the total amocint iiivested by each firm and the total yearly cxpentiiture on environmental protection are no1 available: nevertheless. we include hcrr some of the available data, and descric somc of the work related to the environmenl contliicted by these companies.

"During the same two-year period (1991-1992), Minera Carbonifera Rio Escondido S.A. de C.V. (MICARE) undertook a program M reforest 17.5 hectares, investing 35,000 new pesos. 'The program included the reconditioning of 328 hectares used for discarded waste material, transportation of 545.298 in3 of soil, and the planting of about 400 hectares with various types of fodder, shrubs and trees for the rehabilitation of affected

areas.""
in 1992. SEMiP's Commission lor the Promotion of Mining (Comisibn de Fomenta Miflero)concluded the first stage of a project M rehabilitate the tailings ponds of its Parral unit. It carried out 31 tests on water quality to monitor and record the impact on the environment of this long-term proiect. The enterprises that stand out for their leadership role in the areas of environment and the community are Industrias Petoles and its subsidiaries, Industrial Minera Mxico and Grupo Prisco. In 1991. lndustrias Pefioles invested 3,000,000 new pesos in equipment for energy cecovery and dust collection. Its refracmry division invested 500,000 new pesos in anti-pollution systems. That Same year, the tailings ponds of Fresnillo and Guanajuato and the areas surrounding the metallurgical plant in T o r r e h

The 1991-1992 Report on llie Gencral Status of Ecological Balance and Environmental Preservation observes: "...the State's sulfur mines have spent 5,635,000 new pesos'; in simplifying the systems of storage. transporation and treatment of effluents. in constructing dams and waterways and in building drainage channels and ditches M protect the environment.lG

in January 1993. the n w pi:so ixrcanic ihe officiai Mcxican currency: ils value is equivalent to 1 . m (old) Pesos. The excharigc raie of iiir ri<:=' pcso al T h e end 01 each ycar was US$ 2.943 in 1990, us$ 3.066 in i991, US$ 3 . 1 1 9 in 1992 and US$ 3 204 a i Ille ~ n o d f Fcbruary 1994.
' j

"' "..iaS azufreras del eslado crog:iirun 5.635 milioncs de PCOS en la ampliaci6ri dc ios Sistemas de almacenamienio. conducci61iy iri~iiilniciilo de aguas residuales. AS( conio CI> la rculizaci6n de obras de rehahiliiaci6n de bordos y rainirios y cri la consirucci6n de drcnajes y canaics para proiecci6n ambicniar. SElE.SO. InJorrne de ici siiriocrjii !!<vl<'rul <)II mureriu de equilibrio coI6gicI) !i i>rorc(:c:ii>nui aint>ienie.I W I . 1992, Mexico. sccrciaria d n c s a r d o Sociai (SEUrSO). insiii~to Nacionai de Ecoiogia. I993, p. 135.136.
""En ei misrno pcriodo Mincri) carbonifera Rio Fzcondido s . A dc C.V. (MICARID llcv6 a cabo un prograrna de reioresiaci6n de i 7.5 ha. con i i r i i i iiwersi6n de 35 miliones dc pesos. que iricliiyc: el acondicionamicnto de 328 ha de liradero. el acarreo de 545.208 rn3 de sudo Y la siembra de alrededor de 400 ha con diferenles ripos de zacaies. arhuslos y arbolcs. [>ararctiabiliiar las zonas de influencia". ibidem. p. 136.

16

City were reforested. and dust emissions and effluents from the mines decreased significantly. In the municipality of Torreon, Met-Mex Peiioles built a plant to trap sewage water from the town system and M recycle it, thus reducing the use of underground water. Equipment to reduce atmospheric emiSSiOnS was installed at its sulfuric acid plant and the metallurgical complex in Torre6n: and'the plant for producing liquid sulfur dioxide in Mexico City was closed and its production was transferred to the modernized plant in Torreh where a computerized air quality monitoring system had been installed.'8 Industrias Pefioles has set up a corporate environmental committee to promote environmental awareness among its operations staff and to increase the participation of employees in environmental activities.'g The 1991 annual report of the Peiioles Group (Grupo Pefioles) also points out that the Group introduced environmental controls in its plant facilities ta provide a working place free of dust and smoke. During 1992, the Peiioles Group conducted several environmental risk studies, made the necessary investments and adopted the recommended precautionary masures to guarantee the safety of their working communities. In addition, three new mines were opened following environmenral impact assessments. These were Tizapan (Mexico), La Cinaga (Durango) and Bismark (Chihuahua). Reforestation continues in the surrounding areas. The Pefioles mining division planted 17.640 trees and moved 152,000 tons of soi1 t O cover tailings ponds in order to reforest and promote the regeneration of vegetation and to prevent the dispersion of dust. Atmospheric emissions have been reduced. Liquid. solid and gas emissions continue to be monitored in Torreon's plants and al1 the other enterprises of the Industrial Chemicals Division of the Group. Trapping of sulfur dioxide has increased at the Peiioles Met-Mex Sulfuric Acid Plant by installing double-absorption equipment. Al1 of the equipment for the transportation and movement of materials was converted to use liquefied gas instead of gasoline or diesel, thus
,- indusirias Peiloles S A de C V I informe unuul.
'"Ibidem 0 2 3
1991

reducing atmospheric emissions. In 1993. Industrias Peiioles and PROFEPA signed an agreement M conduct environmental audits in the Company's mines and plants. The Grupo Industrial Minera Mxico has promoted an environmental policy for some years now, and bas a special department in charge of environmentai issues (the Security and Sanitation Office). In 1987, it increased activities to protect the environment and created the Ecological and Industrial Sanitation Department, which deals with everything related M industriai sanitation, occupational medicine, ecology, environmental impact and environmental engineering. This department has established severai practices to control pollutants. These include improved ventilation, noise control. installation of dust collectors. control of dangerous wastes. environmental monitoring systems, nurseries and reforestation. At its copper plant in San Luis Potosi, more efficient furnace ventilation has replaced the original installation at a cost of 14,000,000new pesos. Six hundred metres away. a 33-hectare ecological park provides trees for reforestation. Its yearly maintenance cost is 200,000 new pesos.
A priority for Industrial Minera has been M instsll sampling stations around it,splant,s t,n

monitor air quaiity and the efficiency of emissions control systems, as well as to implement the necessary measures in case the air quaiity drops below national guidelines. In 1986. five monitoring stations and two meteorological stations were installed at its copper plant, The old sulfur dioxide measuring equipment was replaced by a centralized computer system which also controls stack emissions and measures ambient conditions. The automated system is comprised of five fixed stations which will shortly be expanded to seven fixed stations, and a number of mobile stations. The data are reported monthly M the environment and health authorities of the federal and siate governments. Industrial Minera has also installed environmental monitoring equipment at its
p 22-23

17

Unidad Cananea and Unidatl La Caridad plants, bath in Sonora State, and a t iis plant in Chihuahua. Plants a t the zinc refincry a t San Luis Potosi and Mexicana de Ct11)rctransform sulfur dioxide emissions into suluric acid.

Grupo Frisco, another largc rriining Company in Mexico, carried out several envirorimenliil initiatives in 1993. Tliree sigriificaiit projects are under way at Minera San Yrancisco S.A. de C.V., locakd in San Francisco dcl Orii in liie northern state of Chihuahua: to optimize the systom for controiling dust from its grinding cii,c.uit, to maximize water rccovci'y in its processing: and. to rehabilitate a tailings Uond no longer in use.
Systems to control atrnosplicric missions from mining and Lo reforest arcss :idjacent to its tailings pond are being set, up in thr mine of Real de Angeles S.A. de C.V. in Zacakcas. A program is underway at Minera Maria S.A. de C.V., in Cananea, Sonora. tc rnorest Lhe area affected by the mine. Like its iargc mining counterparts. Grupo Frisco lias an assistant director in charge of enviroriniont. sanitalion and security. The positive attitude of miiiing professionals in Mexico and their endeavours 1.0 bring harmony between mining and the ecology iiced to Lie empbasiaed. The Chamber o Mines of Mcxico, as we have already seen. activciy works with the government in creatiny cnviioninental preservation plans. The 1993 'mentieth National Convention of the Mexican Association of Mining lingineers, Metailurgists and Geologists (AIMMGM Asociacidn de Ingenieros de iblinas, Meleialuryisws y Gedlogos de h/(!xico], which took place in Acapulco, !vas entitletl Miiiing and the

Environment. The conference papers ail reflected the mincrs' concerns to make mining and the environment compatible. Fernel Arvizu Lara, Presidcnt of the Board of the AIMMGM, said in his inaugural speech: "We ...commit ourselves not only to carrying out studies of various mining regions of thc country. but also ta do this wit,h grcat responsibility regarding the environment. because we understand that mining and the environment can and rnust be ccimpatible."20 Eduardo Luna Arcllano, president OC the organizing commiltee of the convention poinkd out that: "...(the topic) was chosen in order to emphasiae the great responsibility that mining has for the environment. We know that we must operate our plants and mines within a normative framcwork which will finally achieve a respectful attitude towards the environment. wliile a t the same time reaching a high levcl of efficiency in the production of minerals and metals indispensable for the welfare and developmcnt nf society."z'
Of the ninety published papers of the k n t i e t h AIMMGM convention, only ive deait directly with the issue of the reiationship between mining and the cnvironment. and these were from a legal and tcchnical point of view.22This Tact does not devalue the important step taken by mining specialists in speaking publicly about this issue. Dr. Guillernio J. Romin Moguel, of Mexico's National Polytechnic States in his paper: "The discussion among professionals about the environmental impact of the mining industry has been kept a t an almost secret level because it reccives such an exaggerated or biased treatment in the media."23

""El tema ...fu(: escogido Dala suixlyar la grari rcpOnsabiiidadquc la mincria ~ i m c para ei ~ntorno. Sabemos que debemos opcrar n u cl r i s piiiniiis y minas denlro de un marco normaiivo que logre el rcpeio al medio mientras se iogra. tombieri. irl i>iO<iiiCtii>rl eficienic de mlncrais y rnctaics indipcnsubies para el biencslur y dcsarrollo de la ocicclud". ibi&:iii. i'.45 21 hsociaci6n de ingcnieros ci<: niirms. mlaiurgisias y ge6logos dc Mexico. A.C.. .Mcmoriu5. Vobqios icnicos, ymiogio. mirimio. rneroliirgio. i<:rnos !)<?icroles.XX conuenci&>iAiM,MGM. ACB~UICO. i903.890 pp. *' "La discusi6n j>roicsioiia d r lccios ambientalcs de ia industria sc ha mantcnido a un nivei de cierro secrcro dado ei IratamienIo gcneraimciit<: <:s;igciaclo O parcial que se le conficrc en ibs mcdios de comunicaci6n~~o11Sidcracioiics ainbimGics de iil industria mincro-mctal(irhrica".il>idcm,p.498.

1 s

s o m e cae S t e a ies o f Pollution Caued by etallurgical

Among the bibliography we examined. one research study stands out. It was carried out by chemistry and geography experts of Mexico's National University (UNAM)Z'and examined cases of probable pollution caused by mining and metallurgical activities in three regions of Mexico. Their results, showing how these studies were performed and how mining enterprises have contributed ta solving these problems, are summarized below. In 1984, S E D U E s General Office for the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution asked UNAM's Faculty of Chemistiy and Institue of Geography to carry out research on problems related to tailings ponds. The aims of the study were the following to obtain an overview of the problem; ta describe the features of the site; and, ta identify the mining processes and environmental risks of this activity by means of physical and chemical tests on samples of residual solids and water. The piirpose was to obtain a general overview of the potential risks of the pollutants on the population and the environment. The first phase of the UNAM project centred on the study of four large mining companies in the northern region of Mexico that were Iinked to solid waste pollution problems. The firms were the mining companies San Francisco del Oro, Compania Minera Cananea. Fluorita de Mxico and Minera Muzquiz. The students of a secondary school close to the San Francisco del Oro mine showed poor health, presumably caused by pollution from the mine. A pilot notation plant to concentrate oxides had begun operations in July 1985. Shortly thereafkr. the population began to experience headaches. irritation of the throat, eyes. arms and legs, and dyspnea. In September. 56 students fainted during a school meeting. Although the health problems eventually decreased, the plant was closed down, its reopening conditional on the introduction of certain environmental measures. The Company did not reopen the pilot plant since it proved to be uneconomicai.
The studies carried out by the UNAM researchers did not establish a cause-effect

relationship between mining activities and the health of the students. Poisoning caused by heavy metals or toxic substances in the water could not be proven and the students' failing health was attributed ta sunstroke. alimentary problems. "psychological-hormonal" disorders and other possibilities. It was suggested that if there was pollution, it was rom the active tailings ponds, or a fluorite plant, possibly in combination with domestic sewage in the San Francisco Stream. Water coming from the Stream, close ta the school, carried sewage water with zinc and sulfur compounds which could affect the population. it was also confirmed that, although the cyanide concentration in recycled water was higher than that reported by government bodies and by the firm, it was not in a bioavailable form. The wind swept in the direction of the school from the tajlings ponds, carrying fine particles rich in metals and cyanides. These materials. however, could damage health only in the long term.

The research COOrdinalorS were Maria Eugenia Gulirrez aiid Jos Luis Palacio-PrieIo. hclped by Juan G6mcz Ferez, Raiil MarrOqUk and Callos ROmO.

19

Other sources of atmospheric pollution were no1 apparent. Experts rom UNAM recommended relocating tht: school. building a sewage treatment system. cessation of dumping of domestic and induswiai waste inM the San Francisco Stream and covixirig the tailings ponds with soi1 and vegetatii~iito prevent further pollution.

new wells had to be drilled in the basin of the San Pedro River. 'The state Ministry of
Agriculture and l~lydraulicResources had warned the firm that the overuse of the river could pollute the pliitatic layer with water spilled from the dikes of the old concentrating plant.

In the case of the Compafiia Minera Cananea. increased copper production and the growth of its facilities raised levels o air and solitl waste pollution. Because it is so ciost: to lhe United States. the first complaints came froin American environmental grciups wlio were worried about sulfur dioxidc emissions. 'me expansion of Compaiia Minrra Cananea and the start-up of Mexicana dc C n h i t in Nacoaari increased the pressure frim thc environmental groups. especially on the oiiglas smclter (American) which had to closc tlown because it could not comply with US linviroiinicntal Protection Agency (Ei'A) rcgiiltitioiis on atmospheric emissions of lnxic gasases. The same American ecological advocatm successfully put pressure on the Mexican ininiiig Company of Nacozari to install a plant 1,o rt:covc,r sulfur dioxide (SO2) as sulfuric acid.
The dikes of an old conccnt,ral,ingplant (Concentradora Vieja) were ils oidest storage ponds for soiid waste. From 1982 on, the dikes were used only as an emergency Caility to control water ievels in the coinliany's other tailings ponds near the Soncira River. Occasionally. the old ponds pciliuted neighbouring rivers when tori.t:ntial rains caused the water to overfiow. 'I'he water. which has a very acid pH, and a conductivity beyond permissible limits, ended up iil the San Pedro River and ultimately, in the N a Kivcr. indirectly affecting US farmers and caltle breetlcrs.

In addition, the active tailings ponds of the Compaiia Minera Cananea are located close to the City of Cananea and take in water from natural rivers wliere the population's domestic wasle water is dumped. During the rainy season. water from the tailings ponds gets into thc ncarby Sonora Kiver. affecting its quality. A comparative study of the condition of the water of the Sonora River in 1984 and 1986 showed a (ledine in its quality at various Sites along its course. It exceeded the permissible limits of copper. zinc, lead and mangancse for any possible use of the water. Dust frorn the tailings ponds has not been a concern becaiise the wind direction is away from populatcd areas and therefore does not bother the City of Cananea.
During the lalc 1980s. Compafifa Minera Cananea introtliiced a plan for the improvement of its Milings ponds and for enlarging the retention systcm of solid and liquid discharges in order to diminish the possibiiity ofan accidental spill caiised by rain. Compafiia Minera Cananea plans to handle its water in closed circiiils and t stop discharging it directly into bhc rivers. There is, however. another probiem: the illicit activity of mining workers, called chatarreros ("junkers") or co6reros (copper dealers), who e,xtract residual copper from tailings by draining watcr from the ponds ID tanks and then to the San Pedro River. it lias been difficult for the mining Company 10 prevent this piracy. A number of solutions to these problems have been identified: building channels to divert rain wateP: modifying the pH of dammed water 10 reduce acid values and copper solubility:

UNAM researchers pointed out the possibility of the Company polluting the phrea1,ic layer and rivers of the region. Also. lhf: growth of mining increased the water needs of Ihe Company. and

20

preventing the work of the chatarreros: and. waterproofing the soi1 of the tailings ponds to prevent minerals from permeating the phreatic layer. Recently, the Company adopted measures to control the discharge of solid waste and effluents. As a first step, the Company intends to improve the conditions of ils tailings ponds so that they will meet security standards, and in the long term to solve their storage problem. Several of these measures have been carried out with satisfactory results, and there a r e plans to continue them. Compafiia Minera Cananea has made an attempt to solve its environmental problems. However. when the UNAM research was being carried out there was still pollution in the San Pedro and Sonora Rivers near the firm's tailings ponds.
A third case studied by UNAM dealt with the

which connect the tailings ponds with the tank are damaged from time to time and affect the cultivated areas. They stressed the desirability of replacing ditches with pipes.
It is important to point out that the.sediments of the tailings ponds are not harmful to al1 vegetation. Several types of shrubs and trees grow on their surface and actually help stabilize the solid waste.

The geoiogical and geographical features of the site of one of the tailings ponds owned by Compafiia Minera Muzquiz poses a hazard to a nearby well called Socav6n. The researchers recommended continuous monitoring of water o another quality and moving the pond t location. The operation does not pose any air pollution problems. The UNAM researchers concluded that a clear understanding of the dynamics of tailings ponds should be seen only a s a long-term objective because there is very little information about the solid waste dumps, and because natural environments and chemical processes are very diverse and heterogeneous. However. the studies provided an overview of the problems related to the tailings ponds and established the basis for future research on the subject with full consideration of the particularities of each region.
The UNAM study emphasizes the need for research on the biogeochemical cycles of

region of Melchor Muzquiz in the state of Coahuila, nor.tliern Mexico, where two fluorite concentrating plants are operated by Fluorita de Mxico and Compafiia Minera Mfizquiz. The aim of the research was to assess the environmental impact of the operations of these two firms on the area. Fluorita de Mxico S.A. is located within the City of Mhquiz. It has three tailings ponds where effluents and solids are discharged before being sent in open channels through agricultural fields to a tank located seven kilometres away. The main problem identified by the researchers was leakage of waste water from a ditch into adjoining Wells. The firm had constructed watertight ditches and provided the affected population with drinking water. The researchers pointed out that the open channels

metals and polluting compounds frequenlly iised in Mexico so that their impact on the environment can be fully understood. This would help to solve and prevent serious environmental excursions.

Mining is fundamental to the economic life of Mexico. The geological charactcristics of Mexico and the mining tradii.ion of the country have placed it for centuries among the mining powers of the world. in the course of the countrys industrialiation process, the mining industry has grown. tliversiied and become gradually integratetl irito thc industry and economy of the country. During the twentieth ccntury. the development of the countrys mining production, as well as cliangcs in processing and exploitation techniqiics. havc increased the variety of effects that thr activity may have on the environment. Although the federal government has had a direct interest in working conditions (safeel,y.health and ventilation) in mines smcltcrs and refineries Since the 1930s. environrncnlai control had rested largely in the hands of the mining and metallurgical producers. In thc 1970s. the federal government began introducing poiicies to better protecl thc cnvironment and to preserve natural rcsources. During the 1980s. the Mexican government paid increasing attention to thc environment: first by issuing laws. regulations and decrees to protect the population. the environment and the natural resources of Ihc country, and then by creating new ministries. institutes and other federal. state and municipal institutions and bodies to standardize and

oversee environmental matters.

In the mining sector. the problems addressed by environmcntal legislation and the institutions in charge of protection of the environment-SEUE, INE, SEDESO - have involved mainly solid residues. Tailings ponds connected with processing plants, residues from hydromctallurgical plants and slags and fine dust from smelters, which constitute 90 percent of totai industrial solid waste, have received thc greatcst legislative and research attention. CAMIMEX, INE and SEMlP worked together to get the first Official Mexican Standard (NOM) spccific for mining operations. which deals with the design and construction of tailings ponds.
h i s s i o n s produced by the mining and metallurgical intlustry have already been identified. and the mcans ta control them a r e well known, but expensive. The major mining enterprises in Mexico are gradually solving these problems hy containing pollutants. rehabilitating affected areas and minimizing emissions. Widening the discussion of the problems related to the environmental impact of mining and mctallurgy froni a private sphere ta one which includes people from the academic world is a signiicarit step toward solving the problems. Ideally, these actions also contribute to the productivity of the industry and to a positive image Cor mining.

22

AGUAYO Camargo. Eduardo and Luis F. Caire Lomeli, "lngenieria, industria, gobierno y medio ambiente", Mernorias, trabajos

tcnicos. geologia, mineria, metalurgia, temas generales, xi( Convention AIMMGM.

Acapulco 1993, pp. 793-798. ASOCIACION de Ingenieros de minas, metalurgistas y geologos de Mxico, A.C..

DE LA MADRID Hurtado, Miguel, Sers informes de gobierno, 1983-1988. Mexico. Direccion General de Comunicacion Social, Presidencia de la Republica. 1988.
DE PABLO Serna. Luis, "La proniocion de la mineria en Mxico, 1934.1984, Cornision de Fomento Minero", Mineria Mexicana. Mexico, Cornision de Fomento Minero. 1984, chapter 16, pp. 410-458.

Mernorias,. trabajos tcnicos. geologia, mineria,metalurgia, temas generales, X X Convencih AIMMGM, Acapulco, 1993,890 pp.
BANCO de Mxico, S. A., (BANXICO), Departamento de Estudios Economicos, Cuentas nacionales y acervos de capital, 1,950-1967.Mxico, Banco de Mxico. 1989.
BERNSTEIN, Marvin D.. The Mexican Mining Industry, 1890-1950. A Study of the Interaction of Politics. Economics, and Technology, New York, State University of New York, 1964. BOXER, Peter A. "Occupational Mass Psychogenic Illness", Journal of Occupational Medicine, Vol. 27, No. 12,December 1985 (citado por el Ing. Abelardo Treviio de METMEX Petoles, S.A. de C.V.). CONSEJO de Recursos Naturales no Renovables, "Ordenanzas de Mineria Otorgadas por el Rey Carlos III de Espata". Ordenanzas de Minerfa, Comentarios y Legislacion Minera hasta 1874, Vol. 1, Mxico, Consejo de Reciirsos Naturales no Renovables, 1961.

"DISCURSOS en la inauguracion de la XX Convencion Nacional de la Asociacidn de lngenieros de Minas Metalurgistas y Geologos de Mxico". Mineria, Camimex. Revista de la Cdmara Minera de Mxico, Vol. ViII. No. 4, October-December 1993.

EXPEDIENTE formado sobre los perjuicios que ocasiona a la salidpiiblica los humos de las haciendas de fundicih de metales y reglas para establecer las nuevas. Archivo Municipal de Chihuahua, Fondo Colonia, Seccion Gobierno. Box 47, File 1.
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24

MUHECH Dip, Vidal, "Presas de jales (impacto . . ycontroi ambiental)" Geomimet, No 161. September-October 1989, pp.65-68 ORDENANZAS dei Nuevo Cuaderno Expedidas
por Felipe Il el 22 de Agosto de 1584, Espaiia,

trahajos tcnicos,geologia, mineria, metalurgia, temas generales, H Convencih AlMMGM, Acapulco, 1993, pp. 880-886. SALINAS de Gortari, Carlos. Informes de gohrerno, 1992-1994, Mexico, Direccih General de Comunicaclh Social, Presidencia de la Repdhlica, 1992-1994. SARIEGO Rodriguez, Juan Luis, Luis Reygadas, Miguel Angei G6mez and Javier Farrera, El estado y la minerfa mexicana. Politka, trahajo y sociedad durante el siglo H, Mexico, Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1988. SECRETARIA de Programacih y Presupuesto (SPP), Coordinacion General de los Servicios Nacionales de Esiadistica, Geografia e Inormitica (CGSNEGI),Bases informativas para el us0 del mode10 de insumo producm, SPP, Mxico, 1980, volume 1.

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ambientales en la industria rninero metalfirgica". Memorias, trahajos tcnicos, geologia, mineria. metalurgia. temas generales, XY Convencih AlMMGM, Mexico, 1993. pp. 497-503.
RUIZ Mndez, Juan Carlos, "Desintoxicacion de efluentescon cianuro de las operaciones minero-meialurgicas, utilizando proxido de hidrogeno y zeolitas", Memorias, trahajos tcnicos, geologia, mineria, metalurgia, temas generales, XY Convencidn AIMMGM, Acapulco, 1993, pp. 718-725.

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materia de equilihrio ecoldgico y proteeciin ai ambiente, 1991-1992. Mexico, Secretaria de Desarrollo Social (SEDESO). Institut0 Nacional de Ecologia. 1993. SEDUE. Corso sobre MANEJO, tratamiento y disposici6n final de residuos sdlidos industriales, Mexico. SEDUE. Subsecretarfa de Ecologia. Direction General de Prevencian y control de la contaminacion ambiental, 1984. SEDUE. "ldentificacion de los impactos ambientales significativos ocasionados por la fundicion de minerales no ferrosos. Monografia B . 4 , Estildios especiales de evaluaci6n de impacto amhientai para actividades relacionadas con la mineria, la metalugia e ingeflieri" civjl, SEDUE, 1984.

SAHOP, "ldentiicacion y caracterizacih de ios impactos ambientales significativosgenerados por el beneficio y refinacion de minerales met,iiicos y no metalicos, Monografia B.2". Estildios especiales de evaluacidn de impacto amhientai para actividades relacionadas con la mineria, la metalurgia e ingenierfa civil, grupo B, SAHOP, Ivlexico. 1984. SALIDO Resndiz, Patricia, "lnvestigacih basica de la evaluacih ambiental de los componentes t6xicos en los sueios y ios sedimentos de las presas de jales". Mernorias,

SEDUE, "ldentificacion y caracterimion de los impactos ambientales signiiativos generados por la exploiacion de yacimienlos minerales metAlicos y no metAlicos. Monograffii K I " . EsLudios especiales de evaiuacih de impact0 ambienta1para actividades relacionadas con la mineria, la rnetalurgia e ingenieria civii, Mexico, SEDUE. 1984.

TODO Mxico, compendio enciclopdico, 1985, Mxico, Enciclooetlia de Mxico. 1985.

UNlVERSlDAD Nacional Authorna de Mxico (UNAM), Facultad de Quimica e Institut0 de Geograffa. Primeros resultados del estudio de contaminacion por lales en el norte de Mxico (Sonora. Chihuahua y Coahuila). elaboradopara SEDUE, Informe sobre el estado del rnedio amhiente 18 Djreccidn de prevencidn y control de la contaminaciUn. SEDUE, UNAM, Mexico, without en Mxico. Mexico, SEDLIII. 1986. date, about 1988. SEDUE, Direccihn General (le i'revcncion y Control de la Contaminacion Ambienlal. Line8mientospara VELASCO Avila. Cuauhtmoc, Eduardo Flores Clair. Alma Parra Campos, Edgar Omar el control de residoos minelas. 1983. Typescript. Gutirrez Lopez, Estado y mineria en Mxico (1767-1910).i\rlexico, Fondo de Cultura "SUPLEMENTO tcnico Icgal". Cornercio. vol. 34. Economica. 1988. no. 395, October 1993.

AlMMGM - Mexican Association of Mining Engineers. Metallu.rgists and Geologists

NOM - Official Mexican Standards PROFEPA - Federal Environmental Protection Office SAHOP - Ministry of Human Settlements and Public Works

CAMIMEX - Chamber of Mines of Mexico INE - National lnstitute of Ecology LFMN - Pederal Law on Metrology and Standardization EPA - US.Environmental Protection Agency LGEEPA - General Law for Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection MICARE - Minera Carbonifera Rio Escondido S.A. de C.V.

SEDESO - Ministry of Social Development

SEDUE - Ministry of Urban Development and Ecology

SEMlP - Ministry of Energy. Mines and Public lndustry

UNAM - Mexican National University

27

Ins Herrera Canales is an historian and researcher at Mexicos National lnstitute of Anthropology and History (lnstituto Nacionai de Antropologia e Historia - INAH). She obtained a teaching degree in history and geography from the University of Chile (tiniversidad de ChiIe) and a Ph.D. in history from the College of Mexico (EI Colegio de Mxico). She has researched the history of commerce and mining in Mexico and other topics for more than twenty years and has written several books and articles. Eloy Gonzilez Marin is an economist and professor at the Azcapotzalco campus of the Autonomous Metropolitan University in Mexico City (Universidad Authorna Metropolitana) . He completed his undergraduate training at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon (tiniversidad Autdnoma de Nuevo Ledn) and did his masters degree a t the College of Mexico. He later studied at Stanford University where he obtained his doctorate in education and economics. He has been conducting research and teaching economics since 1978. He has been a consultant to several government agencies. Nair Maria Anaya Ferreira collaborated in the translation from the Spanish.