UN Paper (2001)

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR WESTERN ASIA
WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES
United Nations
Distr. GENERAL E/ESCWA/TECH/2001/3 27 July 2001 ORIGINAL: ENGLISH ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR WESTERN ASIA
WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES
United Nations New York, 2001
01-0675
Preface The present publication is one of a series of studies to be carried out by ESCWA to examine and promote technology development in the field of water, a crucial area for socio-economic development. A study to be undertaken during the next biennium will address water treatment technologies, with emphasis on industrial and municipal wastewater.
iii
iv
Foreword Water desalination technologies play a crucial role in socio-economic development in a number of ESCWA member countries. Desalinated water is an essential, and often the sole, source of fresh water in several of these countries, and rising living standards and high population growth are likely to render desalination a viable option for many other areas of the region as well. The present study is intended to provide an overview of desalination technologies in the ESCWA region, which occupies a leading position worldwide in terms of the extent of desalination technology utilization. Installed and projected desalination capacity in the ESCWA member countries is reviewed with a view to outlining prevailing and expected trends and, hence, possibilities for building on mounting experience in the selection, management, adaptation and dissemination of appropriate technologies. The study provides an up-to-date review of the principal classes of desalination technologies, with particular reference to those suitable for implementation in the ESCWA member countries. Analysis of the principles underlying those technologies forms the basis upon which determinations can be made regarding their adoption and dissemination. Such analysis is necessary to establish the maturity of underlying technologies and the possibilities they offer enterprises in the member countries for future participation in technology adaptation, dissemination and development. Another objective of this study is to review salient economic features of the various desalination methods. Criteria for estimating the cost of desalination plants are elaborated, with reference to conditions in the ESCWA member countries. Prospects for relative changes in the viability of various technologies are outlined as well. Considerable development has taken place, particularly during the past decade, in desalination technologies, the materials they use, related economic considerations, and the extent to which they have received new inputs from automation and control technologies. This study provides an overview of the most important developments, emphasizing those that offer the ESCWA member countries, and enterprises operating therein, possibilities for playing a leading role in technology development. Special attention is given to desalination technologies that utilize renewable resources, in particular solar and wind power, for their energy input. The viability of solar energy desalination plants may be confined to remote area applications at present; however, developments on a number of fronts promise future cost reductions and consequently greater potential for wider dissemination. Solar and wind desalination technologies are likely to be the methods of choice for providing rural communities with access to fresh water in the many arid parts of the region. Such technologies could free the generally impoverished rural communities, their womenfolk in particular, from the burden and expense of obtaining fresh water from distant sources. It is essential that the ESCWA member countries, blessed with rich renewable resources and deprived of sufficient water supplies, take a leading global position in developing, adapting and disseminating these and other desalination technologies. One of the broad objectives of this study is to review the present status of and future trends in desalination technologies at both the global and regional levels. This represents a first step in the efforts of the ESCWA secretariat to promote rational technology acquisition and implementation policies and strategies in this crucial area for socio-economic development in the member countries. In addressing this immediate objective, the present study provides a number of conclusions. Many of the conclusions constitute important messages for the studys target audiences, namely, decision makers and technology managers in both the public and private sectors, as well as science and technology professionals concerned with desalination, in general, and in desalination technologies, in particular. Summarized, these conclusions boil down to the fact that desalination technologies offer as many challenges as opportunities for the ESCWA
ESCWA members include Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
member countries but also come with enormous potential end benefits in terms of socio-economic development and technological capacity building, and even world leadership in this field. Achieving such objectives will largely depend upon the development and implementation of sound policy approaches and novel but well-designed cooperation modalities and partnerships among concerned parties, including public, private and civil society institutions, within the ESCWA member countries.
Mervat Tallawy Executive Secretary of ESCWA
vi
CONTENTS Page Preface ....................................................................................................................................................... Foreword ................................................................................................................................................... Abbreviations and explanatory notes ........................................................................................................ Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... Chapter I. OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................. A. B. C. D. Classification of desalination processes .................................................................................. A global view of desalination capacities and technologies ..................................................... Desalination capacities and technologies in the ESCWA member countries.......................... Concluding remarks................................................................................................................. 1 1 4 7 25 27 27 36 40 41 48 49 50 53 63 67 67 70 73 74 75 75 76 81 85 86 87 88 98 105 111 112 iii v xiv 1
II. THERMAL DESALINATION PROCESSES ............................................................................ A. B. C. D. E. The multistage flash process.................................................................................................... Multiple effect distillation ....................................................................................................... Comparison of multistage flash and multiple effect desalination processes ........................... Vapour compression processes................................................................................................ Concluding remarks.................................................................................................................
III. MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES ............................................................................. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration ............................................................................................ Hyperfiltration processes......................................................................................................... Electric potential membrane processes.................................................................................... Membrane distillation.............................................................................................................. Membrane materials: microstructure and manufacturing processes........................................ Membrane fouling and treatment ............................................................................................ Membrane cleaning and storage .............................................................................................. Concluding remarks.................................................................................................................
IV. DESALINATION ECONOMICS ................................................................................................ A. B. C. D. E. Elements in desalination costing ............................................................................................. Capital and operational costs of desalination plants................................................................ Comparison of unit product costs for principal desalination technologies.............................. Desalination costs for hybrid and cogeneration facilities........................................................ Concluding remarks.................................................................................................................
V. RECENT TRENDS AND EXPECTED FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES ........................................................................................ A. B. C. D. E. Trends in thermal processes .................................................................................................... Trends in membrane processes................................................................................................ An overview of research and development activity in desalination technologies ................... Desalination research and development activity in the ESCWA member countries............... Concluding remarks................................................................................................................. vii
CONTENTS (continued) Page VI. RENEWABLE ENERGY DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES .............................................................................................. A. Renewable energy desalination capacity: a global overview .................................................. B. Techno-economic aspects of renewable energy desalination processes.................................. C. Concluding remarks................................................................................................................. VII. STRATEGIC ISSUES IN DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY BUILDING .... A. Core issues in strategies for promoting desalination technologies in ESCWA member countries .................................................................................................................... B. Concluding remarks................................................................................................................. LIST OF TABLES 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Installed desalination production capacity and the distribution of various processes in the Gulf countries, the United States and other countries in 1996 and 2000 .............................. Desalination capacity in the ESCWA region .................................................................................. Installed desalination capacity per capita in the Gulf countries ...................................................... Estimated cost of desalination units in the ESCWA region ............................................................ Average desalination capacity per installed unit and estimated costs per unit and per cubic metre in the ESCWA region............................................................................................................ Distribution of total installed capacity in the ESCWA region according to principal desalination technology................................................................................................................... Active desalination projects in Saudi Arabia .................................................................................. Distribution of desalination capacity in Abu Dhabi, Dubai and Sharjah according to technology ....................................................................................................................................... Plants with capacities of 45,000 m3/day or greater contracted in the ESCWA region since 1991........................................................................................................................................ Operational data on multiple effect distillation plants (without vapour compression) ................... Comparison of thermal seawater desalination processes ................................................................ A summary characterization of membrane separation processes.................................................... Pore size determination of ultrafiltration membranes using selected proteins................................ A comparison of the principal attributes of major ultrafiltration configurations ............................ Reverse osmosis applications.......................................................................................................... Damaging conditions for different types of membranes ................................................................. Materials for commercial polymer membranes............................................................................... Sources of membrane fouling ......................................................................................................... Water treatment chemicals and their functions ............................................................................... Capital costs for various desalination processes ............................................................................. Energy costs for various desalination processes ............................................................................. Membrane replacement costs .......................................................................................................... Chemical costs for various desalination processes.......................................................................... viii 5 7 10 10 12 14 20 25 29 37 41 49 51 52 56 58 68 70 70 78 79 79 80 114 114 118 130 132 134 137
CONTENTS (continued) Page Economic factors considered in estimating desalination costs in the Gulf region .......................... Estimated costs for a multistage flash plant with a 100,000 m3/day capacity................................. Estimated costs for a multiple effect distillation plant with a 100,000 m3/day capacity................. Estimated costs for a reverse osmosis plant with a 100,000 m3/day capacity................................. Technical bottlenecks of desalination processes ............................................................................. Multistage flash capacity, number of stages, and performance ratio .............................................. Materials used in constructing thermal desalination plants............................................................. Variations in material characteristics for a brine boiling temperature of 70o C and condensate temperature of 72o C........................................................................................................................ 5.5 New modules and strategies for concentration polarization and fouling control ............................ 5.6 Comparison of model and field data for the single effect mechanical vapour compression system.............................................................................................................................................. 5.7 Comparison of model predictions against field data for multiple effect distillation systems with mechanical vapour compression ............................................................................................. 5.8 Comparison of model predictions against field data for multiple effect distillation systems with thermal vapour compression ................................................................................................... 5.9 Comparison of multistage flash and forward- and parallel-feed multiple effect distillation systems .......................................................................................................................... 5.10 Desalination research conducted in the Gulf countries and Egypt as a proportion of the world total ................................................................................................................................. 6.1 Renewable energy desalination plants: total capacity, number of units and estimated costs.......... 6.2 Worldwide capacity distribution according to desalination process, power source, feed water type, area of application and technology used ................................................................................ 6.3 Abu Dhabi plant: design features .................................................................................................... 6.4 Heat balance of the Abu Dhabi solar desalination plant ................................................................. 6.5 Design features of the photovoltaic-reverse osmosis plant in Lampedusa, Italy ............................ 6.6 Cost breakdown for the photovoltaic-reverse osmosis plant in Lampedusa, Italy.......................... LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 The desalination concept................................................................................................................. Classification of thermal and membrane desalination processes .................................................... Distribution of world desalination capacity among top-producing countries in 2000 .................... Distribution of installed plant capacity in the ESCWA region in 2000 and as expected in 2003 ... Distribution of estimated expenditure on desalination plants in the ESCWA region in 2000 and as expected in 2003 ..................................................................................................... Estimated cost of desalination plants contracted in the ESCWA region since 1954 ...................... Average unit capacity versus average unit cost for desalination systems in the ESCWA region ... Estimated cost of installed desalination capacity in the ESCWA region ........................................ The cost of installing 1 m3/day of desalination capacity, presented as five-year averages over the period 1954-2003 ................................................................................ 3 3 6 8 11 11 12 13 13 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 82 82 82 83 87 88 92 93 104 109 109 110 110 112 114 115 121 122 125 126
ix
CONTENTS (continued) Page 1.10 The cost of installing 1 m3/day of desalination capacity according to desalination technology, presented as five-year averages over the period 1954-2003 ................... 1.11 Distribution of installed plant capacity according to the main desalination process applied in 2000 and as expected in 2003 ......................................................................................................... 1.12 Distribution of installed plant capacity according to the main equipment used in 2000 and as expected in 2003 .................................................................................................................. 1.13 Cumulative capacity growth in different desalination technologies installed in the ESCWA region................................................................................................................................ 1.14 Distribution of installed plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to type of feed water in 2000 and as expected in 2003 ....................................................................... 1.15 Distribution of installed plant capacity according to feed water type and desalination technology used in five ESCWA member countries................................................... 1.16 Distribution of installed desalination plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to application in 2000 and as expected in 2003 .............................................. 1.17 Desalinated water use for different groupings of ESCWA member countries ............................... 1.18 Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Saudi Arabia ......................................................... 1.19 Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Qatar ..................................................................... 1.20 Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Kuwait .................................................................. 1.21 Cumulative desalination capacity in the United Arab Emirates since 1970 ................................... 1.22 Distribution of desalination capacity in the United Arab Emirates, by emirate.............................. 2.1 View of a typical multistage flash desalination plant...................................................................... 2.2 Multistage flash desalination with brine circulation ....................................................................... 2.3 Schematic representation of the once-through multistage flash process......................................... 2.4 Parallel feed multiple effect distillation .......................................................................................... 2.5 Single effect evaporation with mechanical vapour compression .................................................... 2.6 Parallel feed multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression.................................... 2.7 Multiple effect distillation with mechanical vapour compression .................................................. 3.1 Types and effective range of membrane processes ......................................................................... 3.2 The reverse osmosis process ........................................................................................................... 3.3 Cross-section of a pressure vessel with three membrane elements ................................................. 3.4 Hollow fine fibre membrane module (assembly and fibre dimensions) ......................................... 3.5 Cutaway view of a spiral wound membrane element...................................................................... 3.6 Ion transport in electrodialysis ........................................................................................................ 3.7 Movement of ions in the electrodialysis process............................................................................. 3.8 Coupled transport mechanism for generic metals ........................................................................... 3.9 Plate and frame filtration................................................................................................................. 4.1 Cost elements of desalination processes ......................................................................................... 4.2 Unit product cost versus unit capacity for major desalination processes ........................................ 5.1 Increases in multistage flash desalination unit capacity, 1957-1996 .............................................. 5.2 Variations in the characteristics of evaporator and plate preheaters for a brine boiling temperature of 70 C and condensate temperature of 72 C ........................................................... x 14 15 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 24 25 27 33 34 39 43 45 46 50 55 59 60 61 63 65 67 69 76 84 89 94
CONTENTS (continued) Page 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 7.1 Single effect evaporator driven by an adsorption heat pump .......................................................... Schematic of a single effect evaporation system with an absorption heat pump ............................ Energy recovery in reverse osmosis (using Sulzer pumps)............................................................. Areas of desalination research......................................................................................................... National renewable energy desalination capacity in ESCWA member and other Arab countries ................................................................................................................................. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to desalination technology................................................................................................................... Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to solar conversion technology............................................................................................................ Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to the renewable resource used.................................................................................................................. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to feed water ................ Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to area of application................................................................................................................................... Combining conventional and renewable energy resources for desalination ................................... Multiple effect solar-powered plant flowsheet................................................................................ Abu Dhabi solar-powered multiple effect desalination plant.......................................................... Map of Lampedusa, Italy ................................................................................................................ Block diagram of the 3 m3/hour section of the photovoltaic-reverse osmosis plant in Lampedusa, Italy ......................................................................................................................... Modern 1-megawatt wind turbine ................................................................................................... General view of the Gran Canaria wind desalination facility ......................................................... Representation of a greenhouse-type flat solar still ........................................................................ A modern greenhouse-type flat solar still ....................................................................................... Viable combinations of desalination technologies.......................................................................... LIST OF FRAMES 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 Desalination capacity growth in the ESCWA member countries ................................................... Performance parameters for thermal desalination processes........................................................... Top brine temperature ..................................................................................................................... Comparison of the multistage flash once-through and brine recirculation systems........................ The parallel feed multiple effect distillation process ...................................................................... Main features of the single effect evaporation process with vapour compression.......................... Osmosis and reverse osmosis.......................................................................................................... Composite reverse osmosis membranes.......................................................................................... The impact of oxidants on membranes ........................................................................................... Direct and indirect capital costs ...................................................................................................... Notes on the economics of reverse osmosis process....................................................................... Notes on the economics of thermal processes................................................................................. Advantages of high-temperature desalination................................................................................. Improved thermal performance ratio using absorption heat pumps................................................ Proposed novel multistage flash configurations.............................................................................. xi 9 28 29 35 38 44 56 58 62 77 83 84 91 96 97 95 95 103 106 114 116 116 117 117 118 118 119 120 124 124 127 128 129 129 133
CONTENTS (continued) Page 5.4 5.5 7.1 Pilot facilities for water desalination............................................................................................... Identifying research and development priorities in desalination..................................................... Environmental impact of desalination technologies ....................................................................... ANNEXES A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. Desalination technologies in the Arab countries: tables and figures ....................................... Desalination plant case studies from Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic ................. Scale formation and scale control methods in multistage flash desalination .......................... Operational controls for multistage flash plants...................................................................... Schematic diagrams of thermal desalination processes........................................................... A closer look at some aspects of the multistage flash brine recirculation process .................. Hyperfiltration performance parameters ................................................................................. Commonly used modular reverse osmosis schemes................................................................ Reverse osmosis membranes and configurations .................................................................... Pretreatment and post-treatment processes for membrane separation technologies................ Desalination costs.................................................................................................................... Information on desalination trends and research and development activities ......................... Research and development activities undertaken by the Research and Development Center in Saudi Arabia ............................................................................................................ N. Information on desalination processes using renewable energy technologies ........................ O. Inorganic salts in seawater....................................................................................................... ANNEX TABLES A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 B.1 B.2 I.1 J.1 K.1 K.2 L.1 L.2 L.3 L.4 L.5 L.6 N.1 Desalination capacity in the Arab countries.................................................................................... Distribution of installed desalination capacity in the Arab countries according to technology ...... Progress made by the multistage flash desalination industry in Kuwait ......................................... Development and features of multistage flash desalination plants in Kuwait................................. Shuaiba Phase II multistage flash cogeneration desalination plant................................................. Reverse osmosis desalination plant for the Oriental Paper Manufacturing company..................... Examples of industrial reverse osmosis membranes....................................................................... Summary of disinfectant characteristics.......................................................................................... Unit product costs for a number of conventional and novel processes ........................................... Estimates of chemical costs and dosing rates.................................................................................. Variations in the characteristics of evaporator and plate preheaters for a brine boiling temperature of 70o C and condensate temperature of 72o C ............................................................ Variations in reverse osmosis unit capacity and total plant capacity at different locations around the globe............................................................................................................... Examples of multiple effect desalination research conducted in the Gulf countries and Egypt ..... Examples of multistage flash research conducted in the Gulf countries and Egypt........................ Examples of reverse osmosis research conducted in the Gulf countries and Egypt........................ Research and development projects: some examples from the Middle East Development and Research Center ................................................................................................. Capacity distribution according to renewable energy source, feed water and application.............. xii 139 139 139 140 144 145 158 165 166 167 168 168 169 169 170 171 173 139 144 147 149 150 154 156 157 158 160 166 168 172 173 176 101 107 136
CONTENTS (continued) Page N.2 N.3 O.1 O.2 O.3 Capacity distribution according to desalination technology ........................................................... Capacity distribution according to renewable energy technology .................................................. Variations in seawater salinity ........................................................................................................ Typical seawater composition......................................................................................................... Ions with concentrations exceeding one part per million................................................................ ANNEX FIGURES A.1 A.2 E.1 E.2 E.3 E.4 E.5 E.6 E.7 H.1 H.2 I.1 Distribution of plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to desalinated water use....................................................................................................................... Variations in daily per capita water consumption in Kuwait .......................................................... Schematic design of a flash chamber .............................................................................................. Types of flash evaporators .............................................................................................................. Falling/rising film evaporator.......................................................................................................... Evaporator with natural/forced circulation...................................................................................... Single-stage vapour compression diagram...................................................................................... Wiped film rotating disk evaporator (schematic cross-section) ...................................................... Schematic diagram of a recently installed thermal vapour compression desalination plant (4 x 9000 m3/day capacity)..................................................................................................... Common modular configurations for reverse osmosis systems ...................................................... Scheme of a multistage membrane column..................................................................................... Cartridge microfilters ...................................................................................................................... 142 143 150 150 151 151 152 152 153 157 157 159 174 175 176 177 177
xiii
ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES ABVC AC ADVC AFM Ah BFR BOOT CA CAM cm CPAM CRF CVC D DC DNA ED EDR EDTA ESR FLASH FM gal/d GCC g/l GOR HFF HFM THE HTME HT-MED IDA kg KISR kPa kVA kW kWh LFC LT-MED m2 m3 MCM MED MED-ABS MES MF MJ/m2 mm MSF angstrom absorption vapour compression alternating current adsorption vapour compression atomic force microscopy ampere-hour biofouling-resistant build-own-operate-transfer cellulose acetate (diacetate and triacetate) cellulose acetate membrane centimetre composite polyamide membrane capital recovery factor chemical vapour compression day direct current deoxyribonucleic acid electrodialysis electrodialysis reversal ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid electron spin resonance flash evaporator flat membrane gallons per day Gulf Cooperation Council grams per litre gain-output ratio hollow fine fibre hollow fibre membrane horizontal tube falling film evaporator horizontal tube multiple effect high-temperature multiple effect distillation International Desalination Association kilogram Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research kilopascal kilovolt-ampere kilowatt kilowatt hour low fouling composite low-temperature multiple effect distillation square metre cubic metre million cubic metres multiple effect distillation multiple effect distillation with absorption heat pump multiple effect stack-type microfiltration megajoules per square metre millimetre multistage flash xiv
ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES (continued) MSF-BR MSF-M MSF-OT MTU MVC MW MWCO NF nm NMWCO NTU PAN-PVC ppm PR PTFE PV R and D RO rpm RSW SDAWES SDI SEE SEE-VC SWM TBT TDS TVC UF UPS UV V VC VFF VTE VVC WFRD WHO W/m2 Wp multistage flash with brine recirculation brine mixing multistage flash multistage flash once-through membrane type unknown mechanical vapour compression megawatt molecular weight cut-off nanofiltration nanometre nominal molecular weight cut-off nephelometric turbidity unit polyacrylonitrile/polyvinyl chloride copolymer parts per million performance ratio polytetrafluoroethylene photovoltaic research and development reverse osmosis revolutions per minute reversible spiral wound seawater desalination plants connected to an autonomous wind energy system silt density index single effect evaporation single effect evaporation with vapour compression spiral wound membrane top brine temperature total dissolved solids thermal vapour compression ultrafiltration uninterruptible power supply ultraviolet volt vapour compression vortex flow filtration vertical tube falling film evaporator (or evaporation) vacuum vapour compression wiped film rotating disk World Health Organization watts per square metre peak watts
The following symbols have been used in the tables throughout the publication: Two dots (..) indicate that data are not available or are not separately reported. A dash () indicates that the amount is nil or negligible. A hyphen (-) indicates that the item is not applicable. Parentheses ( ) indicate a deficit or decrease, except as otherwise stated.
xv
ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES (continued) A slash (/) indicates a financial or crop year (for example, 1981/82). Use of a hyphen (-) between dates representing years (for example, 1981-1983) signifies the full period involved, including the beginning and end years. Details and percentages do not necessarily add up to totals because of rounding. In both the text and tables of the publication, references to dollars ($) indicate United States dollars, unless otherwise stated. Bibliographical and other references have, wherever possible, been verified.
xvi
INTRODUCTION Fresh water is rapidly becoming a scarce resource in many countries around the world. Modern desalination technologies, applied to seawater and brackish water, offer effective alternatives in a variety of circumstances. The ESCWA member countries, situated as they are on the most arid part of the globe and characterized by some of the worlds highest population growth rates, would benefit greatly from the adaptation, further development and wider dissemination of desalination technologies. Large-scale thermal desalination technologies have been in use since the 1950s. The larger desalination plants have provided fresh water supplies for drinking, municipal use and agricultural development, particularly in the Gulf States. In the past, high capital costs and heavy energy consumption generally translated into excessive desalinated water costs. However, advances in technology have helped to drastically reduce capital and running costs as well as energy requirements, rendering desalination more viable an option than ever before. New high-performance processes, predominantly based on high-performance membrane technologies such as nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO), were developed and first applied by the industry in the 1970s and 1980s, with the promise of further cost reductions and process simplification. New developments will only enhance the potential embodied in desalination technologies for the ESCWA member countries. This study is essentially aimed at outlining trends in modern desalination technologies and highlighting the options offered by recent technological advances. The study analyses available technologies, proposed design improvements and market potential in the near future. Through case studies, some of their more salient features are examined. Energy demands for both current processes and the newer innovations are considered. The economics of existing and proposed solutions are also addressed, with special reference to the ESCWA member countries, in particular the Gulf States, which collectively constitute one of the more prolific groups of desalination technology users, accounting for over 50 per cent of the worlds capacity. The first chapter of the study provides a brief overview of the desalination industry throughout the world before focusing, in a little more detail, on desalination technologies used by the ESCWA members and other Arab countries. Existing capacity is briefly analysed, and issues relating to projected capacity increases are reviewed from various perspectives, including geographical distribution, technology options, feed water types and application areas. To conclude, the role of desalination technologies as a reliable remedy to water shortages is highlighted. The second chapter concentrates on thermal desalination systems. Thermal technologies constitute the mainstay of large-scale desalination in the ESCWA member countries and enjoy a relatively important position worldwide. The multistage flash (MSF) distillation process receives extensive coverage, since it accounts for more than 93 per cent of total production capacity for thermal processes; in order of decreasing importance, vapour compression (VC) and multiple effect distillation (MED) technologies account for the remainder. Performance parameters, dominant designs and principal variations on those designs are considered, as are some of the more important problems faced by users. Some attention is devoted to scaling, with an overview of methods used in dealing with its deleterious effects. Membrane desalination processes are highlighted in the third chapter of the study. The distinct advantages associated with these technologies and the steady infusion of innovative inputs are behind the increased attention in this area. Particular emphasis is devoted to RO technology, presently MSF desalinations main competitor. This chapter reviews the performance parameters, materials and configurations used for membrane desalination systems. Desalination techniques associated with electrodialysis (ED) are also examined. The fourth chapter is devoted to desalination economics. A variety of issues pertaining to unit product cost reduction are addressed, with particular attention given to energy consumption, choice of materials and equipment used. In essence, reduced energy requirements, the recent incorporation of energy recovery systems, the introduction of novel membrane materials and the development of more efficient configurations
are behind the drastic decrease in desalination costs for membrane operations during the past several years. Recent contracts and offers for new MSF and RO plants in the ESCWA member countries reflect considerable reductions in unit product costs. Chapter V presents some of the more important technological innovations that have been proposed or applied by the desalination industry in recent years. Reliable combinations of desalination technologies and hybrid schemes actually under investigation are reviewed, and the recent progress made in membrane desalination processes is highlighted, with an indication of the opportunities deriving from the integration of different membrane operations to reduce operational costs. Dominant trends and expected outcomes of research and development (R and D) relating to desalination technologies are also considered in this chapter. The sixth chapter is dedicated to renewable energy inputs in desalination. The use of photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy technologies, in combination with RO technology, show particular promise. The potential for greater incorporation of renewable energy inputs in desalination in the ESCWA member countries is beyond question, given the abundance of solar resources and the numerous possibilities for utilizing wind resources in the region. Enhanced activity in this area would bring considerable medium- and long-range reductions in unit product costs, and the use of renewable energy or a combination of conventional and renewable energy inputs would allow a much wider dissemination of the industrys activities in remote areas, where the provision of sufficient quantities of fresh water is essential for continued development. A number of somewhat marginal technologies including desalination by freezing, solar stills and humidification-dehumidification techniques are also considered in chapter VI. While such technologies do not presently account for a large proportion of total production capacity, they may represent viable options in certain special situations. Innovations in materials and control modalities could well bring some of these methods into more widespread use in the future. The seventh and final chapter of the study includes a summary of the conclusions reached. The issues addressed in chapters I-VI represent crucial elements for the formulation of strategies and future action plans aimed at facilitating the acquisition of capacity for the adaptation and development of desalination technologies in the ESCWA member countries. The principal considerations in devising such strategies and action plans are outlined in this chapter. Information illustrating the particularities of desalination efforts in various ESCWA member countries is presented in different parts of the study. Details relating to specific desalination plants are included in chapter VI and annex B. The case studies underline current practices in technology implementation and highlight prevalent design trends; they also offer lessons that can contribute to the development of future strategies aimed at promoting water desalination technologies in the ESCWA member countries. The annexes include numerous tables and charts that support and supplement the material presented in the main part of the study.
I. OVERVIEW A. CLASSIFICATION OF DESALINATION PROCESSES Desalination processes essentially entail the separation of nearly salt-free water from sea or brackish water, with the salts originally in the feed water are concentrated in a reject brine stream. Both thermal and membrane separation methods are in common use. Figure 1.1 summarizes the main concepts underlying the desalination process, while figure 1.2 provides an overview of the main desalination process categories and their relationships to one another. Figure 1.1. The desalination concept
Form of Energy
Thermal Mechanical Electric Potential
Feed Sea or Brackish Water
Separation Unit Thermal or Membrane
Product Fresh Water
Rejected Brine
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001.
Figure 1.2. Classification of thermal and membrane desalination processes
Phase-change separation methods fall into two main categories. In the first, water is evaporated and the resulting vapour condensed; an alternative approach involves freezing the water, followed by the separation and melting of ice crystals. The first process is the most common in commercial desalination and
is coupled, in most cases, with power generation in dual-purpose plants. Only a few facilities using the freezing method are known to be in operation. Evaporation may be carried out by bringing water in contact with a heat transfer surface in what is referred to as a boiling process. Alternatively, bulk feed water can be made to produce vapour through what is termed a flashing process. Evaporation processes include MSF, MED, single effect evaporation with vapour compression (SEE-VC), humidification-dehumidification, and a number of methods based on the use of solar energy.1 Vapour compression is combined with single or multiple effect desalination processes to improve thermal efficiency. In the VC process, low temperature vapour formed in the same effect or the preceding evaporation effect is compressed and used to initiate the evaporation process in the first or the same evaporation effect. The VC process incorporates component devices that include mechanical compressors, steam-jet ejectors, TVC components, adsorption/desorption beds, and absorption/desorption columns.2 Variants of the single effect VC process include mechanical vapour compression (MVC), thermal vapour compression (TVC), absorption vapour compression (ABVC), adsorption vapour compression (ADVC), and chemical vapour compression (CVC). Membrane desalination processes include RO and ED. In the RO process, high pressure forces fresh water to permeate through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving behind a highly concentrated brine solution. While pressure is the driving force in the RO process, electrical energy activates ED operation, causing electrically charged salt ions to move through selective ion exchange membranes, leaving behind low salinity product water. In both processes a highly concentrated brine stream is formed on the other side of the membrane. As indicated below, the RO process is enjoying increased popularity, while the ED process has limited industrial applications. Extensive work was done in the 1950s and 1960s to develop freezing as a means of water desalination. During the freezing process, dissolved salts are naturally excluded from ice crystals. Before the entire mass of water has frozen, the mixture is usually rinsed to remove the salts in the remaining salt-laden water adhering to the ice crystals. The cleaned ice is then melted to produce fresh water. In principle, freezing has some advantages over distillation, the predominant desalination process at the time the freezing process was developed. These advantages include lower theoretical energy requirements and limited corrosion, scaling and salt precipitation in plant components. One of the main disadvantages is that the process involves dealing with ice and water mixtures that are mechanically rather difficult to handle. More detailed descriptions of the above-mentioned processes are provided in chapters II and III. B. A GLOBAL VIEW OF DESALINATION CAPACITIES AND TECHNOLOGIES By the beginning of this century, there were more than 13,500 desalination units in operation worldwide with a combined actual production capacity of around 26 million cubic metres per day (MCM/d), distributed among more than 120 countries. Current production capacity is almost twice that of a decade ago. The estimated volume of the global desalination market is expected to exceed $70 billion during the next 20 years. Approximately $10 billion has been earmarked for the installation of new desalination units throughout the world within the next five years, which will increase production by around 5.3 MCM/d.3
1 2
See chapter VI of the present study.
H.M. Ettouney, H.T. El-Dessouky and I. Alatiqi, Understand thermal desalination, Chemical Engineering Progress, vol. 95 (1999), pp. 43-54.
3
P. Wolf, Declining costs spur desalination market growth, Water & Wastewater International (June 2000), p. 4.
Table 1.14 shows the market shares of major producers of desalinated water, together the distribution of production capacities among the more important technologies (including MSF, MED, MVC, RO and ED) for 1996 and 2000. TABLE 1.1. INSTALLED DESALINATION PRODUCTION CAPACITY AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS PROCESSES IN THE GULF COUNTRIES, THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN 1996 AND 2000
Total capacity (1,000 m3/d) 5 253 5 429 3 093 4 328 2 165 2 891 1 538 1 615 745 945 683 701 567 573 530 1 234 519 581 309 473 193 378 15 595 19 148 10 025 11 359 20 300 25 909 Percentage relative to total world production 23.6 21.0 15.6 16.7 9.8 11.2 6.8 6.2 3.8 3.7 3.4 2.7 2.8 2.2 2.6 4.8 2.6 2.2 1.5 1.8 1.0 1.2 76.8 73.9 49.4 43.8
Country Saudi Arabia United States United Arab Emirates Kuwait Japan Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Qatar Spain Italy Bahrain Oman Subtotal for top producers Subtotal for Gulf States (ESCWA region) World total
Year 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000 1996 2000
MSF (%) 65.6 64.2 1.7 1.3 89.8 86.7 95.2 96.4 4.7 3.9 67.7 65.7 94.4 94.3 10.6 4.5 43.2 43.6 52.0 62.7 84.1 87.3 54.8 50.0 77.0 76.7
MED (%) 0.3 0.3 1.8 4.4 0.4 7.7 0.7 0.1 2.0 2.3 0.9 10.7 0.6 3.9 0.9 3.5 1.9 12.3 9.7 2.2 1.1 0.9 3.8 0.4 2.8
MVC (%) 1.2 1.4 4.5 6.4 3.0 0.03 1.8 3.3 8.7 2.8 15.1 6.4 1.5 3.7 2.7 2.3 1.5 0.8
RO (%) 31.0 32.3 78.0 74.4 6.5 5.5 3.4 3.3 86.4 84.3 19.6 15.9 1.8 68.9 84.2 20.4 21.5 41.7 26.9 11.7 7.6 36.1 38.8 19.7 18.8
ED (%) 1.9 1.8 11.4 13.5 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 6.8 7.4 9.8 7.7 10.9 5.0 19.2 16.2 4.5 0.7 0.2 4.8 5.1 1.2 0.9
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: MSF = multistage flash; MED = multiple effect distillation; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; RO = reverse osmosis; ED = electrodialysis.
The paragraphs that follow will further explain some of the more important trends in capacity growth and technology acquisition. In 1996, the Gulf States of the ESCWA region and the United States of America accounted for around 65 per cent of the worlds production of desalinated water. This proportion dropped to 60 per cent in the year 2000 owing to a rise in production capacities in countries such as Italy, Japan, Spain and the Republic of Korea. Spain actually doubled its production capacity during the period 1996-2000. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member countries presently account for around 44 per cent of the total world production of desalinated water. Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of world desalination capacity among top-producing countries in the year 2000.
Slight differences between data in table 1.1 and subsequent tables in this chapter derive from the use of different sources.
Figure 1.3. Distribution of world desalination capacity among top-producing countries in 2000
Other countries 26% Oman 1% Bahrain 2% Italy 2% Spain 5% Qatar 2% Japan 4% Kuwait 6% UAE 11% USA 17%
Saudi Arabia 21%
Libya 3%
Source: Based on data provided by H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny in their Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001.
The majority of MSF plants in operation use brine circulation. Most MED plants appear to operate in the parallel feed mode, at low temperature, with or without TVC. Installed MVC plants are found with single or multiple effect processes. In 1996, the world market share for MSF in sea and brackish water desalination totalled more than 54 per cent, while the RO process accounted for slightly more than 36 per cent of installed capacity. By 2000, however, the respective shares had drawn much closer, to 42.4 and 41.1 per cent, respectively. A different picture emerges for seawater desalination alone; in 2000, MSF accounted for 70 per cent and RO for only around 18 per cent of installed capacity. In 2000, the production capacity of units based on MSF technology accounted for around 93 per cent of total thermal desalination capacity, and RO unit capacity represented more than 88 per cent of the capacity of all facilities utilizing membrane processes. The world market share of MED processes rose considerably between 1996 and 2000. Many of the top producers of desalinated water recorded increases from initial shares of between 0 and 2 per cent to values of around 10 per cent and even higher. Desalination in the GCC States is dominated by MSF, with national shares ranging between 63 and 97 per cent. The MSF process has proved suitable for the relatively harsh conditions pertaining in these countries. Feed seawater temperatures in the Gulf vary widely, ranging from 12o to 35o C between the winter and summer seasons, and air temperatures can reach levels close to 50o C during the summer. Another factor to be taken into account is the salinity of Gulf seawater, which ranges between 42,000 and 64,000 parts per million (ppm).5 These considerations, along with the nearly 50 years of accumulated technical experience in MSF development, render this process a particularly popular option. The more widespread use of RO technology in Japan, Spain and the United States has to do with the fact that RO plants operate on low salinity sources (mostly brackish or river water).
See annex O, relating to inorganic salts in seawater.
C. DESALINATION CAPACITIES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES 1. Desalination capacity and number of units Table 1.2 provides an overall view of desalination capacity and the number of units installed, contracted and planned in the ESCWA region.6 The total capacity for installed and contracted desalination plants is estimated at around 11.5 MCM/d, which represents 44 per cent of the world total of around 26 MCM/d. TABLE 1.2. DESALINATION CAPACITY IN THE ESCWA REGION
Installed capacitya/ (1,000 m3/d) 5 139 2 521 1 527 573 473 324 218 170 67 17 9 5 1 11 046 882 227 129 60 65 171 29 118 19 13 12 6 1 1 732 Contracted capacityb/ (1,000 m3/d) (a) Capacity 12 373 109 Planned capacityc/ (1,000 m3/d) Total capacity (1,000 m3/d) 5 151 5 080 1 995 815 758 324 500 179 67 17 91 5 1 14 984 885 292 155 70 74 171 40 121 19 13 16 6 1 1 863 Ratio of total to installed capacity 1.0 2.0 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.0 2.3 1.1 1.0 1.0 10.1 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.0 1.1
ESCWA member Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain Iraq Oman Egypt Yemen Lebanon Jordan Syrian Arab Republic Palestine Total Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain Iraq Oman Egypt Yemen Lebanon Jordan Syrian Arab Republic Palestine Total
2 185 359 242 284 282 9
82
494 3 444 (b) Number of desalination units 3 10 55 4 22 10 9 11 3
17
114
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). a/ Including plants installed before 31 December 2000 (operational). b/ Including plants contracted before 31 December 2000 but still under construction (not operational). c/ Including plants to be contracted during the period 2000-2003.
Contracted desalination capacity amounts to 4.5 per cent of total installed capacity; the contracted units are expected to come on stream during 2001. The capacity of plants planned for the period 2000-2003 amounts to around 3.4 MCM/d, or 30 per cent of installed and contracted capacity in the ESCWA member countries.
K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). This report provides information on land-based desalination plants rated at more than 500 m3/d per unit and contracted, delivered or under construction as of 31 December 1999. Planned projects listed in this report include those that are part of long-term development schemes and projects that have been postponed for financial or other reasons.
6
Changes in the ratio of total capacity (installed, contracted and planned) to installed capacity vary from one country to another. During the period 2000-2003, Jordan intends to increase its capacity tenfold, while Oman and the United Arab Emirates plan to double their capacities. The region as a whole should witness an increase of around 40 per cent, according to a report issued by the International Desalination Association (IDA). This figure is probably an underestimate, since planned capacity in Saudi Arabia, a major producer, is not included in the IDA analysis. A report in Middle East Economic Digest7 lists 14 desalination projects in Saudi Arabia that are expected to become operational during the period 2001-2003. The capacity of these projects amounts to 1.7 MCM.8 As shown in table 1.2, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates will come close to one another at the top of the list in terms of total capacity once all contracted and planned units are operational. The fact that the number of plants contracted in Saudi Arabia presently exceeds the number contracted in the United Arab Emirates by a factor of four is indicative of the wider geographical dissemination and considerably smaller average plant capacity in Saudi Arabia. Table 1.2 also shows that 95 per cent of the regions installed, contracted and planned capacity is concentrated in the GCC countries. Among the non-GCC members, Egypt, Iraq and Jordan are set to become the top three users of desalination technology. Figure 1.4 provides a graphical illustration of information presented in the table, indicating the limited penetration of desalination production in some areas of the region. Figure 1.4. Distribution of installed plant capacity in the ESCWA region in 2000 and as expected in 2003
Oman 2% (218) Egypt 2% (170) Yemen 1% (67) Lebanon 0.2% (17) Jordan 0.1% (9) Syria 0.05% (5) Pales tine 0.01% (1)
Iraq 2.2% (324) Oman 3.3% (500) Bahrain 5.1% (758) Qatar 5.4% (815) Kuwait 13.3% (1,995) Jordan Egypt 1.2% (179) 0.6% (91) Yemen 0.4% (67) Lebanon 0.1% (17) Syria 0.04% (5) Pales tine 0.01% (1) Saudi A rabia 34.4% (5,151)
Iraq 3% (324) Bahrain 4% (473) Qatar 5% (573)
Kuwait 14% (1,527) UA E 23% (2,521)
Saudi A rabia 46% (5,139)
UA E 33.9% (5,080)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: Figures in brackets represent absolute capacity values in thousands of cubic metres per day.
Frame 1.1 provides an overview of desalination capacity growth in the ESCWA member countries.
7 8
Middle East Economic Digest, special report on water, vol. 44, No. 4 (28 January 2000), p. 12. The largest of these is the MSF Jubail II extension project, with a capacity of 727,300 m3/d, to be completed in 2002.
Frame 1.1. Desalination capacity growth in the ESCWA member countries Figure (a) presents a view of cumulative desalination capacity growth during the period 1954-2003, indicating somewhat gradual increases in the 1970s and early 1980s, and more abrupt increases in the early and late 1990s. Inflection points, or periods that witnessed small additions to existing capacity, are observed in the late 1980s and much of the 1990s. Figure (a). Cumulative plant capacity in the ESCWA region since 1954 (Cubic metres per day)
16,000,000 14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 1954 1958 1962 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000).
Absolute yearly growth in total plant capacity in the ESCWA region reached a peak of around 2.5 MCM/d during 2000, as shown in figure (b). Figure (b). Absolute yearly growth in total plant capacity in the ESCWA region (Thousands of cubic metres per day)
Thousands m3/d
2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 -
Table A.1 in annex A provides an indication of desalination technology dissemination in Arab countries not members of ESCWA.9 These countries have installed a total of around 1 MCM/d of desalination capacity for around $1.8 billion. Within this group, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya accounts for 71 per cent of the total; Algeria comes in a distant second, with 19 per cent, followed by Tunisia, with 7 per cent. Among the GCC countries, the United Arab Emirates appears to have the highest installed desalination capacity per 1,000 inhabitants, followed by Qatar and Kuwait (see table 1.3). Variations in per
9
Including Algeria, Eritrea, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia.
19 54 19 58 19 62 19 65 19 67 19 69 19 71 19 73 19 75 19 77 19 79 19 81 19 83 19 85 19 87 19 89 19 91 19 93 19 95 19 97 19 99 20 01 20 03
capita desalination capacity reflect a number of variables, including the availability of alternative fresh water sources. TABLE 1.3. INSTALLED DESALINATION CAPACITY PER CAPITA IN THE GULF COUNTRIES
Country United Arab Emirates Qatar Kuwait Bahrain Saudi Arabia Oman Total/average Installed capacity (1,000 m3/d) 2 521 573 1 527 473 5 139 218 45 102 Population 2000 (millions) 2.44 0.6 1.91 0.68 21.61 2.54 29.78 Installed capacity per capita (m3/d/1,000 inhabitants) 1 033 955 799 696 238 86 351
Sources: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000); and United Nations population estimates.
2. Expenditure on desalination Table 1.4 includes estimates of the costs incurred in setting up the regions desalination plants, including additional planned capacity. The total figure of around $22 billion for planned, contracted and installed capacity is considerable. Figure 1.5 represents the distribution of desalination costs among the ESCWA members. TABLE 1.4. ESTIMATED COST OF DESALINATION UNITS IN THE ESCWA REGION (Millions of US dollars)
ESCWA member Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain Iraq Oman Egypt Yemen Lebanon Jordan Syrian Arab Republic Palestine Total Estimated cost of installed unitsa/ 7 471 4 141 2 168 981 652 274 388 327 119 40 16 7 1 16 583 Estimated cost of contracted unitsb/ 28 697 163 Estimated cost of planned unitsc/ 2 675 559 334 472 388 22 Total cost 7 499 7 512 2 890 1 315 1 124 274 777 349 119 40 86 7 1 21 992 Ratio of total to installed cost 1.0 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.0 2.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 5.5 1.0 1.0 1.3
70
888
4 521
Figure 1.6 provides a view of annual expenditure on desalination plant construction in the ESCWA member countries during the second half of the twentieth century. The figure shows that around 70 per cent of the total investment occurred during the last quarter century (the mid-1970s onward). This, along with the sinusoidal nature of investment in desalination, appears to correlate with the availability of financial resources from oil sales, as is suggested in figure 1.6, which also includes a representation of the variation in crude oil prices during the period 1970-2000.
10
Figure 1.5. Distribution of estimated expenditure on desalination plants in the ESCWA region in 2000 and as expected in 2003
Oman 2% (388) Iraq 2% (274) Bahrain 4% (652) Qatar 6% (981) Kuwait 13% (2,168) Yemen Lebanon Egypt 2% (327) 1% (119) 0.2% (40) Jordan 0.1% (16) Syria 0.04% (7) Pales tine 0.004% (1)
Oman 3.5% (777) Bahrain 5.1% (1,124) Qatar 6.0% (1,315) Kuwait 13.1% (2,890)
Iraq 1.2% (274)
Egypt 1.6% (349)
Jordan 0.4% (86)
Yemen 0.5% (119) Lebanon 0.2% (40) Syria 0.03% (7) Pales tine 0.003% (1) Saudi A rabia 34.1% (7,499)
UA E 25% (4,141)
Saudi A rabia 45% (7,471)
UA E 34.2% (7,512)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: Figures in brackets represent reported installation costs and contract values in millions of US dollars.
Figure 1.6. Estimated cost of desalination plants contracted in the ESCWA region since 1954
US $ million 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1954 1958 1962 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Estimated cost of desalination plants Nominal oil price US $ per barrel; Base: 1973=100 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Sources: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000); Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, Annual Statistical Bulletin, 1998 (Vienna, OPEC, 1999); and ESCWA oil price statistics. Note: Oil prices are as follows: from 1970 to 1981, the Arab Light official price; from 1982 to 1999, the OPEC spot reference basket price; the value for 2000 is an ESCWA estimate; and the value for 2001 is an ESCWA forecast.
Table 1.5 provides information on desalination capacity per installed desalination unit, the estimated cost of each desalination unit, and the estimated cost per cubic metre of installed capacity in the various ESCWA member countries. The table indicates that all the GCC countries, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, have installed high-capacity units averaging between 10,000 and 17,000 m3/d, while most of the ESCWA members with more diversified economies have opted for smaller units. As shown in figure 1.7, unit capacities are commensurate with the estimated cost per unit, which ranges between $1.1 million in the Syrian Arab Republic and $25.7 million in the United Arab Emirates.
11
TABLE 1.5. AVERAGE DESALINATION CAPACITY PER INSTALLED UNIT AND ESTIMATED COSTS PER UNIT AND PER CUBIC METRE IN THE ESCWA REGION
ESCWA member Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Kuwait Qatar Bahrain Oman Iraq Egypt Jordan Yemen Lebanon Syrian Arab Republic Palestine Average Average capacity per unit (m3/d/unit) 5 821 17 396 12 869 11 643 10 240 12 504 1 898 1 482 5 691 3 516 1 314 915 1 300 8 043 Estimated cost per unit (US$ million/unit) 8.5 25.7 18.6 18.8 15.2 19.4 1.6 2.9 5.4 6.3 3.1 1.1 0.6 11.8 Estimated cost per m3 of installed capacity (US$/m3) 1 456 1 479 1 449 1 614 1 483 1 552 845 1 943 941 1 779 2 349 1 188 462 1 468
Figure 1.7. Average unit capacity versus average unit cost for desalination systems in the ESCWA region
30.0
UAE
25.0 Estimated cost 20.0 per unit 15.0 (US $ million/unit) 10.0 5.0 0.0 0
LB QA BH SA YE EG IR SY P AT JO OM KW
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
BH: Bahrain EG: Egypt IR: Iraq JO: Jordan KW: Kuwait LB: Lebanon OM: Oman PAT: Palestine QA: Qatar SA: Saudi Arabia SY: Syrian Arab Republic UAE: United Arab Emirates YE: Yemen
Capacity per unit (m3/d/unit)

Slight departures from the straight line produced by plotting the estimated cost per unit against the capacity per unit are observed. Unit costs in Egypt, Lebanon, Qatar and Yemen appear to be slightly above the line, indicating marginally higher than average unit costs, while units in Iraq, Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic appear to be associated with slightly lower than average costs. Average cost per cubic metre of installed capacity in the ESCWA region ranges between $845 in Iraq and $2,349 in Lebanon. The corresponding figure is $1,500/m3 for the Gulf countries as a group (see figure 1.8). Figure 1.9 illustrates the changes in the cost of installing 1 m3 of desalination capacity during the second half of the twentieth century, indicating a gradual decline from $2,000-$2,500 in the latter part of the 1950s to $1,500 today.
12
Figure 1.8. Estimated cost of installed desalination capacity in the ESCWA region (US dollars per cubic metre per day)
2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 Saudi Arabia Syria Palestine UAE Lebanon Oman Iraq Bahrain Kuwait Yemen Jordan Qatar Egypt
Figure 1.9. The cost of installing 1 m3/day of desalination capacity, presented as five-year averages over the period 1954-2003
3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 54 -5 9 59 -6 4 64 -6 9 69 -7 4 74 -7 9 79 -8 4 84 -8 9 89 -9 4 94 -9 9 99 -0 3
Figure 1.10 displays the variation over time in the cost of installing 1 m3 of desalination capacity for different technologies. Within this framework, MSF and VC unit costs generally declined during the 1990s, while RO unit costs increased. Chapter IV of this study provides additional information on desalination costing. 3. Desalination technology capacities and growth patterns Table 1.6 and figure 1.11 show the distribution of total desalination capacity (installed, contracted and planned) in the ESCWA member countries across process technologies. MSF desalination accounts for the largest share of the market, representing around 74 per cent of total capacity; RO and VC technologies occupy and distant second and third place, with respective shares of approximately 20 and 3 per cent.
13
Figure 1.10. The cost of installing 1 m3/day of desalination capacity according to desalination technology, presented as five-year averages over the period 1954-2003
3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 74 -7 9 54 -5 9 59 -6 4 64 -6 9 69 -7 4 79 -8 4 84 -8 9 89 -9 4 94 -9 9 99 -0 3
VC
M SF
RO
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: VC = vapour compression; MSF = multistage flash; RO = reverse osmosis.
MSF is still the most widely used process in the Arab countries not members of ESCWA (see table A.2 in annex A), accounting for around 54 per cent of installed capacity, followed by RO (26 per cent) and VC (11 per cent). TABLE 1.6. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL INSTALLED CAPACITY IN THE ESCWA REGION ACCORDING TO
PRINCIPAL DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY
(Thousands of cubic metres per day)

Technology Multistage flash Reverse osmosis Vapour compression Nanofiltration Electrodialysis Multiple effect distillation Other/unspecified processes Total Installed capacitya/ 8 213 2 250 313 181 85 5 11 046 Contracted capacityb/ 317 109 68 Planned capacityc/ 2 623 9 235 250 Total capacity 11 153 2 368 616 250 181 85 331 14 984
494
327 3 444
Figure 1.12 shows the distribution of installed plant capacity according to the main equipment used. Flash evaporators, used in the MSF process, represent 75 per cent of the total. Horizontal tube falling film evaporators (HTEs), used mainly in VC operations but also in MED, account for a 3 per cent share. RO processes use, almost equally, hollow fibre membrane (HFM) and spiral wound membrane (SWM) configurations, which make up 9 and 8 per cent of total plant capacity, respectively.
14
Figure 1.11. Distribution of installed plant capacity according to the main desalination process applied in 2000 and as expected in 2003
ED 2% (181) VC 3% (313) RO 20% (2,250) MED 1% (85) OT HER 0.04% (5)
NF 2% (250) VC 4% (616) RO 16% (2,366) ED 1% (181) MED 1% (85) OT HER 2% (331)
MSF 74% (8,213)
MSF 74% (11,153)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Notes: Figures in brackets represent capacity values in thousands of cubic metres per day. Key to abbreviations: MSF = multistage flash; RO = reverse osmosis; VC = vapour compression (mechanical and thermal); NF = nanofiltration; ED = electrodialysis; MED = multiple effect distillation (not vapour compression); HYBRID = hybrid process; OTHER = other or unspecified processes.
Figure 1.12. Distribution of installed plant capacity according to the main equipment used in 2000 and as expected in 2003
HT E 3% (299) HFM 9% (1,038) SWM 8% (926) MT U 2% (274) FM 2% (192) VT E 1% (92) OT HER 0.1% (12)
HFM 7% (1,038) SWM 8% (1,175)
HT E 4% (593)
MT U 3% (383)
FM 1% (192) VT E 1% (102) OT HER 3% (439)
FLASH 75% (8,213)
FLASH 73% (11,062)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Notes: Figures in brackets represent capacity values in thousands of cubic metres per day. Key to abbreviations: FLASH = flash evaporator; SWM = spiral wound membrane; HFM = hollow fibre membrane; HTE = horizontal tube falling film evaporator; MTU = membrane type unknown; FM = flat membrane; VTE = vertical tube falling film evaporator; OTHER = other or unspecified equipment.
Capacity growth in the various technologies installed in the ESCWA member countries is summarized in figure 1.13. The graphs comprising the figure indicate that the highest rates of growth have occurred in MSF technology, followed by RO and VC technologies. It should be noted that most of the earlier desalination plants were based on MSF. Figure 1.13 (a) indicates jagged but steady MSF capacity growth at an overall average rate of around 240,000 m3/d per year during the period 1954-2002. An almost constant rate of increase in RO capacity, averaging around 75,000 m3/d per year, is observed. Following a period of moderate but accelerating growth during the 1980s and 1990s, VC capacity made a substantial leap in the year 2000 owing to the establishment
15
of 10 units in the United Arab Emirates with a total capacity of 225,000 m3/d. A somewhat similar pattern is seen with regard to MED capacity, which grew very slowly throughout the 1970s and 1980s, then jumped suddenly in 1987 following the establishment of four units in Yemen with a combined capacity of 57,600 m3/d. Figure 1.13 (e) indicates no addition to MED capacity during the late 1980s and early 1990s, followed by limited capacity growth in the late 1990s. ED capacity growth was relatively robust during the 1970s and early 1980s but slowed down considerably in the late 1980s and the 1990s. ED capacity appears to have plateaued for most of the 1990s, as there are no indications of any sizeable capacity increases. Figure 1.13. Cumulative capacity growth in different desalination technologies installed in the ESCWA region (Thousands of cubic metres per day)
12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 70 58 78 86 66 74 82 94 54 62 90 98 02 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20
2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 -
54
58
62
66
70
74
78
82
86
90
94
98
20 02
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
(a) Multistage flash

750 600 450 300 150 54 62 58 66 70 74 78 82 86 94 98 90 02 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 19
(b) Reverse osmosis

200 150 100 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 94 98
(c) Vapour compressiona/

100 80 60 40 20 58 66 54 62 70 74 78 82 86 90 19 94 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 98
(d) Electrodialysis
(e) Multiple effect distillation Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). a/ Including both mechanical and thermal vapour compression processes.
4. Distribution of desalination capacity according to type of feed water Figure 1.14 indicates that seawater is the main source of feed water in desalination plants in the ESCWA member countries, constituting 83 per cent of the total. Brackish water accounts for 14 per cent, wastewater and river water represent 2 and 1 per cent respectively, and the use of brine and pure source waters for desalination is negligible.
16
02
20
02
Figure 1.14. Distribution of installed plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to type of feed water in 2000 and as expected in 2003
Waste 1% (63) Brackish 14% (1,501) River 2% (204) Brine 0.1% (8) Pure 0.1% (6)
Waste 2% (313) Brackish 10% (1,500)
River 2% (286)
Brine 0.1% (8)
Pure 0.04% (6)
Sea 83% (9,265)
Sea 86% (12,871)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Notes: Figures in brackets represent absolute capacity values in thousands of cubic metres per day. Brackish = brackish or inland water, TDS 3,000-20,000 mg/l; brine = brine or concentrated seawater, TDS > 50,000 mg/l; pure = pure water, TDS < 500 mg/l; river = river or other low-salinity water, TDS 500-3,000 mg/l; sea = seawater or concentrated seawater, TDS 20,000-50,000 mg/l; waste = wastewater.
The distribution of feed water types has implications for desalination technology preferences, as shown in figure 1.15. The prevalence of seawater desalination in four of the five ESCWA member countries under consideration in the figure explains the extensive use of MSF technology (88-97 per cent). Saudi Arabia leads the region in brackish water treatment, which may explain why it is also the regions major user of RO technology. It should be noted that at least 9 per cent of the countrys total RO capacity could also be used to treat other categories of feed water, since brackish water treatment accounts for 21 per cent of total capacity, while RO technology appears to account for around 30 per cent of all desalination capacity in the Kingdom. 5. Analysis of desalination capacity in reference to areas of application Desalination capacity dedicated to municipal uses in the ESCWA member countries totalled approximately 9.3 MCM/d in the year 2000, accounting for around 84 per cent of total installed capacity (see figure 1.16). This includes the water fed into municipal networks or otherwise distributed as drinking water, though an estimated 14 per cent of the municipal share is distributed for use by small industrial enterprises; the 12 per cent earmarked for industrial applications is probably fully dedicated to larger industrial plants. A miniscule 0.1 per cent of desalination capacity serves the irrigation sector. Figure 1.17 offers a chance for comparison, illustrating the main uses of desalinated water for three country groupings: Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates; the remaining Gulf countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar); and ESCWA members with more diversified economies (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen). Similar graphs for individual countries may be found in figure A.1 in annex A.
17
Figure 1.15. Distribution of installed plant capacity according to feed water type and desalination technology used in five ESCWA member countries
(a) Kuwait
Brackish 3% Waste 0.4% Brine 0.2%
ED 0.2% HYBRID 0.1% MED 0.1%
RO 3%
Sea 97%
MSF 97%
VC 27% RO 9% MED 1%
(b) Oman
Brackis h 3%
Sea 97%
MSF 89%
(c) Qatar
Brackish 1%
Pure 0.2%
VC 3%
RO 2%
MED 0.4%
Sea 99%
MSF 95%
(d) Saudi Arabia
Brackish 21%
Waste 1%
River 0.4%
RO 30%
VC 1%
ED 1%
MED 0.1%
Sea 78%
MSF 68%
(e) United Arab Emirates
Brackish 4%
Brine 0.1%
VC 6% RO 6%
MED 0.3%
ED 0.1%
HYBRID 0.1%
Sea 96%
MSF 88%
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: RO = reverse osmosis; ED = electrodialysis; HYBRID = hybrid (combined technologies); MED = multiple effect distillation; MSF = multistage flash; VC = vapour compression; brackish = brackish or inland water, TDS 3,000-20,000 mg/l; brine = brine or concentrated seawater, TDS > 50,000 mg/l; pure = pure water, TDS < 500 mg/l; river = river or other low-salinity water, TDS 500-3,000 mg/l; sea = seawater or concentrated seawater, TDS 20,000-50,000 mg/l; waste = wastewater.
18
Figure 1.16. Distribution of installed desalination plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to application in 2000 and as expected in 2003
Power 2% (208) Irrigation 0.1% (15) Industrial 12% (1,282) Military 1% (160) Tourism 1% (69) Demonstration 0.05% (5) Discharge 0.02% (2) Other 0.04% (4)
Power 1% (220) Irrigation 2% (265) Industrial 9% (1,343))
Military 1% (160)
Tourism 1% (78)
Demonstration 0.03% (5) Discharge 0.01% (2) Other 0.03% (4)
Municipal 84% (9,300)
Municipal 86% (12,906)
(a) 2000
(b) 2003
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: Figures in brackets represent absolute capacity values in thousands of cubic metres per day. Demonstration = fresh water produced for demonstration purposes; industrial = fresh water used as industrial or process water, TDS < 10 mg/l; irrigation = fresh water used for irrigation, TDS < 1,000 mg/l; military = fresh water used as drinking water for military facilities, TDS 10-1,000 mg/l; municipal = fresh water used as municipal drinking water, TDS 10-1,000 mg/l; power = fresh water used as process water in power stations, TDS < 10 mg/l; tourism = fresh water used as drinking water for tourist facilities, TDS 10-1,000 mg/l; discharge = fresh water produced for discharge.
A wider range of applications is evident in the more diversified economies of the ESCWA region, where industrial use accounts for around 44 per cent of total desalination capacity, as opposed to 10 per cent in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates and 8 per cent in the other Gulf country grouping. As indicated in previous figures and tables, the prevalence of municipal applications in the GCC countries is readily explained by the lack of other sources of water for drinking and other domestic and commercial applications. Figure 1.17. Desalinated water use for different groupings of ESCWA member countries
S audi Arabia and UAE
Industrial 10% Military 2% Other 1%
Oman, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait

Other 1%
Lebanon, Iraq, S yria, Jordan, Yemen and Egypt

T ourism 6% Power 28% Other 2% Industrial 44%
Industrial 8%
Municipal 87%
Municipal 91%
Municipal 20%
6. A closer view of desalination capacity in selected ESCWA member countries (a) Saudi Arabia
Figure 1.18 shows that Saudi Arabia witnessed growth in desalination capacity throughout the 1980s, followed by a plateau during the first half of the 1990s. Capacity increased by more than 30 per cent during the period 1995-2000, however, reaching a world high of more than 5 MCM/d.
19
Figure 1.18. Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Saudi Arabia (Millions of cubic metres per day)
Millions m3/d 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
19 66 19 71 19 73 19 75 19 77 19 79 19 81 19 83 19 85 19 87 19 89 19 91 19 93 19 95 19 97 19 99 20 01
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). a/ Figure for 2001 includes projects planned and listed in the source.
Table 1.7 lists the desalination projects currently under way in Saudi Arabia. These projects, carried out at a cost of around $2.8 billion, are expected to increase the Kingdoms capacity by 1.9 MCM/d by 2003. TABLE 1.7. ACTIVE DESALINATION PROJECTS IN SAUDI ARABIA
Location Baha I Al-Birk II Jubail I (extension) Jubail II (extension) Jubail III (extension) Al-Leeth I Asir II Farazan II Qunfuda Rabigh II Shuaiba III Shuaiba IV Tabuk I Umm Lujj III Total Capacity (1,000 m3/d) 91 0.5 90 727 181 2 136 5 7 23 227 253 114 11 1 868 Process MSF .. MSF MSF MSF VC MSF VC MSF MSF MSF MSF MSF .. Operational date 2002 2001 2002 2002 2002 2002 2002 2001 2002 2001 2002 2003 2002 2001 Cost (US$ million) 135.74 1.47 150 1 020.47 270.52 6.37 195.41 11.58 16.33 37.73 347.12 355.67 173.56 24.03 2 746
Source: Middle East Economic Digest, special report on water, vol. 44, No. 4 (28 January 2000), p. 12.
As noted earlier, MSF and RO are the two major desalination processes in current use in Saudi Arabia. The MSF process is employed to produce more than 68 per cent of the countrys desalinated water. This share is expected to increase in the short term, as indicated in table 1.6. The non-subsidized cost of desalinated water is presently estimated at $1.87/m3 for a desalination plant with a lifespan of 15 years.10 Annex B includes a detailed case study of the Shuaiba Phase II MSF cogeneration plant, scheduled to become operational during 2001.
10
TradePort International Trade, www.tradeport.org.
20
(b)
Qatar
The Water Department in Qatar was established in the early 1960s. It later became part of the Ministry of Electricity and Water, which then merged with the Ministry of Energy and Industry. During 2000, in preparation for the privatization of electricity and water production in Qatar, the Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA) was formed and charged with distributing electricity and water throughout the country. KAHRAMAA is presently in possession of only limited production facilities but purchases power and water from such facilities within the State. Water production and distribution in Qatar has undergone tremendous development during the past three decades (see figure 1.19). Modern facilities first appeared with the building of the Ras Abu Abboud MSF evaporators and a small distribution network in 1971.11 Figure 1.19. Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Qatar (Thousands of cubic metres per day)
Thousands m3/d 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
1 3 4 8 19 9 9 8 7 9 1 19 8 6 19 7 19 9 19 5 19 6 19 9 20 0 19 8 19 9 19 7 3
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: Figures for 2001-2003 include projects planned and listed in the source.
The production and supply of desalinated drinking water in Qatar has grown steadily. Desalination facilities currently have a combined installed capacity of around 570,000 m3/d, feeding 14 reservoirs and a 3,500-kilometre network. Approximately 140,000 locations are now provided with fresh water. Rural areas not connected to the network are supplied by a fleet of tankers and reservoirs situated mainly near Doha.12 Owing to low rates of aquifer recharge, the quality of groundwater in well fields used as sources of drinking water in Qatar has been steadily deteriorating and is now approaching maximum values set by World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for a number of chemical constituents. Plans to phase out well field extraction and supply consumers with piped water from the countrys desalination plants are in progress, with the well fields being retained as a sort of strategic reserve. Approximately 95 per cent of the fresh water supplied to consumers in Qatar is produced through the desalination of seawater at three major power stations in Ras Abu Abboud and Ras Abu Fontas. Ras Abu Abboud was built in 1963 and further developed until 1976, achieving peak output of around 37,000 m3/d. This station is nearing the end of its useful life and is due to be phased out. The Ras Abu Fontas site has two stations, RAF-A and RAF-B. Station A, developed over the period 1966-1992, has 14 distillation units with a
This station was built in stages. IDA data indicate that it has a capacity of around 13,600 m3/d, distributed via reservoirs and tanks to a 390-kilometre distribution network.
12 11
There are also two RO plants fed from groundwater.
21
maximum output of around 320,000 m3/d. Station B produces around 150,000 m3/d from five distillation units. An extension intended to provide an additional 120,000 m3/d is in the planning stages. A new independent power plant with an output of around 180,000 m3/d is purportedly in the advanced planning stages in Ras Laffan. As indicated in figure 1.15 (c), MSF units account for a 95 per cent share of desalination capacity in Qatar, while VC and RO units constitute a mere 3 and 2 per cent of capacity, respectively. (c) Kuwait
The production capacity of Kuwaits desalination plants amounted to around 1.5 MCM/d in 2000, as shown in figure 1.20. Fresh water is provided for municipal use, industrial activities, power plants and agriculture. Although a number of desalination technologies are applied in Kuwait,13 the MSF process is the most widely used for the supply of fresh water for urban and industrial applications (see figure 1.15 [a]). Figure 1.20. Cumulative growth in desalination capacity in Kuwait (Millions of cubic metres per day)
Millions m3/d 2
1.5
0.5
19 64
19 59
19 62
19 66
19 69
19 80
19 71
19 75
19 82
19 85
Tables A.3 and A.4 in annex A provide details of water desalination technology applications in Kuwait. The countrys first MSF unit, installed in Shuwaikh in 1960, had 19 stages, a capacity of 4,546 m3/d, and a performance ratio of 4. The designs on which MSF plants in Kuwait are based were developed by Westinghouse of the United States and Weir Westgarth of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; these and subsequent units had a performance ratio of 8 and included between 24 and 30 stages. During the 1950s, installed capacity totalled around 45,000 m3/d; in the 1960s this figure more than doubled to 90,920 m3/d. The rate of expansion accelerated during the 1970s, when total production capacity increased by a factor of 5 to more than 454,600 m3/d. Growth slowed but remained strong in the 1980s, during which production capacity rose to around 1.14 MCM/d. During the 1990s the trend was to renew a number of plants; however, production capacity continued to increase, reaching around 1.5 MCM/d in 2000. Between 1959 and 1970, individual unit capacities were kept below 4,500 m3/d. During the 1970s, however, unit capacity increased rapidly to the more standard 27,276 m3/d, with units operating at top brine
13 As shown in figure 1.15 (a), RO is found on a very limited scale, especially for small units of around 50 m3/d at sites such as hospitals to provide fresh water for emergency use. ED plants are used by the petrochemical industry in Kuwait to produce chlorine gas, which is sold exclusively for water treatment and disinfection in the MSF plants.
22
20 01
19 88
19 92
19 96
temperatures (TBTs) of around 90o C.14 The results of performance tests conducted on the four 27,276 m3/d Doha West units in Kuwait are presented by R. Zannoni and others in a 1983 article.15 Twelve dual-capacity units were installed at the Doha West plant in 1985. The units could be operated at TBTs of 90o or 110o C to produce 27,276 m3/d or 32,731 m3/d, respectively. Initially, these units were operated at the lower temperature to reduce the rate of scale formation. However, the development of more effective antiscalant materials eventually allowed safer operation and improved productivity at the higher temperature. Korean companies appear to have manufactured the largest share of the more recently installed MSF units in Kuwait.16 Per capita water consumption17 in Kuwait rose from 139 m3/person/d in 1975 to 490 m3/person/d in 2000 (see figure A.2 in annex A). This dramatic increase may be partially attributed to steady improvements in living standards and the provision of generous government subsidies. The per capita rate of water consumption in Kuwait is currently one of the highest in the world.
18
All desalination plants operating in Kuwait are of the cogeneration variety; they produce electricity using steam turbines and carry out MSF water desalination using the low- and medium-pressure steam leaving the turbines. With Kuwaits involvement in the desalination industry dating back to the late 1950s, the country has had ample time and opportunity to acquire extensive field experience in areas such as plant specifications and contracting, installation and commissioning, and operation and maintenance. Standards and specifications for new MSF plants have remained nearly the same as those adopted for plants built and commissioned in 1984, even when construction contracts have been awarded to different firms. This may indicate a conservative approach on the part of the Ministry of Electricity and Water, the owner of the desalination plants, with regard to desalination process and manufacturing company choices. The strategic nature of the product and the need for large capacity and a high degree of reliability may also explain the continued dependence on the MSF process. Kuwait has created a strong desalination infrastructure. The availability of local experts and firms capable of installing and commissioning new desalination plants and providing the necessary technical support has helped eliminate the need for outside consultants, which has benefited the country from both a financial and a human resources standpoint. The domestic experience gained in proper plant operation and maintenance has led to the extension of plant life. An analysis of the data shown in table A.3 in annex A indicates that 26, 66 and 8 per cent of the present installed capacity dates back to the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s respectively. Maintenance contracts are being awarded to private firms; because there is no need for dedicated full-time staff and no associated overhead expenses, costs have declined. Kuwait can also boast of production capacities in the neighbourhood of 100 per cent (full design capacity) and plant availability of more than 85 per cent, and plants may now operate continuously for more than two years before a full system shutdown is required. In assessing the economics of desalination in Kuwait, it is important to appreciate that energy costs in the Gulf States are low by international standards. Labour costs are similar to international averages. Because all of the desalination plants in Kuwait are government owned, however, there has been a tendency to adopt a higher manpower profile than is strictly necessary.
The first 27,276 m3/d capacity MSF units appeared in 1978 and were manufactured by Ishikawajima of Japan; after 1980, they dominated the field. In 1977, Harashina presented design and performance details for the 22,730 m3/d units.
15 R. Zannoni and others, Prototype test results for Doha West (Kuwait) 4 x 6 migpd desalination plants: report on the main design data of the above plants, Desalination, vol. 45 (1983), pp. 337-344. 14
Al-Shuaib and others, Multistage flash desalination: operating experience in Kuwait, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, vol. III (San Diego, CA, 1999), pp. 337-344.
17 18
16
Excluding industrial and agricultural water use. Excluding industrial and agricultural uses.
23
The availability of relevant undergraduate- and graduate-level courses at Kuwait University is believed to have contributed to the creation of a national pool of experts and competent operational personnel and, thereby, to the safe and efficient operation of the countrys desalination plants. (d) United Arab Emirates
The water desalination industry in the United Arab Emirates began in 1969 with total production of around 27,000 m3/d (see figure 1.21); by 2000, however, overall output had reached about 2.5 MCM/d. This figure is expected to double by the year 2005, according to the IDA.19 Figure 1.21. Cumulative desalination capacity in the United Arab Emirates since 1970 (Millions of cubic metres per day)
Millions m3/d 5 4 3 2 1 19 69 19 77 19 79 19 81 19 83 19 85 19 87 19 90 19 92 19 94 19 96 19 98 20 00 20 02 20 05
Water consumption is expected to grow by 8 per cent annually. This fact, coupled with the shrinking contribution of groundwater to the national supply, is behind the countrys efforts to build more desalination plants. (i) Distribution of desalination plants in the United Arab Emirates according to technology As shown in figure 1.15 (e), MSF, VC and RO are the three desalination methods most commonly used in the United Arab Emirates. MSF is by far the most prevalent, accounting for 88 per cent of total capacity, while VC and RO are ranked a distant second, with 6 per cent each. (ii) Distribution of desalination plants in the United Arab Emirates according to area Figure 1.22 represents the distribution of desalination capacity among the countrys seven emirates in the year 2000 and as expected in 2003. Abu Dhabi occupies a leading position, with 55 per cent of total desalination capacity, followed by Dubai (32 per cent) and Sharjah (6 per cent).
19
K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000).
24
Figure 1.22. Distribution of desalination capacity in the United Arab Emirates, by emirate
Ras Al Khaimah 2% Sharjah 6% Ajman 1% Umm Al Quwain 1%
Fujairah 1%
Unspecified 2%
Sharjah 5%
Ras Al Khaimah 1%
Ajman 1%
Other/ Unspecified 2%
Dubai 32%
Abu Dhabi 55%
Dubai 30%
(b) 2003
Abu Dhabi 62%
(a) 2000
With regard to capacity distribution by technology in the top three water-producing emirates, table 1.8 indicates that MSF technology accounts for almost all of the desalination capacity in Abu Dhabi and 88 per cent in Dubai. Sharjah has a more balanced mix of technologies, with MSF, VC and RO accounting for 52, 30 and 18 per cent of capacity, respectively. TABLE 1.8. DISTRIBUTION OF DESALINATION CAPACITY IN ABU DHABI, DUBAI AND SHARJAH ACCORDING TO TECHNOLOGY
Emirate Abu Dhabi Main process MSF VC RO, MED, Hybrid MSF ED, RO MSF VC RO Total capacity (m3/d) 2 797 654 311 822 52 045 1 514 370 3 045 120 620 68 248 41 700 Share of total capacity 88% 10% 2% 99.8% 0.2% 52% 30% 18%
Dubai Sharjah
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: MSF = multistage flash; VC = vapour compression; RO = reverse osmosis; MED = multiple effect distillation; ED = electrodialysis.
D. CONCLUDING REMARKS A global overview of desalination capacity has been presented based on recently published information. Desalination capacities in the ESCWA member countries have been reviewed in greater detail, with emphasis on the distribution of both installed and planned desalination capacities among countries, technologies, feed water sources and principal areas of use for product fresh water. Information has been provided on the evolution of desalination capacity in the ESCWA region over the past half century, both in general terms and relative to particular technologies, and expenditures associated with desalination plants, both past and projected, have also received attention, helping to complete an integrated picture of desalination technology acquisition in the region. A somewhat closer look is taken at desalination activity in Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, the members of the desalination major league within the ESCWA region. The ESCWA member countries are home to around 1,750 desalination plants; there will soon be a total of nearly 1,900 plants incorporating a range of capacities and a number of technologies. Enormous sums have been spent on erecting, refurbishing and running these plants over the past 50 years. This should render capacity building for the wider dissemination and further development of desalination technologies an exceedingly worthwhile undertaking.
25
Opportunities for effective partnerships in the acquisition, adaptation and development of desalination technologies are probably unparalleled in any other field of industrial endeavour. Cooperative efforts should not be confined to those ESCWA membersessentially the GCC countriesthat rely heavily on desalination as a significant source of fresh water. Indications are that several other countries in the region may turn to desalination as a source of additional fresh water in the not-too-distant future. An additional fact is that many plants in the GCC countries are nearing the end of their useful life. This should provide all countries interested in exploring the desalination option with a strong motive for mastering a variety of process and related materials technologies. Creating and maintaining conditions that encourage private sector firms to acquire expertise in desalination technologies should produce lasting benefits. Technology and production alliances with developed country enterprises may serve as a stepping stone for capacity building. Ultimately, the incentives for acquiring a leading position in desalination science and technology development on an international scale are both economic and strategic.
26
II. THERMAL DESALINATION PROCESSES Industrial thermal desalination took off with the introduction of submerged evaporators, in which evaporation takes place over submerged heat exchange tubes within the liquid phase rather than on the surface of hot tubes, as is the case in later process designs. When applied, the original (and quite simple) concept of submerged evaporation, in which tubes of submerged heating steam evaporate feed water, led to extensive salt scale formation on the outer surface of the evaporator tubes; the scales low thermal conductivity drastically reduced heat transfer efficiency, enforcing stoppages for cleaning to restore process efficiency.20 This is one of the main reasons submerged evaporators were replaced by flash distillation mechanisms. The first MSF unit was installed in 1960 in Kuwait.21 The initial design was rapidly superseded by others progressively incorporating the features of the present MSF process. A. THE MULTISTAGE FLASH PROCESS MSF plants are relatively simple to construct and operate. They have no moving parts, other than conventional pumps, and incorporate only a small amount of connection tubing. Product water, or distillate, is typically of a high level of purity; it is often sterile and requires little or no post-treatment. Lifespans of up to 40 years are now being predicted for large plants in the GCC countries. Figure 2.1 presents an example of a typical MSF seawater desalination plant.22 Figure 2.1. View of a typical multistage flash desalination plant
Source: E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001.
In the MSF process water is made to boil at temperatures below the saturation boiling temperature; this is referred to as the flashing effect. Feed water is heated in a vessel, the brine heater, before being allowed to flow into a series of vessels, known as stages, that constitute the evaporator in the MSF unit. Most stages are maintained at reduced pressure, relative to atmospheric pressure, so that the sudden
H.M. Ettouney, H.T. El-Dessouky and I. Alatiqi, Understand thermal desalination, Chemical Engineering Progress, vol. 95 (1999), pp. 43-54.
21 22 20
R.S. Silver, Desalinationthe distant future, Desalination, vol. 68 (1988), pp. 1-10. A similar plant, with a capacity of 340,000 m3/d, is reported to have been installed in Abu Dhabi in 1995.
27
introduction of heated feed water into these vessels causes rapid boiling, or flashing. Steam generated by flashing is converted to fresh water by condensation on tubular heat exchangers that run through each stage. The tubes are cooled down by incoming feed water on its way to the brine heater. This has the effect of warming up the feed water so that the amount of thermal energy needed to raise its temperature in the brine heater is reduced. Distillate flowing from stage to stage is taken out as product water from the last stage. It may then be chemically treated to adjust its pH and hardness prior to storage or usage. Most MSF plants operate in a dual-purpose or cogeneration mode, incorporating both power generation and water desalination. Waste or extracted heat produced in electricity generation units is used to preheat feed water, resulting in high thermal efficiencies and improved process economics. Current cogeneration plant designs allow for flexible operation during peak load periods for power or water. In the GCC countries peak loads for electricity and water occur during the summer owing to high ambient temperatures and the accompanying massive use of indoor air-conditioning systems and increased domestic and industrial water consumption.23 The opposite is true for the winter season, which is characterized by mild temperatures and the limited use of indoor heating units. Frame 2.1 presents a summary of performance parameters common to thermal desalination processes.
Frame 2.1. Performance parameters for thermal desalination processes Thermal desalination processes are evaluated based on a number of common performance parameters that determine the efficiency of the system and hence the cost of desalinated water output. The most important of these parameters include the following: (a) Thermal performance ratio (PR) is defined as the flow rate of fresh product water relative to the heating steam. This parameter gives a measure of the specific process energy consumption;a/ (b) Specific electrical power consumption (w) is defined as the ratio of energy consumption, expressed in kilowatt hours (kWh), to product volume. For MSF and MED systems, the specific power consumption of the pumping units, instrumentation, and control devices is approximately 4 kWh/m3 and 2.5 kWh/m3, respectively. In the MVC system, this parameter has an average value of 8 kWh/m3, which includes the power consumed by the mechanical vapour compressor and the pumping units; (c) Specific flow rate of cooling water (SMcw) is the ratio of the flow rate of cooling water to the flow rate of desalinated water output. It constitutes another measure of process efficiency. Clearly, this is a dimensionless quantity for which higher values imply more energy rejected into the surrounding area and higher energy consumption owing to the increased flow of cooling water pumped through the system. The value of this parameter in MSF and MED processes generally ranges from 3 to 10. The actual value depends on various factors including feed water temperature; an increase in the amount of heating steam and an increase in feed water temperature would require an increase in the cooling water flow rate; (d) Specific heat transfer area (As) is defined as the total heat transfer area per unit product flow rate. Its value depends on the top brine temperature. Operation between 90o and 110o C gives a specific heat transfer area of 200-300 2 m /(kg/s); values in this range are common in the MSF process. When lower top brine temperatures (for example, those in the range of 60o-70o C) are used in single or multiple effect distillation systems, specific heat transfer areas in the range of 700-800 m2/(kg/s) are common. In a broader sense, the first three parameters largely determine process efficiency and therefore running costs, while the fourth parameter plays a major role in specifying the capital expenditure involved. ____________________
a/ This parameter has a value of around 8 for a 24-stage brine circulation MSF or 12-effect MED system and a value of around 17 for a 12-effect MED-TVC system.
Recent developments in the ESCWA member countries reflect renewed interest in MSF desalination. Table 2.1 presents a list of plants contracted since 1991 with capacities equal to or larger than 45,000 m3.24 New installations, including those under evaluation or in the tender phase, exhibit a trend towards increased unit size.
M.A. Darwish and N. Al-Najem, New trend in cogeneration power-desalting plant with reverse osmosis desalting system, Desalination, vol. 128 (2000).
24 23
R. Borsani, A new age for MSF desalination plants, EDS Newsletter, No. 11 (December 2000).
28
TABLE 2.1. PLANTS WITH CAPACITIES OF 45,000 M3/DAY OR GREATER CONTRACTED IN THE ESCWA REGION SINCE 1991
Plant Shuaiba (Saudi Arabia) Al-Taweelah B (UAE)a/ Al-Taweelah A2 (UAE) Jebel Ali K1 (UAE) Jebel Ali K2 (UAE) Umm Al-Nar West (UAE) Number of units 10 6 4 2 3 5 Capacity (1,000 m3/d) 45 45/57 57 45 60 57
Source: R. Borsani, A new age for MSF desalination plants, EDS Newsletter, No. 11 (December 2000). a/ UAE = United Arab Emirates.
MSF configurations applied on an industrial scale include the once-through (MSF-OT) arrangement and the brine recirculation (MSF-BR) system. The use of the former is presently limited; most MSF plants rely on brine circulation, a method particularly suited to regions with large daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations. In general, brine recirculation results in a higher conversion ratio, uses smaller amounts of chemical additives and allows better control of feed seawater temperature. Subsections 2 and 3, below, provide a somewhat detailed description of brine circulation technology and the MSF-OT process. 1. Essential elements in multistage flash plant design (a) Basic design specifications The design specifications of a typical MSF plant generally address three essential aspects: (a) Distillate production and quality; (b) Top brine temperature (see frame 2.2); (c) Thermal efficiency of the desalination unit.
Frame 2.2. Top brine temperature The temperature of brine leaving the brine heater (top temperature, or TBT) typically ranges from 90 to 120 C. The actual temperature depends on the type of antiscale strategy being used. The temperature in the last stage is typically 32 C in the winter and 40 C in the summer. The corresponding vapour saturation pressure in the flash chambers ranges from 0.1 to 1.9 bars. This means that near-vacuum conditions should be maintained in most evaporation chambers. As a result, air that has leaked into the chambers and non-condensable gases (CO2 formed by the breakdown of carbonates) released in the evaporator from feed seawater must be continuously purged. The noncondensable gases are collected from each stage using a suitable vent system and cascaded to the next stage or are released into the atmosphere.
MSF plants installed at industrial facilities such as power stations and refineries produce distilled water at rates ranging between 1,000 and 10,000 m3/d.25 The water produced in this manner usually passes through ion-exchange units for demineralization before being used as boiler make-up or process water. For MSF units intended to produce drinking water, distillation rates range from 90,000 to 180,000 m3/d. The distillate produced is subjected to post-treatment to make it potable; this includes remineralization to increase the carbonate hardness, pH adjustment and sterilization.
D. Breschi, Introductory notes on MSF distillation, a paper presented at the Special Session on Water Desalination, Arab School of Science and Technology, Cairo, 23-27 January 2000.
25
29
Top brine temperature is a major factor in the design of an MSF unit. Increasing TBT values offers the designer a clear thermodynamic advantage by raising the overall efficiency of the MSF distillation process; however, a high TBT has important implications for the durability of the unit components. There is a direct link between TBT and the measures applied to reduce or prevent corrosion and control scale. If scale inhibition is based on the use of organic polymers and sponge ball circulation for tube cleaning, a TBT limit of about 110 C is imposed to minimize alkaline scale formation. When acid dosing is used for scale control, the TBT may be allowed to reach 120 C. Annex C provides further information on scale formation and control in MSF desalination. The thermal efficiency of a desalination system is largely determined by the ratio of the mass flow rate of distillate or product water to that of inlet steam. This parameter may be selected by the end-user on the basis of economic considerations, the objective being to incur minimum costs for water production over the economic life of the desalination plant. Generally speaking, larger heat exchange surfaces and additional stages in the evaporator complex will be needed to enhance plant efficiency. Elements such as these translate into higher capital costs that may or may not be offset by the reduced operating costs associated with lower steam consumption, for instance. Accordingly, optimum performance has to be achieved on the basis of factors that transcend capital costs; attention must be given not only to basic evaporator design, but also to the selection of appropriate construction materials and detailed evaporator chamber and condenser configuration designs. Annex D provides a brief description of operational controls for MSF plants. (b) Condenser tube configurations
Figure E.1 in annex E represents a schematic design of a flash chamber. Flash evaporators are classified into two groups based on the orientation of the condenser tube bundles inside the evaporator shell with respect to the direction of the flashing brine flow. The two options are referred to as long tube and cross tube designs. In a long tube evaporator, schematically shown in figure E.2 (a) in annex E, tubes are stacked parallel to the direction of brine flow in the chambers. This layout allows the use of the same tube stacks in consecutive stages. The limiting consideration here relates to the length of tubing available on the market. With parallel stacking, a smaller number of tube plates and water boxes may be used, resulting in lower pumping costs. The main disadvantage of the parallel layout is that, for geometrical reasons, it may be necessary to fabricate long tube evaporators using several casings in series, each having tube lengths ranging from 20 to 28 metres, with tube diameter measuring around 20 millimetres (mm). As a result, up to 10 stages may be needed for each casing. In the cross tube design, shown in figure E.2 (b) in annex E, the tubes are perpendicular to the direction of brine flow. This layout necessitates the use of water boxes and tube plates for each chamber, which drives pumping costs up by about 25 per cent.26 However, this disadvantage is more than offset by the possibility of attaining higher efficiency in chamber design. Advantages and disadvantages of long tube and cross tube designs include the following: (a) Long tube arrangements are associated with lower construction costs and lower power consumption than are cross tube designs;
S.K. Tadros, Preliminary research study for the construction of a pilot cogeneration desalination plant in southern California, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 7, Contract No. 1425-3-CR-81-18810, prepared by Supersystems, Inc., Irvine, CA, May 1995, and published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Technical Service Center, Environmental Resources Team, Water Treatment Engineering Group.
26
30
(b) The length of the various stages may be gradually varied in the long tube configuration according to thermodynamic requirements, while in the cross tube arrangement, constructive constraints do not allow variations in the heat exchange surface from stage to stage; (c) Flashing efficiency is not significantly different for the long tube and cross tube configurations. Stages are narrower and longer in long tube arrangements in comparison with cross tube configurations, resulting in greater brine depth that is offset by the longer residence time; (d) In the cross tube configuration the tube bundle is confined within each chamber, while in the long tube configuration the tubes have to extend through the inter-stage walls via suitable holes. This can result in vapour leakage through the clearance between tube and hole, which decreases the thermal efficiency of the system. On the basis of the above considerations it would appear that the long tube arrangement has some clear economic advantages. It is viewed as a favourable option when a high performance ratio (10 to 13) is specified, whence the cost for heat exchange surfaces tends to become a key issue, especially when a relatively large number of stages (40 to 50) is required.27 (c) Selecting an optimal number of stages
One of the basic considerations in designing a new MSF plant is the number of evaporator stages. Determining the optimal arrangement for a particular system is a complex task involving an assessment of thermodynamics, installation and fabrication issues, and other technical considerations, as well as factors relating to economics and cost-effectiveness. In practice, the optimal number of stages is eventually determined on the basis of theoretical and heuristic relationships between specific heat consumption, heat exchange surface design parameters, and the number of evaporator stages.28 Designers generally attempt to incorporate the least number of stages possible in order to minimize plant costs. However, savings deriving from exchange surface reduction may be offset by cost increases in the construction of the evaporators shell and steelwork for the casing, inter-stage walls and tube supports, and by higher labour costs for more complex constructions. Accordingly, a protracted programme of engineering analysis is required to achieve an optimal design. (d) Design of brine transfer weirs
In an MSF evaporator, each chamber is equipped with a system of orifices that allows brine to cascade from one stage to the next. A hydraulic seal is placed between adjacent chambers to prevent vapour leakage. Brine flash occurs mainly in the submerged orifices, termed brine boxes. Limited vaporization may take place inside the orifice systems, however, depending on their geometry. In designing a brine transfer weir, it is necessary to minimize non-equilibrium losses due to the brine path, maintain the lowest possible brine level on the bottom of the evaporator, and prevent vapour leakage between adjacent stages. In addition, the transferred brine must be exposed to sufficiently high turbulence to allow the mixing of all layers. This ensures complete vaporization in the downstream stage. Various weir arrangements are available for use in transferring brine. Typical designs are detailed in a recent paper by D. Breschi;29 each possesses some unique characteristics and certain advantages and disadvantages depending on the situation.
27 D. Breschi, Introductory notes on MSF distillation, a paper presented at the Special Session on Water Desalination, Arab School of Science and Technology, Cairo, 23-27 January 2000. 28 29
The difference between theoretical and actual efficiencies reflects the effect of thermodynamic irreversibility.
D. Breschi, Introductory notes on MSF distillation, a paper presented at the Special Session on Water Desalination, Arab School of Science and Technology, Cairo, 23-27 January 2000.
31
(e)
Demister design
Brine droplets within the evaporator can contaminate the distillate as they become entrained by water vapour. In order to separate the brine droplets from the condensing vapour, a special arrangement called a demister is used. The demister operates by capturing the entering water droplets and by collecting product water in a distillate tray. The separator used consists of mats made up of many layers of wire mesh, each staggered relative to the next. These mats are placed horizontally facing the stream of vertically rising vapour. As the vapour rises, the droplets collect on the mesh wires, merge into larger drops and drip from the bottom layer. The function of the wire mesh is to increase brine droplet sizes to a point where they are too large to be entrained by the rising vapour. Separators of this design present very little resistance to vapour flow and enable production of distillate with very low salinity, usually between 0 and 5 ppm.30 (f) The gas ejector
Flashing releases gases, such as carbon dioxide, oxygen and air, originally present in the feed water. A vent or gas ejector is used to prevent the accumulation of non-condensable gases in the chambers. The evaporator operates under vacuum, and air and carbon dioxide have to be removed continuously to maintain this condition. Since carbon dioxide contributes to scale formation and oxygen can promote corrosion, it is often the case that all gases are removed from the feed water before it enters the last stage of the evaporator. The venting of non-condensable gases is usually carried out by steam-jet ejectors. Nevertheless, a small proportion of these gases is mixed with water vapour in the evaporator. The gas mixture is allowed to cool down in the tube bundles at below the vapour saturation temperature after most of the condensation has occurred. The amount of vapour to be extracted with the non-condensable gases is limited by evaporative chamber design considerations. (g) Materials for multistage flash distillation plants
The economical and efficient operation of MSF plants is largely dependent on the materials chosen for construction. Structural strength and corrosion resistance are two of the main selection criteria. Ultimately, materials used in the desalination process should be suitable for the operating conditions that exist; they will be exposed to a specific range of operating temperatures and will come into contact with steam, aerated and deaerated seawater and concentrated brine, and a number of chemicals including the acids and polyphosphate additives used to reduce scaling. Aluminium-brass and 90/10 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys are used extensively for this purpose. A typical large plant may contain over 500 tons of these alloys, compared with 650 tons of steel used for structural and non-critical applications and 75 tons of stainless steel.31 Copper-nickel alloys may be used to fabricate a wide variety of components needed for the assembly of an MSF plant, including condenser tubing for heat-exchange sections and tube plates. Copper-nickel or 90/10 clad steel plates may be used to manufacture large water boxes and elbows. Clad plates are used in fabricating chamber walls. Pumps and similar components are usually cast from copper-nickel alloys. Tube materials vary depending on their location in the MSF plant. Typically, in the heat rejection section, 70/30 copper-nickel alloy containing 2 per cent iron and 2 per cent manganese provides the best corrosion resistance; standard 70/30 or 90/10 alloys constitute a viable alternative. In the heat recovery section, 90/10 copper-nickel and aluminium-brass alloys have both been used successfully. In the brine heater, where periodic descaling is required, 90/10 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys may be used.32 Additional details on desalination plant materials are presented in chapter V of this study.
30 31 32
Ibid. Information derived from the Copper Development Association UK Web site (www.cda.org.uk). The latter is often preferred.
32
2. Multistage flashing with brine recirculation A schematic of the MSF-BR process is shown in figure 2.2. As indicated in the diagram, the intake seawater stream is introduced into the condenser tubes of the heat rejection section, where its temperature is augmented through the uptake of latent heat released by condensing fresh water vapour. In general, the temperature of the intake seawater leaving the heat rejection section should be very close to the brine temperature in the last flashing stage. Figure 2.2. Multistage flash desalination with brine circulation
Intake seawater is divided into two parts: the first is the cooling seawater stream (Mcw), which is generally discharged into the sea, and the second is the feed seawater stream (Mf). The latter stream is deaerated, chemically treated and then fed into the brine pool of the last flashing stage in the heat rejection section. The brine recycle stream (Mr) is extracted from the brine pool of the last stage in the heat rejection section and introduced into the condenser tubes of the last stage in the heat recovery section. This stream is heated by absorbing the latent heat of condensation from the flashed off vapour in each stage as it flows in the condenser tubes across the process stages. The heating steam (Ms) is condensed on the outside surface of the tubes. As the brine stream absorbs the latent heat of condensing steam, its temperature rises to its maximum value, or TBT (To). Hot brine enters the flashing stages in the heat recovery section and then in the heat rejection section, where a small amount of fresh water vapour is formed by brine flashing in each stage. As indicated above, flashing takes place owing to the decrease in stage pressure. In each flashing stage of the heat recovery section, flashed off vapour condenses on the outside surface of the condenser tubes, where the brine recycle stream (Mr) flows inside the tube from the cold to the hot side of the plant. This heat recovery improves process efficiency because of the increase in the seawater temperature flowing to the brine heater. Condensed fresh water vapour outside the condenser tubes accumulates across the stages and forms the distillate product stream (Md). This stream cascades in the same direction as the flashing brine from the higher temperature stages to the lower temperature stages and is withdrawn from the last stage in the heat rejection section.
33
Flashing and vapour formation are limited by the increase in the specific vapour volume at lower temperatures and by the difficulties encountered in operation at still lower pressures. Common practice limits the temperature of the last stage to a range of 30o to 40o C for winter and summer operation, respectively. Further temperature reductions below these levels would necessitate a drastic increase in the required stage volume and stage dimensions. Most of the flashing stages in the MSF process operate at temperatures below 100o C and under reduced pressures. This increases the possibility of air leakage from the outside. In addition, the presence of trace amounts of dissolved gases in the flashing brine that are not removed in the deaerator or are formed by the decomposition of calcium bicarbonate (CaHCO3) may result in a severe reduction in the heat transfer rates within the chamber. In turn, this can create an increased tendency for corrosion and the reduction of flashing rates. Pretreatment of intake seawater (Mf+Mcw) is often limited to simple screening and filtration. Treatment of the make-up seawater is more extensive and should include deaeration and the addition of chemicals to control scaling and foaming. Annex F provides a more detailed look at the salient aspects of the MSF-BR process. 3. Once-through multistage flashing* A schematic representation of the MSF-OT process is provided in figure 2.3. The process essentially involves the use of a number of flashing stages and a brine heater. Flashing stages affect heat rejection as well as heat recovery, simplifying process layout and operation. Figure 2.3. Schematic representation of the once-through multistage flash process
As is shown in the figure, all of the intake seawater flows through the condenser tubes, where it absorbs the latent heat of condensation from the flashing vapour formed in each stage. Heat recovery improves overall system efficiency where the intake seawater temperature is increased to a value 5-10 C lower than the TBT. As the feed seawater is heated in the brine heater, its temperature increases to the TBT level. Subsequently, brine is led into the flashing chambers, where small amounts of distillate are formed in each stage, with a simultaneous increase in the brine salinity and decrease in the brine flow rate.
H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies prepared for ESCWA in January 2001.
34
As its name implies, the once-through MSF process does not allow the recirculation of any portion of the flashed brine. As in the brine recirculation scheme, however, raw feed water enters the last stage condenser in counter-current flow, where it is heated by being passed through stages maintained at higher temperatures. The main difference, however, is that raw feed water is transferred through all the stage condensers up to the brine heater; thus, no distinction exists between the heat recovery and heat rejection sections. After being heated by thermal exchange with condensing steam, feed water is discharged into the evaporator flash chambers to produce the distillate. In the last flash chamber, all the brine is discharged. The advantages of the MSF-OT system over the MSF-BR system include cost savings and reduced risks; there are also a number of disadvantages, however. A comparison of the two approaches is presented in frame 2.3. One fact worth noting is that the introduction of cheaper and more effective corrosion-resistant materials and advanced additives has played an important role in placing MSF-BR in a favourable position relative to the essentially simpler MSF-OT technology. The use of the MSF-OT system is currently limited to small desalination plants; most MSF units installed today are of the brine recirculation type. While the MSF-OT process has a number of drawbacks, it may still prove beneficial, for example, in regions where feed water temperatures remain constant throughout the year.
Frame 2.3. Comparison of the multistage flash once-through and brine recirculation systems The advantages of the MSF-OT system over the MSF-BR system include the following: (a) There are savings in capital costs, in embodied equipment (including pumps, valves and other armatures), and in the energy required for pumping brine through the recycling loop and the heat rejection section, which are absent from this process. It may be noted that the brine recycling pump is generally considered one of the most sensitive pieces of equipment in a desalination plant;a/ (b) There are also savings in terms of heat transfer area and thermal energy consumption owing to the lower boiling point elevation in each stage, which is achieved on account of the lower salinity of the flashing brine; (c) There is a reduced risk of calcium sulphate scaling, mainly owing to lower salt concentration levels, which permit higher maximum brine temperatures. The disadvantages of the MSF-OT process relative to the MSF-BR process include the following: (a) The large quantity of raw seawater entering the evaporator causes the release of large amounts of non-condensable gases associated with corrosion risks. The volume of pretreated seawater used in the MSF-BR system totals only about a fourth of the amount used for the MSF-OT process, so the majority of tube bundles are exposed to reduced corrosion possibilities. Additionally, there is a lower volume of non-condensable gases released, improving overall efficiency;b/ (b) The size and energy consumption of the vacuum system are larger;
(c) Operational flexibility is reduced. For example, it is not possible to independently control parameters such as maximum and minimum temperatures and distillate production rates.c/ This limits the use of the MSF-OT process to regions where only small changes in feed water temperature occur;d/ (d) The flow rate ratio of feed to product in the MSF-OT process is approximately 10 to 1, while the corresponding ratio for the brine circulation process is 2.5 to 1. As a result, the MSF-OT system consumes a larger amount of chemicals for scale, foaming and corrosion control. ____________________
a/ International Atomic Energy Agency, Use of nuclear reactors for seawater desalination (Vienna, 1990) (IAEA-TECDOC-574). b/ H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and Y. Al-Roumi, Multi-stage flash desalination: present and future outlook, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 73 (1999), pp. 175-193. c/ G.F. Tusel, R. Rautenbach and J. Widua, Seawater desalination plant Sirtean example for an advanced MSF design, Desalination, vol. 96 (1994), pp. 379-396. These authors have reported a thermal performance ratio of around 3 for MSF-OT units during winter operation. d/ Seawater temperature in the Gulf region, for example, drops to around 15 C during the winter. Operation under such conditions would cause a drastic reduction in the performance ratio and production capacity. However, a reduction in the thermal performance ratio at low-intake seawater temperatures can be offset by increasing the temperature range or reducing the temperature in the last stage. At low temperatures, though, the specific volume of the flashing vapour increases, requiring an increased flash chamber size in order to keep vapour velocity to values below 4 metres per second to limit the entrainment of brine droplets.
35
B. MULTIPLE EFFECT DISTILLATION MED is the oldest large-scale industrial distillation process used for seawater desalination. A reliable design, technological maturity, high distillate quality, a good operating record and high unit capacities are its most obvious merits. At present, about 3.5 per cent of the worlds desalted water is produced by MED units.33 MED lost ground to the MSF process owing to advances in component and material design that rendered the latter more popular. Interest in the MED process has increased of late, and a number of new designs have been developed. Between 1996 and 2000, the MED share in total desalination capacity increased considerably in many countries; the most substantial increases were recorded in Bahrain (from 0 to 9.7 per cent), Italy (1.9 to 12.3 per cent) and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (0.9 to 10.7 per cent) (see table 1.1).34 MED plants typically comprise units producing 2,000 to 10,000 m3/d. Between 8 and 16 effects are generally used in large MED plants; performance ratios are typically around 12, internal electric power consumption is about 2-3 kilowatt hours (kWh)/m3, and production ratios range between 45 and 120 per cent of nominal capacity.35 The MED process is applied in a series of vessels or effects. It is based on the principle that if ambient pressure is progressively reduced in consecutive effects, then feed water can undergo boiling multiple times without the supply of additional heat following the first effect. In MED plants, preheated seawater is raised to the boiling point in the first effect (see figure 2.3). For preheating, seawater is sprayed onto the surface of evaporator tubes. Steam from a boiler or some other source is used to heat the tubes internally. Steam is condensed down the line within the tubes, and the condensate is recycled to the boiler for reuse. In practice, seawater supplied to the first effect is only partially evaporated. The remainder is fed to the second effect, where it is again sprayed onto the tube bundle. In the meantime, the tube bundle is being heated by vapour created in the first effect. Vapour condensation occurs on the heated tubes in the form of product fresh water. This process gives up heat to evaporate another portion of the remaining seawater feed in the next effect, and so on. The process continues for several effects (8 or 16 in a typical large MED plant, as mentioned previously). The remaining seawater in each effect flows to the succeeding effect, where it is applied to the corresponding tube bundle. Provisions are made to remove air and other non-condensing gases from the evaporators, since accumulation of these gases over the boiling liquids would retard evaporation. MED-VC processes are dealt with in section D of this chapter. 1. Categories of multiple effect distillation processes (a) Classified according to incoming steam temperature
Multiple effect distillation facilities are classified as low-temperature (LT-MED) or high-temperature (HT-MED) plants, depending on the temperature of the incoming steam. In LT-MED systems, the figure may be as low as 60-70 C. This has an advantage in terms of preventing scale formation. The outgoing temperature in the last effect may be as low as 40 C. This process is considered more energy efficient than MSF distillation and has been in operation for about 23 years.36 It may be fed by steam, which cannot be used economically for generating electricity.
33 34 35
K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Ibid.
L. Awerbuch, Power-desalination and the importance of hybrid ideas, Proceedings: IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, vol. 4, Madrid, 6-9 October 1997. J. Ribeiro, Desalination technology: survey and prospects (Seville, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN).
36
36
As its name implies, HT-MED uses high-temperature steam. Scale formation is controlled through the pretreatment of feed seawater. More effects per plant are used in HT-MED than in LT-MED, and the highertemperature systems are able to yield twice as much water with the same basic infrastructure. (b) Classified according to effect layout
MED plants are based on two designs: the horizontal tube multiple effect (HTME) system and the vertical tube falling film evaporator (VTE) system. The main differences are in the arrangement of the evaporation tubes, the side on which evaporation takes place, and the materials used in the evaporation tubes. Evaporation occurs on the surface of horizontally arranged tubes in the HTME process and inside vertically arranged tubes in VTE plants. Because low-cost materials are used in the construction of HTME plants, the TBT is limited to around 70 C. A comparison of the operational data for these two MED systems is presented in table 2.2. TABLE 2.2. OPERATIONAL DATA ON MULTIPLE EFFECT DISTILLATION PLANTS (without vapour compression)
Maximum brine temperature Gain-output ratioa/ Number of effects Thermal heat consumption Electricity consumption Total energy consumptionb/ Unit C kWh/m3 kWh/m3 kWh/m3 LT-HTME 70 4-13.5 5-18 48-160 1.2-3.5 9-14 VTE 135 4-21 5-28 25-160 0.9-4.5 9-14
Source: Adapted from International Atomic Energy Agency, Use of nuclear reactors for seawater desalination (Vienna, 1990) (IAEA-TECDOC-574). Note: LT-HTME = low-temperature horizontal tube multiple effect system; VTE = vertical tube falling film evaporator system. a/ Gain-output ratio (GOR) = kilograms of water produced per kilogram of steam used. b/ Supplied with low-pressure saturated steam from power plants.
System configurations, pretreatment requirements and operational controls are briefly outlined below. Thin film HTME distillation technology is presently considered the most promising for the production of fresh water from seawater. The process has all the main features of the MED process, described above. The evaporator is the centrepiece of the process. It is where heating steam condenses inside horizontal tube bundles, and a thin film of seawater is sprayed over the external surface of the tubes. Low-pressure saturated steam is used at the heat source. This is typically supplied by steam boilers in dual-purpose plants cogenerating electricity and steam. Based on the direction of vapour and brine flow, HTME plants may be further divided into two subcategories. In forward feed MED plants, vapour and brine move through the evaporators from the first high-pressure evaporator to the last low-pressure one. Feed water is preheated in separate heat exchangers. HTME systems are technically well developed, but research on new low-cost construction materials is in progress. Aluminium for heat exchangers and carbon steel shell material are presently used, though highgrade stainless steel and titanium are proposed for future usage.37 In addition, polymeric materials are being considered for the tube bundles, a promising possibility given the very low pressure difference between the inside and outside of the tubes.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Use of nuclear reactors for seawater desalination (Vienna, 1990) (IAEATECDOC-574).
37
37
VTE plants are also classified according to the direction of steam and seawater flow. In forward feed designs, steam and seawater move in parallel flows from the first high-temperature evaporator to the last low-temperature evaporator. In another design, steam and seawater move through the evaporators in opposite directions. Evaporation in the VTE process is reviewed briefly below. Three flow systems may be distinguished. Falling/rising film evaporators. A typical falling film evaporator is shown in figure E.3 (a) of annex E and a rising film evaporator in figure E.3 (b). The main elements of construction are similar for both. In the rising film evaporator they consist of a vertical heating chamber and a steam separator arranged over the upper ends of the heat exchange tubes. Seawater flows vertically (upwards) within the tubes, while heating steam is supplied to the inter-tube space. Evaporation of seawater occurs inside the tubes, while steam condensation takes place on the outside. Boiling creates a thin vapour layer along the outside walls of the tubes and a mixture of vapour and seawater inside. Separation of the mixture of steam and seawater occurs in the separator space with the help of splash separation devices. Purified vapour becomes the heating medium in the next evaporators heating chamber. Typically, the flow of the vapour/seawater mixture in the tubes is accelerated by the injection of a surfactant to promote the foaming of feed seawater. This enhances heat transfer and results in a lower drop in film temperature. Evaporator with natural circulation. A schema of this configuration is presented in figure E.4 (a) in annex E. The lower part of the separator is connected with the lower solution chamber by means of a circulation tube. As a result, the evaporated seawater partially overflows into the next evaporator. In some designs, a lifting tube is installed over the heating chamber. This is intended to remove liquid from the heat exchange tubes; it also increases the liquid circulation velocity inside the evaporator. Steam is introduced into the inter-tube space of the heating chamber of the evaporator, as in previously described designs. Evaporator with forced circulation. As indicated in figure E.4 (b) in annex E, a circulation pump forces seawater through a loop that includes the heating chamber, lifting and circulation tubes, and separators. The pump is installed within the circulation tube. 2. Parallel feed multiple effect distillation Frame 2.4 presents an overview of the parallel feed MED process, a configuration widely used in industrial-scale seawater desalination (see figure 2.4). A number of parallel feed units using thermal vapour compression technology are in operation in the GCC countries.
Frame 2.4. The parallel feed multiple effect distillation process Parallel feed MED systems comprise a number of evaporators, a train of flashing boxes, a down condenser and a venting system. The individual effects contain a heat transfer area, vapour space, mist eliminator and other accessories. In common evaporator design, feed water is allowed to fall over a horizontal arrangement of tubes through which steam is passed. High wetting characteristics and efficient water distribution over heat transfer surfaces via large spray nozzles minimize seawater scaling. Standard configurations offer additional advantages including the positive venting and disengagement of vapour products and non-condensable gases, high heat transfer coefficients, and the monitoring of scaling and fouling. Vapour flows from left to right, in the direction of falling pressure, while feed seawater or brine cascades perpendicularly across effects. Thus, the brine stream leaving the first effect flows to the second, where it flashes and mixes with the feed seawater. Intake seawater is introduced into the down condenser, where it absorbs the latent heat of condensing vapour from the last effect, increasing its temperature to the feed temperature. Having performed its cooling function, part of the heated intake feed seawater is rejected back to the source (the sea). Another portion of the feed seawater stream is chemically treated, deaerated, and sprayed into the series of effects to generate vapour. The seawater spray falls in the form of thin film down the succeeding rows of tubes arranged horizontally. Within each effect, the brine temperature is increased to the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure in the vapour space before a small portion of water vapour is formed. Condensing a controlled mass of saturated steam inside the tube bundle within the first effect provides the heat required for preheating and evaporation.
38
Frame 2.4 (continued) Steam to initiate the process is supplied from an external boiler. The high-quality condensate from the first effect is returned to the boiler. The vapour generated in each effect flows through a knitted wire mist separator known as a wire mesh demister to remove the entrained brine droplets. The saturation temperature of the vapour leaving the demister is less than that of the formed vapour owing to the frictional pressure loss in the demister. Vapour flowing from the demister has to be transported to the second effect. This inevitably involves a pressure drop and hence a decrease in the saturation temperature. Another pressure fall and consequent depression in the saturation temperature of the vapour is caused by vapour condensation inside the heat transfer tubes in the evaporators or over the heat transfer area in the preheaters. The latent heat of condensation of the vapour is thus exploited for further evaporation in the second effect. The vapour formed in all effects, with the exception of the first effect, is produced by boiling over the heat transfer surfaces and by flashing or free boiling within the liquid bulk. The temperature of the vapour formed by flashing is less than the effect boiling temperature by an amount equal to the boiling point elevation and allowance for non-equilibrium effects. Another small quantity of vapour is formed in the flashing box owing to the flashing of distillate condensed in previous effects. Flashed off vapour is produced at a temperature lower than the distillate condensation temperature by the amount of the nonequilibrium allowance. Heat from condensed fresh water is recovered by means of flashing boxes. The boiling point elevation and temperature depression that occurs owing to pressure loss in the demister and transmission lines, and during the condensation process, reduces the driving force for heat transfer in the evaporators and preheaters. Excess surface area is therefore needed to compensate for the temperature reductions. This said, the decreases in temperature do not influence the plants thermal performance ratio or steam production economics, since the performance ratio depends on heat balance considerations rather than the rate of heat transfer. The amount of steam generated by evaporation in a given effect is less than that generated in the previous one. This is due to the increase in the specific latent heat of vaporization with the decrease in the effect temperature. Consequently, the amount of vapour generated by boiling in a given evaporator is less than the amount of condensing steam used for heating in next evaporator. In general, the salinity of brine leaving each effect is close to the solubility limit of CaSO4. Brine leaving the last effect is rejected back to the sea. Since the vacuum is maintained on the last effect, unevaporated brine flows by itself from effect to effect, and only a blow-down pump is required in the last effect. The down condenser is fitted with vents for purging during start-up and for removing non-condensable gasesa/ that may have been introduced with the feed or may have accumulated owing to leakage. To help maintain steam economy, venting is usually cascaded from the steam chest of one evaporator to the next. When high-pressure steam is available a steam-jet ejector is generally used to reject non-condensable gases into the atmosphere. ____________________
a/ The presence of non-condensable gases not only impedes the heat transfer process but also reduces the temperature at which steam condenses at the given pressure.
Figure 2.4. Parallel feed multiple effect distillation
39
3. Scale control and pretreatment requirements for multiple effect distillation systems The pretreatment of seawater in MED plants is similar to that undertaken in MSF plants. Organic polymers and acid dosing are used. Calcium carbonate scale formation on heat transfer tubes is generally prevented by introducing polyphosphate into feed seawater. Vent gases from the deaerator and noncondensable gases emerging during evaporation are removed using a steam-jet ejector vacuum system. More stringent filtration of the feed seawater is needed for some HTME systems than for VTE systems owing to the small diameters of the brine distribution devices in the former. 4. Operational controls for multiple effect distillation systems HTME systems. HTME plants have a distinct advantage over MSF and VTE plants in terms of process reliability, stability and operational flexibility. In general, a wider range of distilled water output is possible with HTME plants. However, HTME thin film evaporators are sensitive to the quality of brine sprayed on the heat exchange surfaces, and dry spots can occur on these surfaces if seawater spraying is insufficient or uneven. Furthermore, heat exchange tubes and distributing devices have to be aligned horizontally with some precision. VTE systems. The efficiency of falling/rising film evaporators depends largely on maintenance and cleaning cycles, evaporator temperature, and the uniformity of liquid distribution over the surface of heat exchange tubes. In addition, evaporators with rising film and natural circulation exhibit considerable sensitivity to the difference in temperature between the heating steam and the liquid inside the tubes. Efficient and stable operation requires that this difference not fall outside the range of 5-12 C. Use of surfactants to produce rising foamy flow diminishes the difference to less than 2 C. C. COMPARISON OF MULTISTAGE FLASH AND MULTIPLE EFFECT DESALINATION PROCESSES The amount and quality of steam, considered critical factors in the operation of thermal desalination plants, depend on the following: (a) Seawater temperature; (b) Maximum brine temperature; (c) Type, design and performance of the distillation plant. The thermodynamic efficiency of a distillation plant is sometimes expressed in terms of kilograms of steam used per kilogram of water produced, known as the gain-output ratio (GOR).38 The GOR does not account for steam temperature, however, and is thus an incomplete criterion. As such, the GOR may only be used to compare distillation plants with comparable parameters. A distillation plant with a GOR of 8 requiring steam of 70 C, for instance, is thermodynamically superior to a distillation plant with the same ratio requiring steam at 120 C. MED plants are superior to MSF plants in terms of evaporation process efficiency, mainly because of the high heat transfer coefficients achieved with the evaporating thin film of brine on one side of the tubes and the condensing vapour on the other. 39 Such an arrangement makes it possible for a larger number of effects to be used in MED plants than in MSF plants for a given temperature difference between heat source and cooling water sink. This has the effect of decreasing the specific heat consumption required for producing product water. The MED evaporator is less sensitive to flow disturbance, which occurs with the build-up of scale and fouling. Since the brine pressure in MSF evaporator tubes is always above that of the product side, any leakage immediately causes contamination, while in MED evaporators, only a negligible
38 39
World Wide Water (www.world-wide-water.com).
The effective driving force for heat transfer is the difference between the condensing and evaporating temperatures. In the MSF process, however, where the condensing vapour initially sensibly heats the brine, the effective driving force is the logarithmic temperature difference.
40
loss of product occurs. As the MSF process is based on forced circulation with as-high-as-practical liquid flow velocities, it is far more prone to suffer from erosion. On the plus side, MSF plants possess the inherent advantage of minimal scale formation and hence a lower incidence of scale-related problems and associated descaling and scale prevention costs. This derives from the fact that feed seawater does not actually reach the boiling point in the evaporation process.40 Table 2.3 presents a comparison of the main thermal seawater desalination processes, namely, the MSF process with brine recycling, the MSF once-through process, and MED. TABLE 2.3. COMPARISON OF THERMAL SEAWATER DESALINATION PROCESSES
Principle of steam Maximum practical GOR Combination with heat pump (vapour compression) Antiscaling additive consumption Pumping power requirements Cost for piping and valves Resistance against fouling (on-line cleaning with rubber sponge cleaning system) Cost of plant at same GOR and same temperature, and with same construction materials Maintenance cost Reliability Corrosion risk Potential for further improvements Largest sizes in operation or under construction Largest practical unit MSF-BR (brine-recycle) Flashing 10 Not economical 0.01 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 90 C 0.02 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 100 C Highest (4 kWh/m3 product) excluding product treatment and transfer Highest High (possible) Highest MSF-OT (once-through) Flashing 12 Not practical 0.022 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 115 C 0.03 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 130 C High (3.5 kWh/m3 product) excluding product treatment and transfer High Lower than MSF-BR (possible) About 15 per cent less than MSF-BR Lower than MSF-BR, same as MED Higher than MSF-BR Same for all processes at same top temperature Low 12,000 m3/d 72,000 m3/d MED (thin film arrangements) Boiling/evaporating 25 Very economical in certain cases 0.022 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 115 C 0.03 kg/m3 products @Tmax = 130 C Low (1.5 kWh/m3 product) excluding product treatment and transfer Lowest Same as MSF-BR (not possible) About 15 per cent less than MSFOT Lower than MSF-BR, same as MSF-OT When GOR > 12, like MSF-OT; when GOR < 12, highest Very low at GOR < 12 owing to the low top temperature Medium 17,000 m3/d 60,000 m3/d
Highest High Same for all processes at same top temperature Very low 60,000 m3/d 60,000 m3/d
Source: Adapted from International Atomic Energy Agency, Potential for nuclear desalination as a source of low cost potable water in North Africa (Vienna, 1996) (IAEA-TECDOC-917). Note: MSF-BR = multistage flash with brine recirculation; MSF-OT = multistage flash once-through; MED = multiple effect distillation; GOR = gain-output ratio.
D. VAPOUR COMPRESSION PROCESSES In VC processes, water vapour from salty feed water is collected and compressed, thereby condensing the vapour. The heat for evaporating the saline feed water comes from the compression of vapour rather than the direct exchange of heat from steam produced in a boiler. In VC units, the heat given off during condensation is transferred back to the feed water to enhance its evaporation. In this process, the major energy input is provided by the compressor, which not only increases the pressure of the vapour and consequently its saturation temperature, but also reduces the vapour pressure in the vaporization chamber.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Thermodynamic and economic evaluation of co-production plants for electricity and potable water (Vienna, May 1997) (IAEA-TECDOC-942).
40
41
A typical flowsheet for a VC plant is provided in figure E.5 in annex E. The main components of the VC system are the evaporator, pumps, the heat exchanger and the compressor. In this process the feed water enters the evaporators, where it is heated to its boiling point and some of it is evaporated. The vapour goes to the compressor, where the pressure and consequently the saturation temperature are raised. The power consumption of the compressor (the main energy consumer in the system), and therefore the efficiency of the process, depends on this pressure difference. Once it has been compressed, the vapour is fed back into the evaporator to be condensed, providing the thermal energy to evaporate the applied seawater. The distilled water produced by this condensation leaves the plant as the final product. Vapour compression may be also used in specially designed MED systems. Part of the vapour produced in the last MED effect may be brought to a higher temperature by vapour compression. This results in an improvement in the overall energy efficiency of the plant. Mechanical compressors, with isentropic efficiencies of about 80 per cent, or steam-jet ejectors, with isentropic efficiencies of about 20 per cent, may be employed to compress vapour. Such designs, however, are usually applied in stand-alone plants rather than in cogeneration plants producing both electricity and potable water. The VC distillation process is generally used in small- and medium-scale seawater desalting units. VC units are usually built for capacities ranging from 20 to 2,000 m3/d.41 They appear to be particularly suitable for tourist resorts, industrial plants, and oil drilling and mining sites where fresh water is not readily available. Single effect VC distillation is an ideal solution for areas where discharges from desalination and power plants are unacceptable, particularly inland locations. Generally, the blow-down from cooling towers in power plants is fed either to a combination of RO and VC distillation units or simply into VC units. This allows recovery of most of the water for reuse. At inland desalination plants, reject brine from an RO plant may be fed to a VC plant to reduce its volume. The concentrated blow-down is fed into evaporation ponds or crystallizers. There are two VC processes: MVC uses mechanical compression, while TVC uses thermal compression. 1. Single effect evaporation with mechanical vapour compression One of the main characteristics of the stand-alone single effect evaporation system is that it has a performance ratio of less than 1. Thus, the amount of steam needed to effect distillation exceeds the amount of product water. There are several types of VC heat pumps that may be used to address this situation. Mechanical vapour compression is the process most commonly applied on a commercial scale. The capacity of SEE-MVC systems has increased over the years from small production volumes of 50 m3/d to present values of around 5,000 m3/d. Only electrical power is needed for operation, a factor that renders the technology suitable for locations removed from other sources of process steam. The SEE-MVC process consists of five major components: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) A mechanical vapour compressor; An evaporator/condenser heat exchanger; Preheaters for the intake seawater; Brine and product pumps; A venting system.
41 Generally, compressors used in VC processes cannot cope with fresh water production rates in excess of 2,400 m3/d (see J. Ribeiro, Desalination technology: survey and prospects [Seville, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996] [EUR 16434 EN]).
42
Figure 2.5 presents a schema of the process, showing how the compressor and evaporator/condenser heat exchanger constitute a single unit. The evaporator/condenser comprises falling film horizontal heat exchange tubes, spray nozzles, a vapour suction tube and a wire-mesh mist eliminator. Figure 2.5. Single effect evaporation with mechanical vapour compression
The heat necessary for boiling feed water is provided by steam passing through the inside of a tube bundle. Spraying feed water on the outside of the heated tube bundle causes it to boil and partially evaporate. A compressor creates a vacuum in the vessel by extracting vapour and condensing it within the tube bundle housed in the same vessel. A vent or vacuum pump is used to withdraw the non-condensable gases from the steam condensation space. An initial supply of steam is provided to induce the process. This is generally achieved using electrical heating, though other heat sources may be used as well. The vapour compressor is the central unit in the vapour compression process. Generated vapour typically has a temperature slightly lower than that required for boiling the seawater. However, as vapour is condensed, through compression, latent heat is transferred to the feed water, resulting in boiling. Thus, electrical energy supplied to the compressor motor constitutes the major additional energy input for driving the process. For steam-jet vapour compression units, also called thermo-compressors, a venturi orifice extracts water vapour from the main vessel and at the same time creates lower ambient pressure within that vessel. Compressing extracted water vapour releases the latent heat of condensation, augmenting the evaporation process. Feed preheaters are plate-type heat exchangers that operate on the intake seawater and the hot liquid streams leaving the evaporator. It should be noted that the SEE-MVC process does not incorporate a down condenser, since all vapour formed is routed to the mechanical compressor. This feature eliminates the need for a cooling seawater stream and associated accessories including pumping and treatment units. Frame 2.5 presents some of the more salient features of the SEE-MVC process.
43
Frame 2.5. Main features of the single effect evaporation process with vapour compression Feed seawater enters the evaporator at a flow rate of Mf and a temperature of tf. It is sprayed over the horizontal tube bundle, forming a falling film over succeeding tube rows. As a result, feed seawater temperature increases from tf to Tb before evaporation commences. The temperature of the formed vapour, Tv , is lower than the boiling temperature, Tb, by the boiling point elevation, BPE. Vapour is transferred from the evaporator section to the compressor through the vapour suction tube, which is guarded by a wire-mesh mist eliminator.a/ Demister pressure losses cause a further drop in the vapour saturation pressure and consequently decrease the vapour saturation temperature from Tv to Tv . This loss is modest, however, when compared with the BPE. In the compressor, vapour flows tangentially and is superheated, owing to its compression, from Tv to Ts. Upon compression, vapour is forced into the horizontal tubes, where its temperature drops from Ts to the saturation temperature Td. Condensation takes place at Td, and the released latent and sensible heat is transferred to the brine film flowing outside the horizontal tubes. The difference in the saturation temperatures, Td-Tv, and consequently the difference in the saturation pressures, Pv-Pd, affects compressor power consumption. Energy is conserved by recovering thermal energy from rejected brine and product streams. This is achieved through the use of feed preheaters, which normally incorporate plate-type heat exchangers.b/ This approach helps to keep capital and operating costs down. The temperature and flow rate of the intake seawater to the plate heat exchanger is tcw and Mf. The rejected brine and product streams leaving the evaporator are at higher temperatures of Tb and Td, respectively. As heat is exchanged between the three streams, the temperature of the seawater is increased to tf, and the temperatures of the rejected brine and product streams are reduced to To. Maintaining temperature differences in the various streams within specified rangesc/ is essential for maintaining low power consumption for the vapour compressor; obviating the need for large heat transfer surfaces in the preheater and evaporator; and preventing the formation of hot spots in the evaporator/condenser, which could eventually promote scale formation. In contrast to the other major thermal desalination technologies, vapour compression utilizes steam generated by the process itself as the primary heat source.d/ In principle, vapour compression creates the necessary heat for evaporating feed water in place of the direct exchange of heat from steam produced in a boiler. Vapour compression may be achieved by means of a mechanical compressor or steam-jet ejectors. The mechanical compressor is usually electrically driven, allowing virtually complete reliance on electrical power to produce water by distillation. Vapour compression units have been built in a variety of configurations, all designed to promote the exchange of heat for seawater evaporation. In principle, VC units are divided into two categories: single effect vapour compression distillation and multiple effect vapour compression distillation systems. ____________________
a/ As indicated in the description of the MSF-BR process, this is necessary to separate brine droplets that may be entrained with the vapour stream and can damage compressor blades and reduce product water quality. b/ The main features of the plate-to-plate heat exchanger (relative to the traditional shell and tube heat exchanger) include the following: (a) Low hold-up volume (0.05-0.3 times that of the shell and tube system); (b) close temperature approach (0.3-0.5 times that of the shell and tube system); (c) low weight (0.1-0.3 times that of the shell and tube system) and small space requirements (0.25-0.3 times that of the shell and tube system); (d) high heat transfer coefficients (1.1-1.7 times higher than the shell and tube system) and, hence, reduced heat transfer area; and (e) low fouling resistance (0.1-0.25 times that of the shell and tube system). Information was obtained from E.A. Foumeny and P.J. Heggs, Heat Exchange Engineering, Volume 1: Design of Heat Exchangers, Ellis Horwood Series in Chemical Engineering (New York, Ellis Horwood, 1991). c/ Practical ranges for temperature differences in the various streams are as follows: 2o-12o C for (Ts-Td), 1.8o-2.3o C for (Tb-Tv), 1o-4o C for (Td-Tb), 1o-2.5o C for (Tb-tf), 2o-6o C for (Td-tf), and 1o-4.5o C for (To-tcw). d/ MSF and MED systems, however, utilize externally generated steam.
2. Multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression A schema of the MED-TVC process is presented in figure 2.6. Similarity in layout to the MED process described above is evident. Advantages of the MED-TVC system over the MSF and stand-alone MED systems include the following:
44
(a) The use of a smaller amount of prime energy for heating, achieved through compression of the low-grade steam formed in the last effects; (b) The absence of moving parts in the steam-jet ejector, which means lower operational and maintenance costs than those associated with the use of compressors and mechanical pumps; (c) Lower cooling water requirements and lower process pumping power and intake water pretreatment requirements owing to the entrainment and subsequent compression of vapour from the last effect. Figure 2.6. Parallel feed multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression
Steam Jet Ejector Compressed Vapor Feed Entrained Seawater Vapor Motive Steam Cooling Seawater Down Condenser
(1)
(2)
(n-1)
(n)
Intake Seawater Distillate Motive Steam Condensate Brine Blow Down
Condensate
Flashing Boxes
3. Multiple effect distillation with mechanical vapour compression A schema of the MED-MVC process is presented in figure 2.7. The system has a similar layout to that of MED units. The down condenser is done away with because all of the vapour formed in the last effect is routed to the mechanical vapour compressor, where it is superheated to the desired temperature and pressure. This results in an improved ability to recover sensible heat in rejected brine and distillate product streams, raising overall thermal efficiency. The commercial availability of MED-MVC systems is limited. Existing units have no more than four effects and production capacities of less than 5,000 m3/d. Unit design limits the TBT to less than 70o C and the temperature drop per effect to 2o C. As a result, the temperature increase in the compressor is limited to a range of 8o-15o C. Process designs and analyses show that the thermodynamics, mass and energy conservation of single and multiple effect MVC systems are identical. The main difference between the two configurations relates to production capacity. A four-effect system with a 2o C temperature drop per effect and a single effect system with a similar degree of vapour compression would produce nearly four times as much product water as a single effect system with a similar temperature range.
45
Figure 2.7. Multiple effect distillation with mechanical vapour compression

Mechanical Vapor Compressor Feed Seawater Mf, Tf
Distillate Feed Preheater Distillate, Md
Compressed Vapor Ms, Ts
(1)
(2)
(n-1)
(n)
Brine Feed Preheater
Brine Blow Down Mb
Condensate
Flashing Boxes
Intake Seawater Mcw, Tcw
4. Comparison of single and multiple effect distillation processes with vapour compression Research conducted by B.W. Tleimat and M.C. Tleimat in 199542 demonstrates that the use of MEDVC is associated with greater energy savings than the use of SEE-VC. The research results indicate that higher recovery rates mean larger energy savings; actual savings in specific energy consumption may range from 20 to 50 per cent, depending on the number of effects. Energy savings are attributed to the gradual increase in salinity in each MED-VC effect, a process unlike that of the conventional shell and tube SEE-VC systems. Tleimat and Tleimat43 further demonstrate that the use of a wiped film rotating disk (WFRD) evaporator in MED-VC units results in a very high overall heat transfer rate, making it possible to maintain a small overall temperature difference between the heat transfer surfaces (see figure E.6 in annex E). The WFRD evaporator consists of disk pairs joined together. Rotating disks are mounted on a stationary shaft closed at one end and open at the other. Steam from a boiler, a previous effect, or a compressor is introduced into the open end of the shaft, whereupon it condenses on the inside surfaces of the disks. The condensate is thrown by centrifugal force to the periphery, where it enters stationary product tubes connected to a central outlet and flows out of the evaporator as desalinated product. 5. Future outlook for vapour compression processes Improvements in the designs of mechanical and thermal vapour compression systems are required before they can compete with other desalination processes. The efficiency of the mechanical compressor must be enhanced and its design improved to simplify maintenance and reduce spare parts requirements. It is also necessary to reduce the pressure and flow rate of the fluid streams. Such advancements would increase the amount of high-pressure steam available for associated power plants.
42 B.W. Tleimat and M.C. Tleimat, Reduced energy consumption evaporator for use in desalting impaired waters, Water Treatment Technology, Report No. 11, Contract No. 1425-3-CR-19560, prepared by Water Reuse Technology, Alamo, CA, and published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, June 1995. 43
Ibid.
46
A number of interesting possibilities involving the coupling of renewable energy sources with the MVC process have been identified.44 SEE-MVC is the most common among the various single-stage thermal desalination processes. The original MVC design was limited to capacities of less than 500 m3/d. Subsequent developments, especially in compressor design, increased single effect capacities to 1,000 m3/d. More recent advances in compressor design have allowed the construction and operation of single units with production capacities of 5,000 m3/d.45 The system is driven by electric power and requires no external heating source, unlike thermal, absorption and adsorption vapour compression units. As a result, they can be used in remote areas with access to power lines. Another advantage of the MVC process is the absence of a down condenser and its associated cooling water requirements. Instead, the compressor operates on the vapour formed within the system. MVC does have a number of operational drawbacks, however, including the need for high-quality electric power, limitations imposed by the capacity of the compressor, and maintenance and spare parts requirements for the compressor. Since the development of MVC in the late 1960s, progress has been made in system design and operation.46 Energy requirements of MVC plants have been reduced (from 20 kWh/m3) and currently range from 8 to 12 kWh/m3, with the potential for further reductions. Unit product costs are now below $0.46/m3. In a thermally driven vapour compressor relatively high-pressure steam is expanded in a nozzle to high velocity and low pressure; the expanded steam at high velocity entrains (sucks) the vapour generated in the evaporator. Both streams flow towards the lowest pressure spot and mix together in a violent and rapid manner. The mixture flows through the diffuser section and slows down, and the pressure rises; the discharge pressure is somewhere between the motive and the suction pressure. Single effect TVC is not used for desalination on an industrial scale. However, several features may render it attractive in the future. A flowsheet showing the workings of a 4 x 9,000 m3/d TVC desalination plant operating in Trapani, Italy, is presented in figure E.7 in annex E. A typical TVC system has a performance ratio higher than 1.5 (compared with less than 1 for a standalone single effect evaporator), with a TBT of 70-80 C and a compression ratio close to 2. Under these operating conditions, TVC requires a smaller specific heat transfer area and lower specific cooling water flow rates, which reduces investment and operating costs. The advantages of the TVC over the MVC process include the following:47 (a) TVC units have no moving parts, as the mechanical vapour compressor does, so maintenance and spare parts requirements and costs are lower; (b) TVC uses relatively high-pressure steam, which is cheaper than electric power, resulting in lower energy costs; (c) TVC can be integrated directly into the power plant cycle.
W. Damm and others, Wind powered MVC desalination plantoperating results and economical aspects, a paper prepared for the Mediterranean Conference on Renewable Energy Sources for Water Production, Santorini, Italy, 1996.
45 H.M. Ettouney, H.T. El-Dessouky and I. Alatiqi, Understand thermal desalination, Chemical Engineering Progress, vol. 95 (1999), pp. 43-54. 44
M.A. Darwish, Thermal analysis of vapor compression desalination system, Desalination, vol. 69 (1998); and Z. Zimerman, Development of large capacity high efficiency mechanical vapor compression (MVC) units, Desalination, vol. 96 (1994), pp. 51-58. H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouney, Single-effect thermal vapor compression desalination process: thermal analysis, Heat Transfer Engineering, vol. 20 (1999).
47
46
47
E. CONCLUDING REMARKS Thermal processes, the mainstay of the desalination industry in the ESCWA member countries, have been reviewed briefly in this chapter. Their advantages and disadvantages have been outlined in relation to the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) Complexity, efficiency and product quality; Ease of operation, with particular attention to scale formation; Environmental impact; Where appropriate, compatibility with prevailing climates in the ESCWA region.
Thermal desalination processes constitute a fairly mature group of technologies, with a number of technological variants often emerging from a given technology family. This serves as an indication that thermal desalination technologies are still capable of receiving new technology inputs from a number of sources, as chapter V will show. The fact that many thermal desalination plants are being constructed as integral parts of power generation and water desalination complexes will promote further interest in technology development in this area. The maturity of the underlying technologies and the fact that they will continue to evolve are two good reasons why greater efforts should be made to acquire relevant technological capabilities in the ESCWA member countries. The basic information, at the purely scientific as well as the applied and technological levels, is largely available in the literature. Many national and international institutions and companies are actively seeking to further develop thermal desalination at many levels and in numerous directions. This, coupled with the relative ease with which relevant scientific and technological knowledge can be accessed, should provide a basis for effective alliances through which firms, research institutions and universities in the ESCWA member countries can acquire a wide range of technological capabilities in thermal desalination technologies.
48
III. MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES Synthetic membranes were first introduced in modern separation processes in the 1960s. They began to play an increasingly important role in water desalination in the early 1980s.48 The fact that membrane processes possess several decided advantages over traditional, principally phase-change, desalination methods account for their relative popularity and for the present interest in their development and commercialization for a wide range of applications. Membrane-based processes in commercial use for water treatment include microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). Particle separation in the first two processes essentially involves the use of a sieving mechanism (membrane) that allows particles smaller than its pores to pass through but retains larger ones. In the RO process, the membrane allows only the solvent, termed the permeate, to filter through, and retains the solute. NF occupies an intermediate position, allowing the passage of both ions and other entities of a suitable size. MF, UF and NF processes are commonly utilized to remove suspended material. However, NF may also be used to remove certain large-sized ions from the solution. Only RO, which is based on an entirely different concept altogether, allows direct and effective desalination. The principal difference between these membrane processes lies in the size of the entities, ions, molecules and suspended particles that are retained or allowed to pass through in a typical separation process. Microfilters allow the passage of micron-sized particles, ranging from 10-2 to 10 microns; ultrafilters allow much smaller-sized particles in the range of 2 x 10-3 to 8 x 10-2 microns through; and NF membranes permit particles in the nanometer (nm) range, from 8x10-4 to 5x10-3 microns, to filter through. RO membranes allow the passage of particles ranging from 10-4 to 10-3 microns. Table 3.1 provides some further information on the principal characteristics of membrane systems, while figure 3.1 presents some of the main characteristics of membrane processes in schematic form. TABLE 3.1. A SUMMARY CHARACTERIZATION OF MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES
Separation process Microfiltration Pore size or maximum molecular weight rangea/ 0.1 to 10 microns Operating pressure (kPa) 140 to 5,000 Substances removed Bacteria, viruses, larger colloidal particles, precipitates and coagulates High molecular weight proteins, large organic molecules and pyrogens Large divalent and some monovalent ions, colourants and odorants All of the above in addition to monovalent ions Alternative traditional water treatment method Ozonation, chlorination, sand-bed filtration, bioreactors, coagulation and sedimentation Sand-bed filtration, bioreactors and active carbon treatment Lime/soda softening and ion exchange Evaporation, freezing and electrodialysis
Ultrafiltration Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis
10 to 1,000 1,000 to 500,000 daltons 2 to 70 180 to 10,000 daltons 1 to 70
200 to 1,000 550 to 1,400 1,400 to 7,000
Source: Adapted from J.E. Stratton, Food online, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska at Lincoln; and M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15). Note: = angstroms; kPa = kilopascals. a/ The maximum molecular weight range, expressed in Daltons, refers to the molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) allowed by membrane pores.
M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
48
49
Figure 3.1. Types and effective range of membrane processes
Source: M. Kayyal, Study on wastewater treatment and water desalination technologies for ESCWA countries, prepared for ESCWA in December 2000.
A. MICROFILTRATION AND ULTRAFILTRATION MF is used in a variety of applications including the removal of particulates, bacteria and colloidal matter from feed streams in water treatment systems. It is useful not only for pretreatment but also for polishing output streams from other water treatment operations. In RO plants MF is used to remove microorganisms and colloidal particles from input streams. In polishing output streams, MF is used to remove fine resin particles following ion exchange operations. UF is useful for the removal of particles larger than 0.04 microns, a size that tends to correspond to entities with molecular weights of around 10,000 daltons. UF is used in situations where it is essential to retrieve good quality water for reuse in industrial processes. Extracting valuable waste material that may be present in the wastewater stream may also help to at least partially offset the cost of the UF process. Metals may be retrieved from electroplating and photographic processing water streams. Dairy products may also be retrieved through the treatment of process wastewater. Juice, beer and wine may also be clarified using UF. In the pharmaceutical industry UF is used to remove pyrogens from process water and to harvest enzymes and other products from biotechnology processes. In municipal sewage treatment plants, UF is used to remove water from treated waste following fermentation by bacterial action. UF will allow relatively clean water to pass through while retaining bacteria and other waste products and process intermediates. Another important use for UF in water treatment is in the removal of harmful organic substances from drinking and food industry water streams. These often include a variety of pesticides and disinfectants as well as their degradation/reaction products. UF membranes with low molecular weight cut-off (MWCO)
50
values may remove a high percentage of carcinogenic products owing to the interaction of pesticides and disinfectants with large labile molecules.49 1. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes (a) Microfiltration membranes
MF membranes have larger pore sizes than do other types of membranes. As a result, the permeate flux is higher than that for any other type of membrane, yielding a much better quality permeate when compared with conventional separation processes such as sedimentation, filtration and flotation. Generally, MF is capable of removing colloids, bacteria and large organic macromolecules.50 The methods for creating pores for microfilters (in the range 0.05 to 2 mm) are irradiation and etching, stretching, thermal phase inversion, melt pressing and template leaching. A clean-edged, distinct pore can generally be produced by using the first two technologies listed. Section E provides a more detailed description of membrane manufacturing processes. (b) Ultrafiltration membranes
UF membranes are anisotropic or asymmetric. Both inorganic and polymer-based UF membranes have been developed. The latter are made using the thermal inversion process or by affixing a thin film of suitable polymeric membrane material onto a porous polymeric substrate such as a polysulphone, which acts as a support. With regard to inorganic membrane materials, systems based on zirconium, aluminium, titanium oxide and a variety of ceramic materials have been developed. UF membranes are essentially classified with reference to their geometry, pore size and core material (polymer, ceramic or metal). In practice, UF modules tend to incorporate a larger membrane surface area than comparable MF systems. The fact that UF membranes do not possess a sharp cut-off in terms of pore size has given rise to the MWCO and nominal molecular weight cut-off (NMWCO) parameters as a means of characterizing their filtration capabilities. These parameters are usually defined in terms of the molecular weight of globular proteins, 90 per cent of which are retained or rejected by the membrane. Table 3.2 provides a list of typical pore sizes for a range of UF membranes. TABLE 3.2. PORE SIZE DETERMINATION OF ULTRAFILTRATION MEMBRANES USING SELECTED PROTEINS
Protein molecule Bacitracin Bovine trypsin inhibitor Ribonuclease A Dextran-20 Myoglobin PVP K-30 Ovalbumin BSA Bovine IgG PVP D-90 Blue Dextran Nominal molecular weight (daltons) 1 400 6 500 13 700 15 000 - 20 000 17 500 40 000 - 50 000 43 000 66 000 166 000 630 000 2 000 000 5 000 Nominal molecular weight cut-off (percentage) 10 000 50 000 100 000 76.5 82.5 95.3 98.0 99.5 99.5 78.5 87.5 99.4 99.5 500 000
97
< 25
Source: M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15). UF membranes with low MWCO values (around 500 daltons) may remove 90 to 95 per cent of substances including those of the trihalomethane family, which are formed in water streams as a result of the reaction of the naturally occurring humic and fulvic acid in surface waters with the chlorine used to disinfect water from such resources for drinking purposes. In this particular instance, however, it may be more cost-effective to remove the relatively large humic and fulvic acid molecules from feed streams prior to their disinfection to prevent the formation of their harmful derivatives in the first place. R.L. Droste, Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997), pp. 480-484.
50 49
51
It should be borne in mind that the MWCO cited for a given membrane represents only an estimate of effective pore size. The bubble point method used to establish pore sizes for MF membranes with tortuous pore structures may also be used with UF membranes to get an indication of maximum pore size and pore size distribution. Another important consideration with regard to UF membrane performance is the shape of the particles it handles; large, linear molecules may penetrate UF pores, while much smaller molecules of a more globular form may not. Pressure has the most important effect on solvent and solute flux in UF operations. Nevertheless, increasing feed pressure with the intention of enhancing flux is effective only up to a point, owing to the link between water flux and solute surface density. As pressure increases, water flux rises correspondingly until a point is reached at which higher solute concentration on the membranes surface causes the formation of a gel layer. At this point flux tends to stabilize, which is commonly attributed to the fact that gel formation around pores leads to the constriction of their diameter so that a further increase in pressure has little or no effect on flow rates until the compaction of the gel layer occurs, when flow rates will rapidly decline. Naturally, gel formation will occur with feed streams bearing high solute concentrations, resulting in stable and declining flow rates at lower pressures (in conditions under which the same membrane material is being utilized). Increasing feed stream velocity in cross-flow systems enhances product water flux. Recirculation without replenishment from the feed water stream results in decreased flux as the concentration of the feed stream approaches that of the gel layer. In general, the factors that enhance solute solubility in the medium subjected to UF also contribute to higher product water flux. These factors give rise to conditions under which pH and temperature may exert an important effect on flux levels in UF systems. In practice, however, it is difficult to change water temperature and pH values. The initial choice of appropriate membrane and module configurations represents the most effective way to manipulate product water flux. 2. Microfiltration and ultrafiltration module configurations The configurations used in membrane systems affect a number of performance parameters, including treated water flux, attainable packing density and hold-up volume, as well as installation and replacement costs. Most UF membrane systems are used in the cross-flow filtration mode. The design of cross-flow UF modules is similar to that of cross-flow MF systems. Plate and frame as well as tubular and spiral wound configurations are utilized. Tubular UF systems often have a porous tubular support made of a suitable polymeric or metallic material, with the membrane material placed on the interior. Tube diameters in commercial systems are measured in millimetres. Table 3.3 provides a brief comparison of the various UF configurations. TABLE 3.3. A COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPAL ATTRIBUTES OF MAJOR ULTRAFILTRATION CONFIGURATIONS
Attributes Installation cost/filter area Membrane replacement cost (material) Flux (volume per day) Packing density (surface area per unit volume) Hold-up volume Energy consumption Fouling resistance Tubular High High Good Poor High High Excellent Hollow fibre Low Moderate Fair/poor Excellent Low Low Poor Plate and frame High Low Excellent/good Good/fair Medium Medium Good/fair Spiral wound Low Moderate/low Good Good Medium Medium Good/fair
Source: Adapted from M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
In common with tubular MF devices, tubular UF devices utilize inside-to-outside flow patterns. The feed stream is introduced into the tubes, and the clean water stream emerges from the outside of the UF tubes to be collected from the side of the UF chamber.
52
Treated water flux is highly dependent upon membrane thickness. With a given membrane thickness, the type of UF configuration selected will naturally play a crucial role. In general, tubular configurations are associated with relatively high treated water flux. Design considerations render the comparison of UF modules rather difficult, however. Tubular configurations possess a high hold-up volume (the volume of water needed before the filtration process may commence), which translates into higher energy requirements. Furthermore, tubular designs are not as compact as other configurations. However, the fact that they allow the passage of comparatively large volumes of water reduces fouling problems and therefore maintenance requirements. 3. Module configurations and their respective cleaning and maintenance requirements The choice of a particular configuration for filtration modules is of considerable importance in terms of routine maintenance and cleaning requirements. This naturally has an effect on a plants waste stream, with the discarded membrane modules having a particular impact on the volume of solid wastes. Where harsh cleaning regimes are essential, metallic membranes are generally preferable to polymeric ones. Hollow fibre membrane (HFM) systems are probably the most difficult to clean. When a particular fibre is permanently clogged it may be permanently sealed at both ends and taken out of service. This is essential in order to prevent stagnation, which could result in fouling. Systems that may be backwashed are generally the easiest to clean. Plate and frame designs may be cleaned but often require complete dismantling to allow each plate to be seen to individually. The different UF configurations vary widely in terms of initial installation, maintenance and replacement costs. Tubular membrane modules have high installation costs in comparison with other configurations, mainly owing to the low ratio of module size to filter surface area. The fact that the whole module needs to be replaced when tubular, hollow fibre and spiral wound filter systems are damaged is another important consideration. With plate and frame modules, the individual frames, rather than the whole filtration module, may be replaced when damaged; however, the initial cost of such systems can be quite high because of all the hardware needed. B. HYPERFILTRATION PROCESSES Hyperfiltration is the term often used to refer to NF and RO processes because both allow the separation of dissolved ions, in addition to suspended and larger dissolved species, from feed water streams. In both structural51 and functional terms these two processes share a number of similarities. The main difference is that NF membranes possess lower rejection levels for small monovalent ions such as those generated by sodium chloride (75 per cent, as opposed to 99.5 per cent for RO membranes). However, NF membranes possess only slightly lower rejection levels for salts such as calcium chloride and other divalent salts (99.5 per cent, as opposed to 99.99 per cent in the case of RO membranes).52 RO membranes can also remove many organic compounds as well as a wider range of micro-organisms. The fact that NF membranes possess significantly higher water permeability than RO membranes allows the NF systems to be operated at lower pressures. NF and RO type membranes are currently in use to achieve a variety of objectives; at present, they are most commonly used for seawater desalination. Small and medium-sized NF and RO installations are used to
Membranes used in hyperfiltration processes do not have actual pores; material transfer occurs through openings in the polymers microstructure. M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
52
51
53
supply pure water for specific purposes, including utility water on petroleum platforms and sterilized water for hospitals, laboratories, pulp and paper factories and metal plating industries. NF membranes are often used to reduce the hardness of groundwater, and to remove organic material as well as colour and odour from surface water sources. RO membrane processes may be used to desalt both brackish water and seawater, and are presently regarded as viable solutions to water shortage problems from both a technical and an economic perspective. The use of RO facilities has grown remarkably in both developed and developing countries, including many ESCWA member countries. The many uses of RO systems include the following: (a) Desalination of brackish water (with a total dissolved solids, or TDS, content of less than 10,000 mg/l) to provide potable water (TDS > 500 mg/l); (b) Pretreatment of municipal drinking water for use in ion exchange deionization in order to produce ultra-pure water for industrial applications in fields such as electronics; (c) The production of sterilized, bacteria-free water for use in the pharmaceutical industry or healthcare facilities; (d) Recovery of valuable or reusable materials from reject water streams; (e) Post-treatment of wastewater; (f) Treatment of cooling tower blow-down. In general, the performance of a given hyperfiltration membrane is closely linked to the characteristics of the feed stream. This must be taken into account in the design of RO and NF systems as well as pretreatment operations. A general distinguishing feature of both RO and NF membranes is the absence of distinct pores. Instead, entities in the feed stream, principally water, are able under pressure to penetrate the molecular network in the membranes structure. NF membranes will allow entities in the size range 8-80 angstroms () to pass, while RO membranes allow entities in the range 1-15 to filter through. It should be noted that the size of entities that may penetrate RO and NF membranes considerably exceed the ionic diameters of even some of the larger ionic species in their free state, that is, in vacuum. The reason for the discrepancy is that ions in solution, particularly in polar solvents such as water, are surrounded by a number of solvent molecules that render their effective diameter far larger than their value in their free state. Neutral molecules, such as water and many small (particularly non-polar) organic entities, can easily pass through. 1. Hyperfiltration performance parameters RO and NF membrane performance is essentially characterized by four parameters: water flux, salt flux, salt rejection and recovery rates. Water flux and salt flux are defined in reference to the respective amounts of water and salt that permeate a unit area of the membrane per unit time given a set of conditions, including feed water salinity, pH value, temperature and pressure (see annex G). In designing or selecting a hyperfiltration membrane the intention is to maximize the value of the constant A in equation 1 (in annex G), seeking higher water permeability, and to minimize that of the constant B in equation 2 (in annex G), with a view to achieving a situation in which the smallest possible amount of salt is crossing the membrane. The subsections below address the most important membrane desalination process, namely, RO.
54
2. Reverse osmosis desalination (a) The phenomenon
Salt solutions of differing concentrations separated by a permeable membrane under atmospheric pressure exhibit a molecular transport phenomenon termed osmosis. Under such conditions, solvent molecules pass through the membranes openings from the less concentrated to the more concentrated solution.53 The basis for this phenomenon relates to the tendency of the chemical potential of solutions to equalize when separated by a permeable membrane (see figure 3.2). In effect, the less concentrated salt solution, which possesses the higher value for chemical potential, exerts what is known as osmotic pressure, forcing water molecules to move through the membrane into the more concentrated solution, which has a lower chemical potential.54 This process continues until concentrations, and hence chemical potential values, are equal on both sides of the membrane. Figure 3.2. The reverse osmosis process
Osmotic Pressure Net Applied Pressure
Low TDS
High TDS
Low TDS
High TDS
Semipermeable Membrane
Semipermeable Membrane
(a) Osmosis
(b) Reverse osmosis
Source: M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15). Note: TDS = total dissolved solids.
RO separation is based on countering the natural osmotic process by artificially applying pressure on the side of the more concentrated salt solution (seawater, for example) to drive the process in a direction opposite to that dictated by the natural osmotic phenomenon. This causes water to move through the RO membrane from the more concentrated salt solution (seawater) to the other side, holding essentially desalinated water. Frame 3.1 presents the salient aspects of osmosis and reverse osmosis in a little more detail. Table 3.4 lists some RO applications.
53 Should the membrane allow such flow, it is also possible for salt ions to move from the more concentrated to the less concentrated solution until equilibrium is established.
It is estimated that an increase in TDS content of around 1,000 milligrams per litre (mg/l) brings about an increase of around 69 kilopascal (kPa) in the osmotic pressure exerted by pure water on the other side of a semi-permeable membrane.
54
55
Frame 3.1. Osmosis and reverse osmosis Aqueous solutions separated by a semi-permeable membranea/ under atmospheric pressure are subject to a phenomenon known as osmosis, in which water is transported through the membrane from the solution with the lower ionic concentration to the one with the higher ionic concentration. Pure water in contact with both sides of an ideal semi-permeable membrane has no net flow across the membrane because the chemical potential of water is equal on both sides. If a soluble salt is added on one side, however, the chemical potential of water within the salt solution is reduced. Osmotic water flow from the pure water side through the membrane to the salt solution side will occur until the chemical potential equalizes across the membrane. The difference in the chemical potential of the water in the two solutions constitutes the driving force behind this process. Ultimately, the equalization of chemical potential is achieved as the water passing through brings the concentrations of the solutions on either side of the membrane, and hence the chemical potential of the water in both solutions, to matching values. The flow of water through the membrane creates osmotic pressure, acting in much the same way as hydrostatic pressure would serve to transfer fluids across porous boundaries. It is possible to counteract the osmotic water flow by applying hydrostatic pressure equal to that occurring with the osmosis phenomenon on the side of the solution with the high concentration. This establishes equilibrium in the transport of water through the semi-permeable membrane. Increasing external pressure further on the side with the higher salt concentration, beyond the equilibrium pressure value, will raise the chemical potential of water in the salt solution and ultimately cause water to move from the salt solution side to the other (pure water) sidethat is, in a reverse direction to that pertaining in the natural osmotic phenomenon, which is why the process is referred to as reverse osmosis. In practical RO applications, product water or permeate is made to emerge at near atmospheric pressure, while the reject high-concentration salt solution, also known as brine, remains essentially at its original high relative pressure. Typically, a number of small undissociated molecules are washed with water through the membrane. Molecules of nonpolar organic compounds are also allowed through, provided they are small enough to pass through the openings in the membranes microstructure. Small polar molecules encounter resistance, however, and are retained by most membrane types. Some salt ions may also pass through the membrane. However, the fact that ionic charges must balance on both sides of the membrane will also influence the process of ion transport across the membrane. ____________________
a/ A semi-permeable membrane is essentially a thin sheet of material that allows certain fluid substances to pass through its layers from one side to the other owing to distinctive physical and chemical characteristics under the influence of a driving force applied across its two sides. Membrane systems are generally classified according to the size range of the materials they separate, their constitution and geometry (that adopted in their deployment in practical situations), and the type of driving forces involved in the separation process.
TABLE 3.4. REVERSE OSMOSIS APPLICATIONS

Status Mature Industry Desalination Applications Potable water production Seawater Brackish water Municipal wastewater Semiconductor industry Pharmaceutical industry Medical uses Boiler feed water Process water reuse Effluent water reuse Water/organic matter separation Organic liquid mixture separation Mining effluent treatment Plating rinse water Reuse and recovery of metals Dairy processing Concentrating sweeteners Juice and beverage processing Light beer and wine production Waste stream processing Dyeing and finishing chemical recovery Water reuse Effluent disposal and water reuse Fermentation product recovery and purification Removal of environmental pollutants from water
Ultra-pure water Growing Emerging Utilities and power generation Chemical process industries
Metals and metal finishing Food processing
Textiles Pulp and paper Biotechnology/medicine Hazardous waste
Source: R. Singh, Development and design of advanced membrane systems, Chemtech (June 1996).
56
(b)
Performance parameters in reverse osmosis The RO process is defined in terms of certain variables, including the following: (a) Osmotic and operating pressure;55 (b) Salt rejection; (c) Permeate recovery. Criteria for RO plant design include the following:56 (a) A high membrane surface to volume ratio; (b) Adequate structural support;
(c) Low pressure drop on the concentrate side of the membrane to maintain the driving force for permeation; (d) Turbulence on the concentrate side to minimize fouling; (e) Ease of back-flushing and membrane replacement in case of fouling. Because of the close relationship between feed water composition and membrane performance, feed water analysis must be conducted to determine membrane specifications, including, in addition to the above variables, chemical stability over the operational pH range and temperature values. Membrane choice is often governed by compatibility considerations rather than separation performance and flux-related characteristics. Consequently, membrane manufacturers provide system specifications in relation to feed water quality for variables such as salinity, temperature and organic loading. It is often essential to further tailor process parameters, however, in order to obtain an optimal fit with prevailing operational requirements. Process parameters may also be varied to take into account membrane age and past history. In general, the useful life of commercial membranes ranges between three and five years. On average, annual membrane replacement rates range between 5 and 15 per cent, depending on feed water quality, pretreatment conditions, and stability of operation. The product water in the RO process is a function of the seawater salinity level, the number of RO membrane stages and other design parameters. Most RO membranes allow less than 1 per cent salt passage in a single stage, resulting in TDS levels of 300 to 400 ppm in product water. This salinity level can be further reduced using a second-stage membrane at some additional cost. (c) Osmotic and operating pressure Operating pressure in RO operations is adjusted to counter the following effects: (a) (b) (c) (d) Osmotic pressure; Friction losses; Membrane resistance; Permeate pressure.
Maintaining the operating pressure at a value equivalent to the sum total of the above effects will not cause permeate flow across the membrane. In order to obtain positive water flow (acceptable permeate flow rates) from the brackish water or seawater side to the pure, or product water, side the operating pressure must be set at a higher value than the sum total of the above effects.
55 The osmotic pressure, , of a solution can be determined experimentally by measuring the concentration of dissolved salts in solution. The osmotic pressure is obtained using the equation = R T Xi, where is the osmotic pressure (kPa); T is the temperature (K); R is the universal gas constant, 8,314 kPa.m3/kg.mol.K; and Xi is the sum of the concentrations Xi of all constituents in the solution (kg.mol/m3). An approximation for may be made by assuming that a TDS level equal to 1,000 ppm produces about 75.84 kPa of osmotic pressure. 56
C.H. Gooding, Apply the membrane advantage, Chemtech (June 1985).
57
(d)
Reverse osmosis membranes: materials, characteristics and useful life*
In principle, RO membranes should be semi-permeable, possessing a high degree of water permeability but presenting an impenetrable barrier to salts. A membrane should have a large surface area for maximum flow and should be extremely thin so that it offers minimal resistance to water flow, but it must be sturdy enough to withstand the pressure of the feed stream. Membranes with high water flux and salt rejection rates are made by laminating thin, permeateselective membranes to more durable microporous membranes; these are sometimes referred to as composite membranes (see frame 3.2). Combining the qualities of asymmetric and symmetric membranes, composite membranes have been undergoing development since the early 1980s. They are often used in pressure-driven modules of spiral wound elements, considered the most cost-effective configuration.57
Frame 3.2. Composite reverse osmosis membranes Composite membranes typically consist of a permeation-selective barrier around 1 to 10 microns thick, cast onto a much thicker microporous membrane.a/ The barrier layer can be cast on water and then laminated to the support layer. With films as delicate as this, film fabrication and lamination is feasible only on a small scale. The method most commonly used for largescale industrial production is polymerization of a reactive monomer directly on the surface of the support film. Other methods include casting the barrier film directly onto the support layer either by dip coating or gas phase deposition.b/ ____________________
a/ Support membranes are generally about 100 microns thick. b/ H. Strathmann, Synthetic Membranes and their Preparation: Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology (Park Ridge, NJ, Noyes Publications, 1990), pp. 1-60.
Polymers currently used for manufacturing RO membranes are based on either cellulose acetates (cellulose diacetate, cellulose triacetate or a combination of the two) or polyamide polymers. Table 3.5 provides data on conditions that may damage the various types of RO membranes. As indicated, cellulose acetate membranes (CAMs) are more limited than traditional and composite polyamide membranes in terms of permissible pH range but have lower material costs and a higher chlorine tolerance.58 A distinct disadvantage of CAMs is their relatively short operational life, and at the mechanical level, they also suffer pressure compaction as a result of creep buckling of the membrane material under high pressure and temperature conditions. TABLE 3.5. DAMAGING CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMBRANES
pH Free chlorine Bacteria Free oxygen Cellulose acetate 4-6 Between 1 and 5 mg/l Unstable Tolerant Polyamide 4-11 0.1 mg/l if pH 8 0.25 mg/l if pH > 8 Unstable Tolerant Composite 3-11 Unstable Tolerant Partly tolerant
Source: Adapted from International Atomic Energy Agency, Thermodynamic and economic evaluation of co-production plants for electricity and potable water (Vienna, May 1997) (IAEA-TECDOC-942).
* A sister study entitled New technologies for enhancing competitiveness and productivity in selected sectors currently under publication at ESCWA includes further information on membrane materials and their manufacturing processes.
M. Ashton, Reverse osmosis can be cost effective, Public Works, vol. 117 (1986), p. 55; and P.G. Glueckstern and others, Desalination of high salinity brackish water: low pressure reverse osmosis, Desalination, vol. 58 (1986), pp. 55-67, originally quoted by F.N. Karelin and others in New solutions in pressure-driven membrane equipment construction and making, Desalination, vol. 108 (1996), pp. 315-324.
58
57
Consequently, chlorine can be used in feed water to inhibit biological fouling.
58
(e)
Reverse osmosis membrane module configurations
The two membrane module configurations most commonly used in RO applications are the hollow fibre and spiral wound arrangements.59 Other configurations, including tubular and plate and frame designs, are sometimes used in the food and dairy industries. Figure H.1 in annex H shows four common configurations for modular RO systems, and figure H.2 presents a schema for a multiple-stage membrane column. Most RO applications require two or more modules arranged to operate in series. Single-stage stacks may be arranged in series to obtain multiple-stage configurations. In applications in which the number of stacks required may exceed the number of stages, as is the case in larger plants, stacks are incorporated in series to obtain the number of stages required to achieve the desired results. Modules are mounted in containment pressure vessels, into which pressurized feed water is pumped (see figure 3.3). Figure 3.3. Cross-section of a pressure vessel with three membrane elements
(i) Hollow fine fibre modules The hollow fine fibre (HFF) arrangement allows the highest specific surface area60 of all the module configurations, resulting in compact plants. The design is based on the extrusion of HFMs from a suitable polymeric material. Both cellulose acetate blends and non-cellulosic polymers such as polyamides are used to produce HFMs. The fibres are asymmetric and have internal and external diameters of around 42 and 85 microns, respectively. Millions of fibres are folded to produce bundles around 120 centimetres (cm) in length and 10 to 20 cm in diameter. The fibres are arranged so that their open ends are all at one end of the module. A perforated plastic tube serving as a feed water distributor is inserted in the centre and extends the full length of the bundle. The bundle is wrapped, and both ends are sealed with an epoxy formulation to produce a sheet-like permeate tube end and a terminal end that prevents the feed stream from passing through to the brine outlet. The whole assembly is contained in a cylindrical housing or shell approximately 137 cm long and 15-30 cm in diameter. A typical HFF module construction is shown in figure 3.4. Pressurized feed water enters the permeator feed end through the centre distributor tube, passes through the tube wall, and flows radially around the fibre bundle towards the outer permeator pressure shell. Water permeates through the outside wall of the fibres into the hollow core or fibre bore, and through the bore to the tube sheet or product end of the fibre bundle, then exits, carrying a higher salt content from the opposite end of the membrane; the desalinated water flows inside the hollow fibre to a common collection header.
59
J.M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and Design (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Defined as the total area per unit volume.
1985).
60
59
Figure 3.4. Hollow fine fibre membrane module (assembly and fibre dimensions)
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies prepared for ESCWA in January 2001.
In a hollow fibre module, permeate water flow per unit area of membrane is low. Hence, concentration polarization is not high at the membrane surface, allowing operation under a laminar, rather than turbulent, flow regime. The HFF membrane must, however, operate above a minimum reject flow rate to minimize concentration polarization and maintain even flow distribution throughout the fibre bundle. Typically, a single hollow fibre permeator can be operated at up to 50 per cent recovery to meet the minimum reject flow requirements. Hollow fibre permeators are available for brackish water and seawater applications. Because of the close packing and tortuous flow inside HFF modules, feed water must have a lower concentration of suspended solids than would be required for the spiral wound module configuration, for example. (ii) Spiral wound modules Spiral wound elements are most commonly manufactured with flat sheet membranes of either a cellulose diacetate and triacetate blend or a thin film composite usually made from polyamide, polysulphone, or polyurea polymers. In this configuration, composite membranes usually exhibit higher rejection at lower operating pressures than do cellulose acetate blends. In the spiral wound configuration permeate collector channel material is sandwiched between two flat sheets of membrane, forming a composite leaf. Plastic mesh spacers between the sheets, known as mesh brine spacers, provide a flow path for the water inside the leaf arrangement. The mesh spacers form a spiralshaped brine channel through which feed water comes in contact with the membranes surface as it passes through the module. The assembly is sealed on three sides, with the fourth side left open as an exit for the permeate. A feed/brine spacer material sheet is added to the leaf assembly. Several overlapping leaf assemblies are wound around a central plastic permeate tube, which is perforated in order to allow collection of the permeate from the multiple assemblies stacked around it. A typical industrial spiral wound membrane element is approximately 100 to 150 cm long and 20-30 cm in diameter. The basic construction of a spiral wound module is shown in figure 3.5. Feed/brine flow through spiral wound modules takes place along an axial path from the feed end to the opposite brine end, parallel to the membrane surface. A feed channel spacer induces turbulence and reduces concentration polarization close to the membranes surface. Manufacturers specify brine flow requirements to control concentration polarization, limiting desalinated water recovery per element to between 10 and 20 per cent. Under such conditions, the rate of desalinated water recovery is a function of the feed-brine path length. In order to achieve acceptable overall recovery rates, spiral systems are usually staged with three to six membrane elements stacked in series within a pressure tube, with the brine stream from one element constituting the feed stream for the next. The brine stream from the last element exits the pressure tube to waste, while the permeate from each element enters the permeate collector tube and exits the vessel as a
60
common permeate stream. Under average conditions, a single pressure vessel with four to six membrane elements in series may be operated at up to 50 per cent recovery. Figure 3.5. Cutaway view of a spiral wound membrane element
Performance characteristics of various commercially available RO membranes are summarized in table I.1 in annex I. 3. The effects of process parameters on membrane performance The effects of certain parameters on membrane performance and integrity are examined below, with particular attention given to process pressure, temperature and pH levels, and trace substances (whether naturally occurring or intentionally added to, for example, disinfect the feed stream or the processed water). (a) The effects of process pressure
Increasing process pressure naturally enhances water permeation, but excessive pressure generally leads to trouble. For example, mechanical damage to the membrane can occur as a result of deformation and compaction. In addition, higher pressure values increase salt concentrations at the membranes surface, leading to amplified local osmotic pressures and ultimately enhancing fouling and scaling problems. A process of ionic diffusion from this area into the feed stream normally takes place. However, as pressure is increased this back diffusion is curtailed, leading to the precipitation of sparingly soluble salts. Mechanical damage caused by sustained high process pressure may be particularly serious, since it can lead to compaction and the emergence of micro defects, or tears, that enhance water flux but also allow increased salt penetration, resulting in diminished water quality. It is worth noting that variations in process parameters such as temperature, pH and oxidizing agents may accelerate the degradation of membrane performance caused by compaction or other problems. (b) The effects of temperature
The effects exerted by temperature on membrane performance relate primarily to the enhanced enthalpy of the system as a whole. In particular, salt ion activity values are higher and membrane openings are somewhat dilated. Both water and salt flux is increased, albeit to varying degrees. Maximum operating temperatures for membranes, particularly those made of cellulosic materials and those used as thin films in composite membrane assemblies, are specified by the manufacturers and generally
61
fall within the 40o-45o C range. Feed streams at higher temperatures must be cooled, possibly through the use of their heat content in some useful heat transfer operation. High operating temperatures can also increase carbonate scale formation, accelerating compaction and fouling. (c) The effects of pH
Feed water acidity or alkalinity can significantly affect membrane structure and scale formation. Certain commercial membrane systems may suffer hydrolytic damage if exposed to feed water with pH values outside defined ranges. Cellulosics must be operated at pH values falling within a rather narrow range (between 4 and 6); thin film composite membranes have a wider tolerance and can operate at values ranging from 2 to 11; and ceramic and metallic membrane systems are relatively unaffected by pH. In practice, the pH value of feed water is adjusted with the intention of controlling scale formation, particularly within parts of the process that involve the handling of concentrated brine solutions. Compromises must often be made in dealing with different feed water compositions and the variations in salt content in the resulting brine. A low pH value favours silica scale deposition, while a higher value accelerates carbonate scale formation. In practical situations, striking a balance requires the establishment of feed water concentration ranges and the identification of possibilities for silica and carbonate precipitation. (d) The effects of oxidants and disinfectants
Oxidants are added to water supplies to improve the taste and odour, to remove iron and manganese present as ionic species, and to speed up the decomposition of vegetable and animal matter.61 Certain membrane systems, including thin film composites, do not tolerate oxidants such as chlorine, while others, including cellulose-based membranes, do (see frame 3.3 for a summary of the effects of oxidants on membranes). This necessitates dechlorination prior to RO or NF processes. Alternative means of disinfection may also be used.
Frame 3.3. The impact of oxidants on membranes Chlorine within an operating pH range of 4 to 6 can be used quite reliably with cellulose acetate membranes. However, chlorine dioxide and ozone can damage this type of membrane. Non-cellulosic thin film composite membranes are decidedly intolerant to oxidation. To deal with this limitation, dechlorination is performed prior to the use of treatment subsystems utilizing thin film composite membranes. The extent of polymer oxidation depends on pH. The HOCl species are considered the most damaging to polyamide and polyether urea membranes. Polyvinyl alcohol membranes are resistant to oxidants in acidic and slightly alkaline media within the pH range 2-8. When initially placed in contact with halogens, membranes exhibit an increase in both salt and water flux. This is indicative of a breakdown in the polymer material. Eventually, water flux decreases occur, suggesting that the halogen atoms have formed cross-links within the polymer matrix of the membrane material, preventing salt from passing through. As this condition persists, the membrane material becomes more brittle, and fractures form, resulting in a dramatic increase in water and salt flux.
Ozone is used as an oxidant in RO systems. It is bubbled into feed water at an early point in the process to allow sufficient time for reactions. Ozone may also be used for the removal of colour, taste and odour, for bacteriological disinfection, and for the oxidation of undesirable metallic species as well as organic species such as phenols and cyanides.62 It is essential to remove all traces of ozone from feed water before it enters the modules and comes in contact with RO membranes; it is customary to use ultraviolet (UV) light for this purpose.63 UV light has a synergistic effect when used in conjunction with ozone. UV
61 62 63
W.J. Weber, Physiochemical Processes for Water Quality Control (New York, Wiley-Interscience Publications, 1972). Ibid. G.V. Zoccolante, Produce ultrapure process water, Chemical Engineering Progress (1990), pp. 69-72.
62
irradiation can also be used by itself to disinfect water; however, recontamination by organisms that survive UV exposure may occur.64 C. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL MEMBRANE PROCESSES 1. Electrodialysis MF, UF and NF processes use membranes under hydrostatic pressure to purify water, but ED relies on differences in electrical potentialin effect, electrical energyto bring about the separation of charged ionic species from feed water. The ionic nature of dissolved salts in saline water is central to the concept of electrodialytic separation. Salts that readily dissociate into ions,65 whether organic or inorganic species, can be effectively separated using ED, while non-ionizable organic substances may not be isolated in this manner. The ED process is particularly suitable for the treatment of water with a high silica content.66 This and other factors render the method especially useful for brackish water desalination. Salinity in feed water is removed as the water passes through ion-selective membranes positioned between electrodes, generally constructed from niobium or titanium with a platinum coating, that attract ions of opposite charges (see figure 3.6). Anion-permissible membranes allow anions to pass through to the positively charged electrode but reject cations. Conversely, cation-permissible membranes allow cations to pass through to the negatively charged electrode but reject anions. Figure 3.6. Ion transport in electrodialysis
Source: M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
64 UV radiation is a disinfectant in its own right. However, it may only exert such action if thin sections of feed water are directly exposed to UV light. Its effectiveness is reduced by the presence of certain dissolved impurities and particulates. It has a synergistic effect in conjunction with ozone, however.
It should be remembered that even salts that possess low dissociation constants may be removed from feed water, as the removal of their constituent ions encourages their further dissociation. This applies, for instance, in the case of magnesium hydroxide, which is only very slightly dissociated into its constituent magnesium (Mg2+) and hydroxide (OH-) at room temperature. As a proportion of both ion types is removed further, dissociation takes place to maintain equilibrium between the undissociated salt molecules and dissociated ions, allowing further proportions of these ions to be removed, and so on. J. Ribeiro, Desalination technology: survey and prospects (Seville, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN).
66
65
63
The effectiveness of the ED separation process is determined by the composition of the feed water, the type of membrane being used, and a number of electrical characteristics including electrical current intensity and electrical resistance of the ED media in use. (a) Composition of feed water
Feed water composition is of primary importance in analysing the effectiveness of ED separation. As indicated above, this method can only be used with ionizable species; it has no impact on suspended particulate matter and non-ionizable species. Sparingly soluble but ionizable species may be separated through appropriately designed ED operations, owing to the fact that the separation of dissociated ions in solution encourages undissolved species to go into solution, where further dissociation of constituent ions occurs. Naturally, this process of dissolution is affected by other ionic species already in solution. (b) Electrodialysis membranes
ED membranes consist of flat sheet polymers subjected to special treatment in which micro-sized cracks or crevices are produced in the plastic films surface. These crevices permit the transport of ions, while ion exchange sites incorporated into the membranes polymer matrix promote membrane selectivity. The polymeric materials used in making ion exchange membranes possess fixed charge-bearing functional groups such as HSO3-, as well as mobile cations (Na+) in the case of cation exchange membranes. Ion exchange membranes attract ionic entities with opposite charges, allowing them to pass through to their side of the ED module, and repel like charges, returning them to the bulk solution, where they may be attracted by the opposite membrane. For the membranes to function effectively, the polymers used in their construction must possess low electrical resistance and be water insoluble. Additionally, these membranes must possess a number of essential mechanical, thermal and chemical properties, including a certain degree of rigidity, low water absorption, the ability to operate at temperatures approaching and somewhat beyond 50o C, resistance to both high and low pH values (in the range of 1-10), resistance to fouling, and a reasonable service life. (c) Membrane selectivity
Membrane selectivity is a function of membrane construction, including the density of the charged functional groups (the number of ions embedded in a membrane framework), geometry (especially thickness), and surface characteristics. Commercially available ED membranes may possess ionic selectivity levels of around 90 per cent.67 Membrane selectivity is also affected by temperature and by the concentration of ionic species in both feed water and concentrate streams. As the concentration of ionic species in the concentrate, or reject, stream rises beyond a certain level, undesirable ionic species already separated from the feed water are encouraged to move back across the membrane in a direction opposing that dictated by the applied electrical current. The concentration of ionic species in the concentrate in which this takes place is determined by current intensity and osmotic pressure created by the ionic species in question. (d) Flow in electrodialysis Flow in ED cells is engineered to achieve the following: (a) Optimal contact between the feed water and the ion exchange membranes; (b) Minimal contact between the feed and deionized water streams; (c) Mixing in the region of the electrodes and exchange membranes in order to facilitate ion transport in solution.
67
F.H. Meller, Electrodialysiselectrodialysis reversal technology (Ionics, Inc., March 1984).
64
ED membranes are impervious to undissociated water molecules under pressure, as only ions are allowed through. However, dissociated water molecules are able to pass through as hydrogen and hydroxyl ions; the latter moves through the anionic membrane, while the former crosses the cationic membrane. (e) Electrodialysis system configurations Typically, an ED system consists of the following elements: (a) A supply of pressurized water across the membrane; (b) Single-stage or multiple-stage membrane stacks to achieve demineralization; (c) A direct current (DC) power supply to maintain electrical potential between the electrodes, causing ions in the feed stream to migrate through the selective membranes. Other elements in ED systems include pretreatment devices for feed water, such as filters, as well as equipment for feeding in material for pH adjustment and complexing agents for preventing calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate precipitation in the brine stream. The membrane stack is the core of the ED system and consists of a series of alternating cationpermeable and anion-permeable membranes (see figure 3.7). The electrodes located on either side of the membrane stack are connected to a source of direct current. Under the influence of the electrical potential difference, anions and cations migrate in opposing directions through the respective membranes. As a result, concentrated and dilute solutions are formed in the spaces between alternating membrane stacks. The solutions are collected via separate manifolds. Each ED membrane stack has several hundred cell pairs, each consisting of one dilute and one concentration cell. Figure 3.7. Movement of ions in the electrodialysis process
Source: International Environmental Technology Centre, Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Small Island Developing States, IETC Technical Publications Series. Note: TDS = total dissolved solids.
Channelled spacers are inserted between the membranes to direct feed water through the ED membrane stack. Spacers separate water flow into many streams, allowing movement in parallel paths back and forth across the membrane surface. This pattern of water flow offers the membrane maximum exposure
65
to the feed water. In addition, baffles are placed across each channel to create turbulence, resulting in more efficient ion transport and mixing. (f) Electrical resistance
The electrical resistance of an ED system essentially derives from the resistance of the cation membrane, anion membrane, concentrate stream and demineralized water stream. As temperature and solution concentrations increase, the overall resistance of the system decreases. This is especially true with increasing percentages of sodium chloride in solution. (g) Feed water pretreatment in electrodialysis applications
Pretreatment processes applied in RO are generally appropriate for ED as well, though they may be less rigorous. During ED operations, scale is formed in the membrane stack owing to supersaturation in the brine stream; it is caused by the precipitation of soluble salts such as calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate. In order to avoid scaling, pH adjustment and the addition of an antiscaling agent to the feed stream may be necessary. Cartridge filters may also be utilized to preclude membrane pore plugging by particulate matter. Biological growth on membrane surfaces and within pores must be prevented. 2. Electrodialysis reversal Pretreatment requirements for ED systems may be minimized through the implementation of electrodialysis reversal (EDR), which operates on the same basic principle as the standard ED process. The main difference between ED and EDR techniques is that the electrode polarity in the latter is reversed three to four times per hour and flow streams are simultaneously switched using automatic valves. The net result is that the product and brine cells periodically exchange functions, with salts being transferred in opposite directions across the membranes in consecutive cycles. This reversal aids in breaking up and flushing out scale, slime and other deposits in the cells, eliminating the need for additives (generally acids and complexing agents). The membrane stacks still require some cleaning, though much less frequently than would otherwise be necessary. EDR is, in effect, a variation of ED. Reversal of electrode polarity increases the useful life of the cells electrodes and helps clean membranes. Naturally, more intricate fluid control and switching schemes are required in this method than in straightforward ED processes. 3. Coupled transport systems Coupled transport and ED processes are similar in that both remove ionic species from feed water. This makes for shared selectivity characteristics with regard to the type of impurities removed, as opposed to the size of molecules or particles removed, as in simple filtration methods. The driving force in coupled transport systems is chemical rather than electrical, however, allowing a higher level of selectivity. Figure 3.8 provides a schematic representation of the coupled transport process. One of the major differences between coupled transport and ED is that the former targets the removal of metallic ions from feed water, while the latter may effect the separation of ionic species in general.68 An important structural difference is that the coupled transport method utilizes liquid, rather than solid, membranes. The membranes consist of immiscible organic liquids in which a special chemical substance69 capable of forming complex molecular species with metal ions in the feed stream is dissolved. This complexing agent remains in solution within the liquid membrane until a stripping agent is applied. A stripping agent effects final removal of the metal ions captured by the complexing agent, replacing them with an innocuous ionic species such as hydrogen ions. While the complexing agent has to have preferential solubility in the organic phase, the stripping agent may be water soluble.
68 69
Anionic species may also be removed in coupled transport systems.
This is generally an organic molecule with two or more functional groups that are able to form relatively strong coordination-type bonds to metal ions. An example of a commonly used complexing agent is the chemical ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).
66
Figure 3.8. Coupled transport mechanism for generic metals
Emulsions are sometimes used in coupled transport systems with a view to maximizing surface contact between the feed stream and the organic phase bearing the complexing agent. The stripping agent may also be incorporated in emulsion form within the organic phase. Such systems may require continuous or batch schemes in which the emulsion is broken, for example, by adding suitable surfactants, to regenerate the emulsions components and free demineralized water. D. MEMBRANE DISTILLATION Membrane distillation was developed on a commercial scale in the 1980s. It is essentially an evaporation process. Porous membranes made of hydrophobic polymer materials separate solutes by setting up a temperature gradient. Process saline water is warmed to enhance the production of vapour, which is then exposed to a membrane that allows its passage, leaving liquid water with dissolved species behind. Following its passage through the membrane, the vapour is condensed on a cooler surface to produce fresh water that is collected as the plants output. Membrane distillation requires more space than other membrane processes and uses considerably higher pumping energy per unit of production. The hydrophobic polymeric membrane combines the functions of the MSF plants vapour space and demister. Energy consumption for the hydrophobic membrane is roughly the same as that in MSF plants, and the length of the membrane over which the heated seawater flows and is gradually cooled by evaporation is equivalent to the number of stages in MSF plants. The main advantages of membrane distillation are its simplicity and the fact that it requires only small temperature differentials to operate. This process is most suitable for small-scale applications where inexpensive, low-grade thermal energy is available. Sources such as solar energy from collectors, waste heat from diesel engines, and geothermal energy are ideal for membrane distillation. The requirement that feed water be free of organic pollutants prior to entering a membrane distillation plant imposes a somewhat serious restriction on the wider dissemination of this method. Organic matter adhering to membrane surfaces alters the characteristics of the membrane material, impelling it to act as a hydrophilic membrane. E. MEMBRANE MATERIALS: MICROSTRUCTURE AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES Membranes used in filtration and desalination processes are essentially polymeric films fabricated using relatively well-established polymer film manufacturing techniques. A list of polymers used in producing membranes for a number of important commercial applications is presented in table 3.6.
67
Manufacturing process parameters are manipulated in order to obtain films with optimal characteristics for a given application. NF and RO membranes normally consist of a thin surface layer on top of a porous base. Both are produced by the so-called thermal inversion process. An important characteristic of filtration and desalination membranes is their pore structure. The term symmetric membrane is used to describe a membrane with pore geometry that does not vary along its cross-section. Asymmetric membranes possess pore dimensions varying across the membranes thickness. Other characteristics imparted by manufacturing processes determine the rate of water passage and degree of fouling resistance. TABLE 3.6. MATERIALS FOR COMMERCIAL POLYMER MEMBRANES
Material Aliphatic polyamidea/ Aromatic polyamide Cellulose acetate Cellulose nitrate Cellulose triacetate PAN-PVC Polyacrylonitrile Polybenzimidazole Polycarbonate Polyetheretherketone Polyetherimide Polypropylene Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyvinyl alcohol Polyvinylidene fluoride Process MF, UF MF, UF, RO MF, UF, RO MF RO MF, UF UF RO MF MF, UF MF, UF MF MF MF, UF MF, UF
Source: R. Singh, Development and design of advanced membrane systems, Chemtech (June 1996). Notes: MF = microfiltration; UF = ultrafiltration; RO = reverse osmosis; PAN-PVC = polyacrylonitrile/polyvinyl chloride copolymer. a/ Nylon 6, nylon 6,6.
The methods used in membrane manufacture play an important part in determining internal pore geometry. Irradiation produces neat capillary pores, while thermal phase inversion produces twisted or tortuous membrane structures. Membranes made by stretching polymeric film possess both capillary and tortuous pores. Composite membranes combine the advantages of both symmetric and asymmetric membranes. They are produced by laminating a very thin (1-10 micron), highly selective membrane film to a more resilient microporous membrane film around 100 microns thick. The finished product has both a high water flux and a good salt rejection rate. The configuration chosen for a particular membrane module is determined, at least in part, by pore structure and mechanical properties. The four main configurations generally used for microfilters include plate and frame systems, pleated cartridge modules, spiral wound modules, and hollow fibre or bundled tubular modules. In plate and frame systems, layers of membrane disks are commonly used with spacers designed to maintain watertight seals between filter disks. When the filtrate is the desired product, as in water purification, the particulate matter is collected on the microfilter and disposed of in accordance with an established routine (see figure 3.9).
68
Figure 3.9. Plate and frame filtration
The three basic configurations used for tubular cartridge modules are dead-end filtration, flow-through filtration and cross-flow filtration. In dead-end filtration, the pressurized feed stream flows into one end of the membrane cartridge and the filtrate exits on the other side; particulate matter is left on the surface of the filter or within its pores. In flow-through filters the feed stream moves from the outside towards the inside of the tubular filter cartridge. In cross-flow filter configurations the feed stream moves in a direction parallel to the axis of the tubular filter along the outside, with the pressure gradient generated across the direction of flow forcing only part of the filtrate into the membranes pores. The remainder is further recycled. The filtrate is collected from inside the tubular cartridge (see figure I.1 in annex I). Dead-end and flow-through configurations retain particulates mostly within the membrane pores, so filters are often simply discarded. Improved designs allow for back-flushing; such systems require auxiliary equipment but offer clear advantages including longer membrane service life and material conservation. Spiral wound membrane modules are made by wrapping membrane sheets around a support tube that simultaneously acts as conduit for the filtrate. The feed stream is forced through several membrane layers along an axis parallel to the module. Designed for cross-flow filtration, hollow fibre modules have the feed stream directed through the membrane tube or fibre bundles so that the filtrate issues from the walls of the fibres and is collected within the shell enclosing the fibre bundle. It is possible to prolong the effective life of a filtration assembly by utilizing systems that incorporate a battery of filters with progressively decreasing pore sizes. Heuristic approaches are often adopted in identifying the optimal filtration arrangement (module sequence and pore size distribution) for a particular application. An important objective of such an exercise is to have each membrane filter removing a predetermined proportion of the total particulate load from the feed stream rather than having only a few filters remove the bulk of that load.
69
Ultimately, however, both back-flushing and disposal of the whole filter cartridge or module have important environmental implications. F. MEMBRANE FOULING AND TREATMENT Fouling is caused by the trapping of material within the pores or on the surfaces of membranes. Sources of membrane fouling are listed in table 3.7. Factors that affect fouling rates include membrane porosity, pore size distribution, surface roughness and charge, and physiochemical properties (in particular wetting characteristics), as well as the nature, size and charge of the solutes including colloids and suspended solids. TABLE 3.7. SOURCES OF MEMBRANE FOULING
Substance Fe, Mn, Al hydroxides Salts (CaSO4, CaCO3, BaSO4, SrSO4) Colloids Microbiological matter Proteins Polyelectrolytes Organic acids Oil and grease Suspended solids Extent and/or mechanism Severe fouling, rapid kinetics Form mineral scales when their solubility limits are exceeded Electrically charged; silt density index and zeta potential determine fouling Forms a biofilm gel layer Fouling by hydrophobic and ionic charge interactions Fouling by charge interaction Severe fouling caused by humic and fulvic acids Hydrophobic membrane fouling Cannot exceed 0.5 parts per million
Source: R. Singh, Development and design of advanced membrane systems, Chemtech (June 1996).
Five types of membrane fouling have been identified for pressure-driven systems, namely, membrane scaling, fouling by metal oxides, plugging by particulates, colloidal fouling and biological fouling. Their effects vary depending on the membranes pore sizes. The importance of adequate pretreatment of feed water in membrane systems cannot be overemphasized. In membrane processes, both membrane performance and useful service life depend quite heavily upon the quality of feed water. In particular, the water fed into RO and NF systems should contain only dissolved salts. In practice, many of these systems are run with lower-quality feed water, and the buildup of precipitates, colloids, micro-organisms and particulate matter can cause extensive damage to membrane integrity and affect the quality of the output stream. In general, careful pretreatment will help decrease the amount of energy needed to produce sufficient pressure to maintain initial flux conditions, enhance throughput capacity and hence pure water production rates, reduce downtime for cleaning and maintenance linked to the accumulation of suspended and colloidal matter, maintain acceptable product quality owing to the lower rejection of organic and inorganic compounds, and extend the lifetime of the membrane. A list of chemicals commonly used in water treatment operations, particularly those added prior to filtration or RO operations, is presented in table 3.8. TABLE 3.8. WATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Function Water softening Flocculation Disinfection General-purpose treatment Chemicals Lime, sodium phosphate and polyphosphate Aluminium and iron sulphates, polyelectrolytes and silicates Chlorine, chlorine dioxide,a/ sodium hypochlorite, chlorinated cyanurates and sulphitesb/ Activated carbon
Source: C. Cotton, Water treatment chemicals, Chemtech (June 1984). a/ Introduced as sodium chlorite. b/ Sometimes used for dechlorination.
The subsections below provide a brief explanation of the main fouling problems faced and the methods currently used to improve feed water compatibility with principal membrane processes. These
70
practices are essentially based on MF and UF methods in addition to more traditional sedimentation and flocculation techniques. Details of pretreatment and post-treatment processes for membrane-based technologies are presented in annex J. 1. Membrane scaling Membrane scaling is caused by the precipitation of salts originally present in feed water and is common in both RO and NF membrane systems. Higher temperatures and pH values facilitate the process. Common scales encountered in RO and NF water treatment systems are calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium fluoride, barium sulphate and phosphate salts. Scaling from calcium carbonate, which is relatively insoluble at normal pH values, can be prevented by adjusting the pH of the feed stream to between 5.5 and 6 through acidification. Water softening chemicals can be used to remove sulphate ions from the feed water. In cases where this is impractical, sodium hexametaphosphate may be added to prevent calcium sulphate precipitation. In general, early detection of scaling is the most effective remedial action. 2. Metal oxide fouling Manganese and iron compounds dissolved in feed water may be oxidized in the RO system ahead of, or within, membrane assemblies, and the resulting insoluble compounds may be deposited on membrane surfaces, drastically reducing their performance. Because iron fouling is more common than manganese fouling, attention has focused on the removal of iron ions from feed water. Oxidation followed by precipitation, clarification or filtration is generally the preferred method. When groundwater supplies are used, soluble iron species are oxidized through straightforward aeration followed by filtration. It should also be possible to remove iron in its lower oxidation states through ion exchange.70 3. Plugging by particulates Plugging occurs when membrane pores trap larger particles. This type of fouling can generally be avoided by pre-filtering feed water through 5-10 micron cartridge microfilters.71 This method can remove around 90 per cent of all particles larger than the rated pore size. The microfilters commonly used for this purpose are depth filters, incorporated into dead-end designs. They are disposed of as soon as back pressure reaches a certain level, with a maximum value that is generally specified by the manufacturers but normally falls in the vicinity of 200 kilopascal (kPa). Once this value is reached, microfilter cartridges are disposed of as solid waste. Figures quoted in the early 1990s indicate that the use of 5 micron filters to pretreat water destined for membrane desalination could cost between $0.01 and $0.08 per cubic metre.72 Naturally, microfilter cartridge life expectancy, and hence pretreatment costs, depends on the particulate loading and the flow rate. Sedimentation and other pre-filtration methods may be used as well. 4. Colloidal fouling Colloidal fouling is caused by the entrapment of colloids on membrane surfaces. Colloids found in feed waters derive mainly from aluminium-silicate-bearing material, essentially clays. Iron originating from the corrosion of carbon steel piping, pumps and filters may also be present in colloidal material. Other colloidal fouling agents may come from soap- and detergent-based entities as well as proteins and organic matter.
70 In such cases, caution must be exercised to avoid iron oxidation in the process, which could lead to serious fouling of the ion exchange resin itself. 71 72
Typically, cartridge microfilters are designed to remove at least 90 per cent of particles larger than their rating size. These figures were quoted by Parekh in 1991 but probably date back to the late 1980s; costs may have improved since
then.
71
The level of colloid loading may be minimized to start with by locating the intake for the feed water stream in a suitable place; reducing the amount of initial feed water contamination by colloidal species is naturally a preferred option. In the case of brackish water desalination, it is possible to locate intake pipes adjacent to the water source, where soil and rock layers have acted as a natural filter medium. Enormous cost and quality advantages may be enjoyed if turbulent conditions that tend to increase contamination by organic or inorganic colloids are avoided. The process leading to colloidal fouling is somewhat complex. Water molecules and charged ions form a double charge layer around colloidal particles. Negative poles on water molecules around each particle cause the colloidal particles to repel one another. High pressure and elevated ionic concentrations at the membranes surface eventually cause colloidal particles to coalesce, resulting in the formation of colloidal slime on the membranes surface. The tolerance of different membrane systems to colloidal contamination varies. A spiral wound system can tolerate colloidal loadings with silt density index (SDI) values of up to around 5.0, while the more delicate HFF membrane systems are capable of dealing with SDI values in the range of 3.0 or lower.73 Colloidal matter may be removed from feed water in a variety of ways. The level and nature of colloidal loadings may sometimes necessitate the simultaneous use of a combination of methods. Coprecipitation, settling and filtration are the main techniques used to remove colloids. The co-precipitation of colloidal particles with aluminium and iron hydroxides is widely practised in the water purification industry. This method is based on the fact that colloidal particles carry a negative charge. Arrangements are made for metal hydroxides to aggregate with colloidal particles in the feed water stream, and the bulky metal cations, surrounded by a sheath of water molecules, cause the colloids to precipitate. The coagulation of colloidal particles is also affected by the addition of special polymeric additives capable of forming bridges connecting colloid particles and facilitating their flocculation. Colloid concentrations may be reduced by coagulation with Al(III), Fe(III) or Si(IV) hydroxides, followed by filtration. Ultimately, the degree of success achieved in removing colloidal matter depends on a large number of parameters, including the concentration and nature of the colloidal material in question, pH values within the medium and the charge of the metal cation used in co-precipitation. Pretreatment by UF using MWCOs of between 200 and 20,000 daltons can also remove colloidal matter prior to RO operations. Ultrafilters used for this purpose are usually operated at low pressures and high circulation rates. Several UF systems are durable enough to be cleaned under harsh conditions that are not tolerated by RO units. Their use is therefore recommended in order to protect RO systems.74 Despite recent successes in dealing with colloidal fouling, the process of colloid removal is protracted and must be tailored to the characteristics of the feed water stream in question. 5. Biological fouling Biological matter responsible for fouling includes live or dead micro-organisms, biological waste products excreted by micro-organisms, and micro-organism debris. When live microbes are present in feed water, they may form colonies on membranes, eventually leading to pore plugging and destruction of the membranes structural integrity. Both plugging and membrane fouling caused by active biological species may be prevented by continuous chlorination. Care should be exercised, however, as excessive concentrations can harm membrane material. For polyamide membranes, which are resistant to microbial attack, periodic disinfection with formaldehyde is recommended. As indicated above, chlorination followed by dechlorination or UV radiation to protect membrane material is used.
73 Another source (P.E. Odendaal and M.R. Weisner, eds., Water Treatment Membrane Processes, chapter 14 [New York, McGraw-Hill, 1996]) mentions SDI limits of 2 and 3 for hollow fibre and spiral wound membranes, respectively.
M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
74
72
Alternatively, ultrafilters may be used for reducing bacteria, viruses, pyrogens, various organic entities including colour- and odour-causing compounds, and trihalomethanes and their precursors. Filtration through sand beds and other media is another technique used for the collective removal of particulates, colloids and bacteria. One advantage of sand bed filtration derives from the ability of sand media to act as both a filter and a settling chamber, as suspended solids are trapped within interstices. Furthermore, biological growth within the bed breaks down large organic entities and transforms nitrates and excretes gelatinous waste, enhancing the filtration of submicron particles.75 The accumulation of dead microbes on the membrane surface can cause damage similar to that of colloidal fouling. Microbe colonies may not grow in such cases, but a gelatinous slime of decomposing bacteria is formed, inhibiting water passage. To alleviate this problem, a 0.1-1.0 micron filter may be used in conjunction with an appropriate disinfection technique.76 G. MEMBRANE CLEANING AND STORAGE 1. Membrane cleaning Keeping a membrane clean extends its life and efficiency. As a rule, membrane elements should be cleaned whenever an operating parameter changes by around 10-15 per cent.77 If the permeate flow rate drops, the product water flow rate and quality change, and in such cases applied pressure and other process parameters may need to be adjusted to maintain productivity and quality levels. An examination of feed water analyses and records, membrane pressure differential, water flux, salt passage and applied pressure is essential in determining the type and extent of fouling. The cleaning process will depend upon the type of foulant. If fouling is caused by calcium carbonate scaling, the elements can be cleaned by lowering the pH of the feed water for a few hours. If colloidal fouling occurs, a phosphate-containing detergent should be used. If bacterial fouling is the problem, a biocide must be used in the cleaning solution. Manufacturers are very specific in recommending cleaning solutions. The solutions vary from one membrane to another, and for different manufacturers. For that reason, cleaning instructions should be followed closely, especially when membranes from different manufacturers are used, or when membranes of different composition are incorporated in one system. RO- and NF-type membranes are generally cleaned every 6 to 12 months. The limit is once every three to four weeks.78 This is necessary to remove multiplying bacteria and micro-organisms. For MF- and UF-type membranes, cleaning frequency is a function of the flux rate; as the latter increases, so does the former. Although lower fluxes are associated with more stable operation, they require a larger area for the same design capacity. Hydraulic cleaning may be used to prevent physical fouling in hollow fibre UF systems. Backwashing, for example, is quite effective in removing internally deposited particles. However, it cannot
W.D. Bellamy, G.P. Silverman and D.W. Hendricks, Filtration of giardia cysts and other substances, volume 2: slow sand filtration, Desalination, United States Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, 1985 (originally quoted in Chapman-Wilbert, 1993 [see note below]). M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-93-15).
77 78 76
75
Hydranautics, Technical Service Bulletin (TSB) Nos. 100.00, 102.00, 107.00 (1999). KIWA, notes from a training course on membrane separation technologies, 2000.
73
remove cake build-up in dead-end systems. Another inherent disadvantage of backwashing is that product water is consumed for non-productive purposes, resulting in reduced overall plant efficiency. Chemical cleaning is another effective method for removing a variety of adsorbed matter and biological growth. However, it is often associated with relatively long outages, resulting in reduced overall plant efficiency and a shortening of the lifetime of the membrane; treatment chemical costs are another important consideration. 2. Membrane storage Membrane modules need to be protected from damage during maintenance and other shutdown periods. When closure periods are around a week, membranes are often immersed in permeate or treated feed water. In such cases, care should be taken to maintain the temperature within an acceptable range. In the warm climates pertaining in the ESCWA member countries, and particularly where the stored membrane modules might be exposed to sunlight, water may have to be continuously recirculated to maintain a constant temperature.79 Extended storage of cellulose acetate and synthetic membrane elements involves immersion in a preservative to control biological growth. Cooling may also be essential to prevent damage from overheating. Certain membrane types may need to be treated with glycerin formulations and stored dry. Ceramic and metallic membranes and some polysulphone tubular filters may simply be cleaned and stored dry. H. CONCLUDING REMARKS Membrane-based processes in commercial use for water treatment and desalination, including MF, UF, NF, RO, membrane distillation and ED, are covered in this chapter. The underlying concepts and salient features of their constitution and fabrication processes are briefly reviewed. The polymer membrane constitutes the core element in membrane technology. A variety of membrane systems will be needed to cover the numerous applications of this promising technology. Designs and configurations commonly adopted for their utilization in feed water pretreatment and desalination are considered in this chapter, with special emphasis on RO technology. Some of the main problems encountered by RO technology operators, including scaling, plugging by particulates, and biological, colloidal and metaloxide fouling, are touched upon. The merits of membrane technologies for selected applications are analysed, and comments are made on optimal conditions for their use in a number of typical situations. RO technology is a serious competitor in the field of desalination, given its compactness and the relative ease with which it may be packaged and managed, as well as its compatibility with a number of energy sources and its friendlier environmental profile. Efforts are already being made in the region, most notably in Saudi Arabia,80 to share in technology acquisition through the assembly and marketing of vital RO technology components. Nevertheless, both companies and science and technology institutions in the ESCWA member countries need to take many more steps towards acquiring adequate technological capacity in this area.
79 M. Chapman-Wilbert, The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 1, September 1993, published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Applied Sciences Branch (R-9315).
The work undertaken by Saudi Industries for Desalination Membranes and Systems is especially worthy of note (see www.sidmas.com.sa).
80
74
IV. DESALINATION ECONOMICS A survey published in 1996 provides some projections regarding the diffusion of desalination technology in the Arabian Peninsula and the southern and eastern Mediterranean basin.81 Forecasts indicate that, owing to the overexploitation of conventional water resources82 and increasing demand for fresh water, desalinated water will constitute around 10 per cent of the total fresh water supply in the region by the year 2015. While this situation might justify the widespread use of desalination technologies, there are a number of constraints to be considered. One is the relatively large investment required and the likelihood of limited returns on that investment, given the inadequate pricing and other water-related policies currently in force. Governments and municipalities generally manage water supplies and often provide subsidies. Nevertheless, a number of desalination plants are being erected or planned throughout the region. Many of these plants are dual-purpose, producing power as well as water, which should translate into improved energy and desalinated water production costs in general. Economic analysis aimed at determining the most appropriate desalination process for a given area is governed by a number of criteria. Because many of these criteria are site-sensitive, it is not possible to identify one optimal choice for a particular region or even subregion. Different options would need to be considered in some of the larger ESCWA member countries. A comprehensive analysis is beyond the scope of this study; the sections below are intended to outline aspects of desalination economics that are particularly relevant to the ESCWA member countries. Summarized case studies of desalination experiences in a number of ESCWA member countries are presented in annex B to this study. Summaries of case studies of desalination facilities utilizing renewable energy inputs, and a review of related economic concerns, are presented in chapter VI. A. ELEMENTS IN DESALINATION COSTING From the outset, it is important to stress that the available literature provides little in the way of information or economic analysis relating to actual desalination operations and product costs in the Gulf ESCWA member countries. The data that are published indicate wide variations in unit product costs and considerable sensitivity to process and production capacity, as shown in several of the tables in this chapter. Cost factors in desalination processes are summarized in figure 4.1. In most feasibility studies the cost of desalinated water is expressed in United States dollars per cubic metre (US$/m3) of product water. This figure is obtained by dividing the sum of all expenses related to the production of desalinated water (including the energy consumed in all production, testing and storage phases) by the total amount of desalted water produced. Capital investment costs are taken into account with reference to a predetermined discount rate.
J. Ribeiro, Desalination technology: survey and prospects (Seville, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN). Throughout the ESCWA region, groundwater resources are being drained at a rate that far exceeds natural replenishment. This has led to a deterioration in groundwater quality, an increase in its salinity, and a reduction of groundwater levels, which has rendered this resource increasingly expensive to pump and transport. Water extracted from deep aquifers in Jordan, for example, costs between $0.40 and $1.10/m3, including treatment costs (see ESCWA, Water desalination in selected ESCWA countries: opportunities and constraints, a paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, Amman, 2-5 October 1995 [E/ESCWA/ENR/1995/WG.1/14]).
82
81
75
Figure 4.1. Cost elements of desalination processes
Estimates of indirect costs are strongly influenced by major cost components and by inherent uncertainties embodied in assumptions made during the conceptual and design phases. Factors such as the lifetime of the plant, interest rates, the duration of construction and energy prices may change considerably over time, affecting unit product costs. Sensitivity analyses are generally needed to identify risks and establish the bases for possible improvements in profitability and performance. B. CAPITAL AND OPERATIONAL COSTS OF DESALINATION PLANTS As indicated above, desalination project planning involves extensive technical and financial evaluation of a large number of factors including investment and energy costs, site requirements, the choice of desalination process, the quality of feed water, and the quantity and quality of desalinated water needed. Actual construction costs for a desalination plant depend on its production capacity and the type of process selected, as well as plant location and the availability of auxiliary facilities, essential utilities and associated services at or close to the site. Costs will also be influenced by the degree of plant reliability factored into the initial design, an issue that affects the choice of construction materials and projected plant lifetime. Standby capacity included in the design will also impact construction costs, ultimately affecting unit product costs. 1. Capital costs Capital and operating unit costs decline significantly with increasing plant capacity. Upper capacity limits are around 11,000 m3/d for brackish water and 19,000 m3/d for seawater.83 Beyond these limits, only
A.A. Bushnak, Water supply challenge in the Gulf region, Desalination, vol. 78 (1990), pp. 133-145, originally quoted in ESCWA, Development of non-conventional water resources (E/ESCWA/ENR/1997/9/Rev.1), and ESCWA, Water desalination in selected ESCWA countries: opportunities and constraints, a paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, Amman, 2-5 October 1995 (E/ESCWA/ENR/1995/WG.1/14).
83
76
minor cost reductions are attainable with increasing plant size. It is essential to note that the rate of cost reduction with increasing plant size is more significant for thermal processes than for RO or ED. In brackish water desalination, capital costs for RO and ED facilities are about equal. Direct and indirect capital cost items are briefly described in frame 4.1. A list of capital costs for a variety of desalination plants, as reported by a number of experts, is presented in table 4.1.
Frame 4.1. Direct and indirect capital costs Direct capital costs include the following: (a) Land cost. Land costs may vary considerably; there may be no sum or nominal sums charged by the municipality and/or sums that depend on location and other site attributes. Government-owned plants are normally constructed on public land, entailing no charges. Plants constructed under build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) contracts with Governments or municipalities may also be built on very highly reduced or free land; (b) Well supply. Recent estimates indicate that costs for well construction are around $650 per metre of depth. Average well capacities are estimated at around 500 m3/d; (c) Process equipment. This is one of the higher-cost items, though amounts naturally depend on process type and capacity. The cost of process equipment may be under $1,000 for a laboratory-scale RO unit operating on low-salinity tap water; however, equipment costs for a 100,000 m3/d RO system could total as much as $50 million. Equipment costs for MSF and MED processes are higher than those for RO processes and currently average around $40 million for units with a capacity of 27,000 m3/d. The items comprising process equipment include instrumentation and control equipment, pipelines and valves, electric wiring, pumps, process cleaning systems, and pre- and post-treatment equipment; (d) Auxiliary equipment. Cost items under this heading normally include open intakes or wells, transmission piping, storage tanks, generators and transformers, pumps, pipelines and valves. Cost reductions are possible if local materials and other local inputs are used. Care would have to be taken to ensure compatibility with operational conditions, overall design criteria and planning schedules; (e) Building cost. Building costs vary widely, ranging from $100 to $1,000/m2 of surface area. Actual costs are sitespecific and depend on the type of construction opted for. This item normally includes facilities such as the control room, laboratory, offices, and mechanical, electrical and electronics workshops; (f) Membrane cost. The cost of membrane modules depends on plant capacity and ranges between $500 and $1,000 per module, with production rates of 50-100 m3/d. Indirect capital costs include the following:a/ (a) Freight and insurance. These costs amount to around 5 per cent of total direct costs. Freight and insurance costs may cover only imported items; however, it may be necessary to ensure the delivery and commissioning of locally produced items; (b) Construction overhead. This is estimated at around 15 per cent of direct material and labour costs, then adjusted for plant size. Construction overhead costs include labour, fringe benefits, field supervision, temporary facilities (canteen, common room, recreational facilities, rest rooms and so on), construction equipment, tools, miscellaneous items, and contractors profits; (c) Owners costs. Owners costs essentially comprise engineering and legal fees. This cost is worked out at around 10 per cent of direct material and labour costs, then adjusted for plant size; (d) Contingencies. Project contingency is estimated at around 10 per cent of total direct costs. ____________________
a/ Cost items in this category are best expressed as percentages of the total direct capital cost.
77
TABLE 4.1. CAPITAL COSTS FOR VARIOUS DESALINATION PROCESSES (United States dollars)
Reference Matz and Fisher (1981) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Leitner (1999) Matz and Fisher (1981) Veza (1995) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Morin (1993) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Morin (1993) Morin (1993) Hammond and others (1994) Process RO RO RO RO MVC MVC MSF MSF MSF MED MED MED MED-TVC MED vertical stack Cost 9.24 x 105 49.7 x 106 53.3 x 106 98 x 106 8.94 x 105 1.586 x 106 60.5 x 106 72.6 x 106 76.817 x 106 70.4 x 106 67.2 x 106 35.05 x 106 34.65 x 106 187.1 x 106 Cost (m3/d) 924 1 313.1 1 665.6 1 035 894 1 322 1 598 2 269 1 690 1 860 2 100 1 562 1 524 548 Capacity (m3/d) 1 000 37 850 32 000 94 625a/ 1 000 1 200 37 850 32 000 45 460 37 850 32 000 22 730 22 730 340 956
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; MSF = multistage flash; MED = multiple effect distillation; MED-TVC = multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression. a/ Low-salinity feed ranges from 26,000 to 30,000 ppm.
2. Operating and maintenance costs Costs of energy, labour, chemicals, consumables, spare parts, and major replacements or refurbishment required over the lifetime of the plant are included in operational and maintenance costs. Energy efficiency may be enhanced, but only with additional capital investment, mainly in know-how and equipment. Energy costs account for about 20-30 per cent of unit product water costs.84 In general, for lowsalinity water (with TDS of less than 3,000 ppm), ED is the most energy-efficient process for the production of potable water. As feed water salinity increases, RO takes over as the most energy-efficient process. Thermal technologies become superior only when low-cost steam, such as that available from power plants, is available. A brief description of some of the more important operating costs for desalination plants is provided below. Operating costs in desalination processes Operating costs cover all expenditures incurred during actual operation following plant commissioning. The costs of energy, labour, chemicals, spare parts, and other miscellaneous items fall into this category. Information relating to the items and current cost estimates are provided below. Energy. The cost of energy supplied to desalination plants varies widely. Electrical energy costs may range between $0.04 and $0.09 per kWh, depending on a number of factors. The upper limit is characteristic of plants in Europe, while the lower values are more commonly encountered in the GCC countries and the United States. Table 4.2 provides an indication of energy costs for a variety of plants, as reported by various authors.
84
Estimated on the basis of international energy prices.
78
TABLE 4.2. ENERGY COSTS FOR VARIOUS DESALINATION PROCESSES

Reference Matz and Fisher (1981) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Zimerman (1994) Veza (1995) Zimerman (1994) Matz and Fisher (1981) de Gunzbourg and Larger (1998) Morin (1993) Hammond and others (1994) Leitner (1992) Morin (1993) Wade (1993) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Morin (1993) Process RO RO RO RO MVC MVC MVC MED-ABS MED-TVC MED vertical stack MED MED MED MSF MSF MSF Cost (US$/year) 1.71 x 106 4.3 x 106 6.261 x 106 1.971 x 106 1.68 x 105 2.69 x 106 3.42 x 105 5.21 x 105 5.658 x 106 13.65 x 106 1 x 106 3.719 x 106 1.2059 x 107 4.3 x 106 1.1539 x 107 1.2453 x 107 Cost (US$/m3) 0.52 0.35 0.63 0.3 1.057 0.41 0.52 0.165 0.758 0.129 0.08 0.49 1.147 0.35 1.098 0.88 Capacity (m3/d) 1 000 37 850 32 000 20 000 500 20 000 2 000 9 600 22 730 340 956 37 850 22 730 32 000 37 850 32 000 45 461
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; MED-ABS = multiple effect distillation with absorption heat pump; MED-TVC = multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression; MED = multiple effect distillation; MSF = multistage flash.
Labour. This is another site-specific item, with actual costs depending on factors such as plant ownership (public or private) and local conditions. Recent trends generally favour contracting operational and maintenance duties out to specialized companies. This can reduce the number of full-time staff, which may include a plant director and a small team of experienced engineers and technicians. One disadvantage of this trend, particularly when operations are handed over to foreign firms, is that little operational experience is accumulated at the national level. Such experience may be valuable in situations where the construction and operation of additional facilities over time is expected. Membrane replacement. Membrane replacement rates may range between 5 and 20 per cent. The lower limit applies to low-salinity brackish water when the system is supported by proper operational and pretreatment procedures. The upper limit tends to apply in situations where high-salinity seawater is used (as in the Gulf States) or where operational procedures are relatively poor and pretreatment is inadequate (see table 4.3). TABLE 4.3. MEMBRANE REPLACEMENT COSTS
Reference Matz and Fisher (1981) Darwish and others (1990) Wade (1993) Leitner (1992) Leitner (1992) Cost (US$/year) 2.7 x 105 5.6 x 103 2.7 x 106 2.5 x 104 1.9 x 106 Cost (US$/m3) 0.81 0.17 0.27 0.19 0.153 Capacity (m3/d) 1 000 100 32 000 400 37 850
Maintenance and spare parts. This cost item can be assigned a value of less than 2 per cent of the total capital cost (used as a yearly rate). Insurance. Insurance is generally rated at 0.5 per cent of the total capital cost. Amortization or fixed charges. This item relates to annual payments covering total direct and indirect costs. It is obtained by multiplying the total direct and indirect costs by the amortization factor. The relationship given in the formula in section C of this chapter is used to compute the amortization factor.
79
Experience indicates that amortization over 30 years is adequate. The interest rate is generally factored in at an average of around 5 per cent; however, values in the range of 3-8 per cent may also be considered in relation to local factors. Chemicals. The cost of chemicals used in feed treatment and cleaning operations, including sulphuric acid, caustic soda, antiscaling agents and chlorine, is generally higher for membrane processes than for thermal processes. The cost of chemicals may exceed 20 per cent of total operating costs for RO plants, while comparable costs for MSF facilities may be around half this amount. Experience seems to indicate that the cost of chemicals is largely a function of the operators skill and commitment to cost reduction. Strategies for reducing chemical costs can only be developed through efforts to achieve process optimization, with emphasis on site and plant design.85 The availability of nearby manufacturing plants will reduce item costs. Price fluctuations in the global market constitute an important factor when chemicals need to be imported. The extent of chemical treatment depends on TBT and feed salinity, indicating site specificity for this cost item. Table K.2 in annex K provides estimates for the unit costs of chemicals used in thermal and membrane desalination, dosing rates, and specific rates per unit volume of product water, while table 4.4, below, shows the cost of chemicals for a variety of plants, as reported by a number of authors. TABLE 4.4. CHEMICAL COSTS FOR VARIOUS DESALINATION PROCESSES
Reference Matz and Fisher (1981) Darwish and others (1990) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Zimerman (1994) Zimerman (1994) Darwish and others (1990) Matz and Fisher (1981) de Gunzbourg and Larger (1998) Hammond and others (1994) Leitner (1992) Morin (1993) Wade (1993) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Morin (1993) Process RO RO RO RO RO MVC MVC MVC MED-ABS MED vertical stack MED MED MED MSF MSF MSF Cost (US$/m3) 0.11 0.35 0.07 0.33 0.07 0.05 0.025 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.024 0.0606 0.207 0.024 0.207 0.058 Capacity (m3/d) 1 000 100a/ 37 850 32 000 20 000 20 000 100 (chlorination antiscalant) 1 000 9 600 340 956 37 850 22 730 32 000 37 850 32 000 45 461
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; MED-ABS = multiple effect distillation with absorption heat pump; MED = multiple effect distillation; MSF = multistage flash. a/ Chlorination, acid treatment, caustic soda and dechlorination.
3. Labour costs Labour costs constitute 15-30 per cent of operation and maintenance costs, depending on the type, size and location of the plant and the skill of the operators. Plant automation is desirable, in general, to enhance overall plant reliability but may not be economical in smaller plants.
M.A. Al-Sofi, Water scarcitythe challenge of the future, Proceedings of the First Water Gulf Conference, Dubai, 1014 October 1993; originally quoted in ESCWA, Water desalination in selected ESCWA countries: opportunities and constraints, a paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, Amman, 2-5 October 1995 (E/ESCWA/ENR/1995/WG.1/14).
85
80
4. Water source and production costs The nature and quality of feed water greatly influence overall costs. Seawater desalination using either thermal evaporation or RO technologies may be from three to seven times more expensive than brackish water desalination using RO or ED processes. Thermal technologies tend to be more costly, regardless of feed water quality, because of the larger amount of energy required to vaporize, rather than simply filter, the water.86 In all cases, costs will depend to a large extent on pre- and post-treatment requirements. Pretreatment considerations are especially important in RO systems. Beach wells tend to be preferable to the open sea as a source of feed water for RO plants. When plant location and ground conditions allow the use of beach wells, the cost of drilling and properly protecting and maintaining a beach well could constitute a considerable proportion of total plant costs. 5. Financing costs Desalination plants require major initial capital outlays that need to be depreciated over a plants operational lifetime, estimated at around 30 years. Hence, capital costs play a significant role in determining unit product cost.87 In dual-purpose facilities cost allocations for the two major components (water and power) affect unit product cost. C. COMPARISON OF UNIT PRODUCT COSTS FOR PRINCIPAL DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES As indicated above, water production costs vary widely depending on plant size and energy input costs. In general, costs decrease with increased plant capacity. The costs reported for desalination plants in the Gulf countries tend to be lower than those quoted for other countries around the world because of the minimal energy charges in the former. The cost of water production ranges from $0.48 to $2.20/m3 in Saudi Arabia, from $1.00 to $1.45/m3 in the United Arab Emirates, and from $1.14 to $1.64/m3 in Qatar.88 Relatively recent information89 on the cost of desalination using RO technology quotes a figure of $0.68/m3.90 This estimate is based on production of around 50 MCM/year. The cost of desalination within the framework of a proposed scheme to link the Dead Sea and Mediterranean Sea is quoted as $0.42/m3, based on production in the range of 800 MCM/year.91 V. Van der Mast and M. May92 of the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company prepared a conceptual economic analysis in 1994 to compare seawater desalination costs for MSF, MED and RO plants with a nominal capacity of 100,000 m3/d, to be constructed in the Gulf region. The assumptions included in table 4.5 were adopted to determine product water cost.
A.A. Bushnak, Water supply challenge in the Gulf region, Desalination, vol. 78 (1990), pp. 133-145; originally quoted in ESCWA, Development of non-conventional water resources (E/ESCWA/ENR/1997/9/Rev.1), and ESCWA, Water desalination in selected ESCWA countries: opportunities and constraints, a paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, Amman, 2-5 October 1995 (E/ESCWA/ENR/1995/WG.1/14).
87 88 86
It should be remembered here that capital cost contributions account for 50-60 per cent of unit product costs.
ESCWA, Water desalination in selected ESCWA countries: opportunities and constraints, a paper presented at the Expert Group Meeting on the Implications of Agenda 21 for Integrated Water Management in the ESCWA Region, Amman, 2-5 October 1995 (E/ESCWA/ENR/1995/WG.1/14).
89 The information presented here is taken from a table in Middle East Economic Digest (special report on water, vol. 44, No. 4, 28 January 2000, p. 12) listing the cost of a number of options for providing fresh water in the region, including water transportation from nearby countries such as Turkey.
In this respect, it is claimed that the cost of a typical RO plant is around $3 million per MCM of annual capacity, regardless of location.
91 92
90
No technology is specified in relation to this estimate.
V. Van der Mast and S. May, Comparison of desalination processes, a presentation by the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (Riyadh, 1994), p. 29.
81
TABLE 4.5. ECONOMIC FACTORS CONSIDERED IN ESTIMATING DESALINATION COSTS IN THE GULF REGION
Annual fixed charge Interest Plant load factor Average labour cost Electricity Extraction steam Scale inhibitor Sulphuric acid Chlorine Ferric chloride Sodium bisulphite Spare parts 12.79% 11% 0.9 US$ 9 per hour US$ 0.075/kWh US$ 1.5/million Btu US$ 3/kg US$ 0.075/kg US$ 0.15/kg US$ 0.6/kg US$ 0.3/kg 2% of equipment costs
Source: V. Van der Mast and S. May, Comparison of desalination processes, a presentation by the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (Riyadh, June 1994), p. 29.
The fixed rate was determined by adding the taxes and insurance to the capital recovery factor, which is calculated using the formula CRF = i [(1+i)n / (1+i)n 1], where i represents the annual interest rate and n represents the plants useful life. A value of 11 per cent was established for i and a value of 20 years was used for n. Costs for MSF, MED and RO systems to be constructed in the Gulf region were worked out on the basis of the above assumptions; the results are summarized in tables 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8, respectively. TABLE 4.6. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A MULTISTAGE FLASH PLANT WITH A 100,000 M3/DAY CAPACITY
Cost item Cost (thousands of US dollars) Percentage of total annual cost Capital cost 190 000 Fixed charge 24 301 47.8% Energy: extraction steam 13 538 Energy: electrical power 5 543 Energy subtotal 19 180 37.6% Chemicals: chlorine 42 Chemicals: antifoam 7 Chemicals: antiscalant 1 387 Other chemicals 1 044 Chemical subtotal 2 480 4.9% Labour 1 125 2.2% Spare parts 3 800 7.5% Total annual cost 50 787 100% Product water cost (US$/m3) 1.55 Source: V. Van der Mast and S. May, Comparison of desalination processes, a presentation by the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (Riyadh, 1994), p. 29.
TABLE 4.7. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A MULTIPLE EFFECT DISTILLATION PLANT WITH 3 A 100,000 M /DAY CAPACITY
Cost item Capital cost Fixed charge Energy: extraction steam Energy: electrical power Energy subtotal Chemicals: chlorine Chemicals: antifoam Chemicals: antiscalant Other chemicals Chemical subtotal Labour Spare parts Total annual cost Product water cost (US$/m3) Cost (thousands of US dollars) 180 000 23 022 18 832 2 204 21 036 42 7 1 387 1 044 2 480 1 125 3 600 51 263 1.32 Percentage of total annual cost 44.9% 41.0%
4.8% 2.2% 7.0% 100%
Source: V. Van der Mast and S. May, Comparison of desalination processes, a presentation by the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (Riyadh, 1994), p. 29.
82
TABLE 4.8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT WITH A 100,000 M3/DAY CAPACITY
Cost item Capital cost Fixed charge rate Energy: electrical power Chemicals: chlorine Chemicals: coagulant Chemicals: polymer Chemicals: sodium bisulphite Chemicals: antiscalant Chemicals: sulphuric acid Post-treatment chemicals Chemical subtotal Membranes Labour Spare parts Total annual cost Product water cost (US$/m3) Cost (thousands of US dollars) 170 000 21 743 7 133 42 127 79 222 1 586 166 1 044 3 266 4 074 1 125 3 400 40 741 1.24 Percentage of total annual cost 53% 18%
8% 10% 3% 8% 100%
Source: V. Van der Mast and S. May, Comparison of desalination processes, a presentation by the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Company (Riyadh, 1994), p. 29.
The tables indicate that MSF plants have the highest unit product cost, at $1.55/m3, followed by MED, at $1.32/m3, and RO, at $1.24/m3. It should be noted, however, that these values derive from a somewhat hypothetical exercise and that actual costs would vary in accordance with a number of factors that could not be taken into account in this analysis. Frames 4.2 and 4.3 provide a brief review of the economics of RO and thermal desalination processes. Annex B includes some information on economic considerations associated with an RO plant in the Syrian Arab Republic and a power/desalination cogeneration plant in Saudi Arabia.
Frame 4.2. Notes on the economics of reverse osmosis process Unit product costs for RO facilities depend largely on plant capacity. Recent field estimates show a unit cost of $0.55/m3 for a large RO plant producing more than 113,600 m3/d in the American State of Florida, while data on smaller RO units in Cyprus indicate unit product costs of $0.83 and $1.22/m3 for plants with capacities of 40,000 and 20,000 m3/d, respectively. Irrespective of plant capacity, the RO process represents the optimal choice for the desalination of low-salinity water; a good illustration of this is another RO plant in Florida with a capacity of around 95,000 m3/d and feed water salinity of less than 30,000 ppm. The accumulation of experience has led to reduced material costs, mainly through technological innovation and improved economies of scale, and this has also been reflected in reduced RO unit product costs over the years. A comparison of costs quoted by G. Leitner in 1992 and 1998 and by N.M. Wade in 1993 support this assertion.a/ Critical parameters in RO unit product cost evaluation include fixed charges, or amortization, annual energy charges and membrane replacement costs; items such as chemicals, maintenance and labour appear to have less of an impact on unit product costs. Recent analyses indicate equal shares for fixed charges, power, and membrane replacementbut drastic reductions in the shares of chemical and labour costsin unit product costs for the RO process. Table 4.3 provides a sample of membrane replacement costs for various RO plants, as reported by a number of authors. ____________________
a/ G. Leitner, Editors corner, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 8 (1998), p. 2; G. Leitner, Water desalination: What are todays costs?, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 2 (1992), pp. 39-43; and N.M. Wade, Technical and economic evaluation of distillation and reverse osmosis desalination processes, Desalination, vol. 93 (1993), pp. 343-363.
83
Frame 4.3. Notes on the economics of thermal processes As shown by a comparison of the data in table 4.1 and table K.1 (annex K), variations in plant capacity affect capital investment, capital costs and unit product costs. Unit product costs are higher for MSF, MED and MED-TVC processes than for the RO process, with values averaging $1.50/m3. The highest unit product cost appears to be associated with the MVC system. In 1995, J.M. Vezaa/ quoted a field value of $3.22/m3, an above-average figure attributed to high energy costs. More recent calculations by O.J. Morinb/ indicate a lower unit product cost of around $2.43/m3, which is still considerably higher than that quoted for a variety of other processes. The lowest unit product costs quoted in table K.1 in annex K are for two novel configurations, namely, the MED vertical stack and an MED process operated in combination with an absorption heat pump. At around 341,000 m3/d, the capacity of the vertical stack system is the largest cited in the table. The other configuration is a prototype unit with a performance ratio of 21, a much higher figure than that quoted for conventional processes; such ratios generally fall within the range 8-16 for the MED system with or without thermal vapour compression. Fixed charges and energy costs represent 40-50 per cent of the total unit product cost in MSF and MED processes. The optimal choice for the desalination of higher-salinity feed water depends on capacity requirements. In general, the MSF process is best for capacities higher than 25,000 m3/d, the MED process for capacities averaging 10,000 m3/d, and the MVC process for capacities averaging 3,000 m3/d. ____________________
a/ J.M. Veza, Mechanical vapour compression desalination plantsa case study, Desalination, vol. 101 (1995), pp. 1-10. b/ O.J. Morin, Desalting plant cost update2000, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, vol. III (San Diego, CA, 1999), pp. 341-359.
Figure 4.2 provides a graphic representation of differences in unit product cost relative to unit capacity for five desalination technologies as well as a novel process based on a variation of MED technology. Table K.1 in annex K lists the data used in constructing this figure.93 The figure indicates that RO plant costs decrease with unit capacity, and the same appears to be true for MVC plants; insufficient data preclude a similar conclusion with regard to the other technologies. Figure 4.2 Unit product cost versus unit capacity for major desalination processes
Unit product cost (US$/m3) 5 Novel Process MVC RO MSF MED MED-TVC
0 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 Unit capacity (m3/d)
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: MVC = mechanical vapour compression; RO = reverse osmosis; MSF = multistage flash; MED = multiple effect distillation; MED-TVC = multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression.
Several data points (those listed in the shaded rows in table K.1 in annex K) could not be included in this figure owing to their extreme capacity values or to the unavailability of a capacity value.
93
84
D. DESALINATION COSTS FOR HYBRID AND COGENERATION FACILITIES Enhancing the efficiency of basic desalination operations by introducing process modifications or by coupling a desalination plant with a power generation facility will ultimately be reflected in reduced unit product costs. 1. Hybrid desalination processes Hybrid designs combine two or more basic desalination technologies, generally to reduce energy requirements. For example, combining a VC system with a single-stage VTE or HTME system increases efficiency by about 30 per cent, and a four-effect HTME plant equipped with a thermal vapour compressor is nearly twice as efficient as one without. Other possible combinations include VTE-MSF, VTE-MSF-VC and HTME-VC. RO may also be combined with other distillation processes, including MSF or HTME. All such combinations are capable of improving economic performance (lowering unit product production costs).94 2. Cogeneration processes Desalination costs can also be reduced by capitalizing on an existing supply of energy, such as that provided by power stations. This is particularly feasible for seawater distillation plants, which require lowtemperature steam as the heat source (TBT may not exceed 120-130 C because of the risk of enhanced corrosion and scaling at higher temperatures). Using steam from an adjacent power station is advantageous from a thermodynamic perspective. In these situations, high-pressure steam is first used to produce electricity, and the exhaust from the turbine serves as the heat source for the distillation plant. There are economic and technical incentives and disincentives for pairing power and seawater desalination plants; this is true for both thermal desalination and RO facilities. The incentives often cited include the following: (a) Larger unit size options. Depending on electricity demand, relatively large power plants may be installed, allowing producers to take advantage of economies of scale; (b) Common use of basic facilities and infrastructure. Power and desalination plants can often share basic facilities that might otherwise have to be duplicated; (c) Staff sharing. Certain facilities and service operations in the power and desalination plants require staff with similar qualifications. This should allow staff sharing and consequent savings in personnel costs, in particular for administrative and maintenance staff; (d) Improved dispersion of effluents. Co-location allows the mixing of warm condenser cooling water with the more saline and higher-density brine blow-down. Since such a mixture possesses densities closer to that of seawater, rapid dispersion of effluents can be achieved with reduced risks to the ecosystem. Arguments against co-location might include the following: (a) Effects of accidents. Accidents interrupting the output of either the power or desalination plant may affect the operation of the other. It is possible to minimize such risks by, for instance, adding back-up boilers to supply the distillation plant with steam, and thermal energy, during power plant outages. It is also possible to modify the steam power cycle in the power plant so that it will continue to operate should the desalination plant be shut down. It should be noted, however, that such solutions would require additional investment;
International Atomic Energy Agency, Thermodynamic and economic evaluation of co-production plants for electricity and potable water (Vienna, May 1997) (IAEA-TECDOC-942).
94
85
(b) Reduced overall flexibility. For a combined power/desalination plant, optimal performance is generally attained when the plant operates under rated conditions. Certain designs provide for some flexibility in the water-to-electricity ratio to satisfy variations in demand. However, this is generally achieved at the expense of production efficiency or may entail additional investment. E. CONCLUDING REMARKS Salient issues affecting the economics of desalination are considered in this chapter. The methodology used to assess desalination economics is reviewed and the cost factors involved in desalination processes are summarized, with reference, wherever possible, to issues of interest to operators in the ESCWA region. Direct and indirect costs are addressed in some detail, with mention made of outlays for buildings and other fixed assets, equipment (essential and auxiliary), spare parts, membrane modules and membrane materials, and other components and factors that determine total expenditure. Issues pertaining to the cost of financing are also considered. Almost all of the literature dealing with desalination economics stresses the fact that costs may vary widely depending on actual conditions. Whatever technology is to be used, unit product cost will be influenced by factors such as location, feed water salinity levels and the availability of skilled and unskilled labour. This precludes the possibility of placing a universal unit product cost tag on any of the various technologies available. The use of hybrid technologies and cogeneration render efforts to establish a universal cost even more complex and less rewarding. The above notwithstanding, unit product price data from a considerable number of sources are reviewed in reference to the various desalination technologies and in relation to plant capacities. Comparative unit product costs for the principal desalination technologies are presented in reference to a standard capacity 100,000 m3/d. The factors considered in estimating desalination costs, particularly in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, are also outlined. As mentioned above and emphasized in the chapter, it is necessary, in working out desalination economics, to take into account the variable local conditions in order to arrive at well-defined assumptions. It is also important to note that unit product costs have gone down considerably. Technological progress and increased competition have brought unit product prices down to a mere one quarter to one third of the levels recorded two decades ago. Further unit price reductions may be expected worldwide. For the ESCWA member countries, the level of such reductions will depend on the degree to which local capacity is built for technology development and dissemination. In this regard, attention should be focused on developing capabilities in the following: (a) The domestic manufacture of desalination plant components; (b) The acquisition of skills in modern control and management; (c) The further development of available technologies through the incorporation of local innovations designed for optimal compatibility with local conditions. One important issue that seems to have received limited attention thus far, at least in the ESCWA member countries, is the hidden environmental costs of desalination activity. There are already indications that coastal desalination plants are causing drastic changes in coastal marine ecologies. Unfortunately, most of the methods currently used to work out desalination economics give little consideration to environmental implications and the need to further process high-temperature saline effluents prior to their discharge. While ignoring the environmental impact of desalination plant effluents may have been permissible in the past, future capacity expansion could mean widerand irreversibledamage.
86
V. RECENT TRENDS AND EXPECTED FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES An overview of prospects for the development of water desalination technologies is presented below.95 A number of technical bottlenecks are evident in both thermal and membrane technologies. Because of their established market position, thermal processes are designed and built with redundancies to ensure continued operation; this appears to be particularly true of the MSF process. However, for both MSF and MED thermal distillation systems, there are major problems in need of attention in the areas of research, development and engineering, including the high levels of investment needed for plant erection and commissioning, total energy requirements, and material corrosion. For VC systems, high energy consumption and small unit capacities are viewed as the main technical drawbacks. The size of the available compressors essentially determines VC unit capacity. With increasing capacities and volume flows, rotor blades become too large and relatively uneconomical to handle. Consequently, larger VC units will not constitute a viable option in the near future. Prospects for RO development appear more promising, but this process has certain areas requiring attention as well, centring on feed water pretreatment and membrane fouling. Several solutions to pretreatment problems seem to be available, though none is yet without its own set of minor drawbacks. Further R and D work is needed to address membrane fouling. Nonetheless, there have been important improvements in membrane materials during the past few years, and further significant advances are expected. The main objectives of current R and D in this area are longer membrane lifetimes, lower energy consumption, greater cost-effectiveness and, consequently, wider dissemination of RO technology. With regard to energy consumption, in particular, savings are expected, but no major breakthroughs are foreseen. ED technology appears to have been fully developed for brackish water use; a long-term objective could be to further develop the process for use with seawater. Table 5.1 summarizes some of the most frequently cited technical drawbacks in desalination processes and provides notes on current R and D efforts and spending. A brief overview of R and D activity in desalination technologies is given in section B. TABLE 5.1. TECHNICAL BOTTLENECKS OF DESALINATION PROCESSES
Process MSF/MED MSF MSF VC VC RO RO RO Technical bottleneck Corrosion and materials improvement Scaling Energy consumptiona/ Compressor problems (reliability/costs) Small unit capacity Pretreatment (scaling and fouling) Fouling Membrane systemsb/ R and D efforts Medium Medium Medium Medium Low Medium Medium High R and D budget Medium Medium High High Low Low Low Medium
Source: Adapted from J. Ribeiro, Desalination technology: survey and prospects (Seville, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN). a/ Optimization with regard to the use of electrical energy and the improvement of heat exchanger designs. b/ The design of membrane materials and system configurations that allow higher throughput and lower pressure losses.
The information provided in this chapter is based on a survey as well as expert panel discussions undertaken to assess prospective technological developments in the field of desalination and to evaluate key techno-economic characteristics around and beyond 2015, as reported by J. Ribeiro in Desalination technology: survey and prospects (European Commission, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN).
95
87
A. TRENDS IN THERMAL PROCESSES Over the years, efforts to develop thermal desalination processes have focused on the following: (a) Increasing the production capacity of various thermal configurations; (b) Enhancing plant efficiencies by allowing operation at higher temperatures; (c) Incorporating higher-performance brine circulation schemes in MSF designs; (d) Shifting to various low-cost construction materials; (e) Replacing shell and tube units with plate evaporators/condensers for single and multiple effect distillation processes; (f) Using absorption heat pumps and alternative VC processes in single and multiple effect distillation systems. A review of these developments and possibilities for their wider adoption in the industry is presented below. 1. Increasing unit capacities During the past four decades increases in process capacities have been restricted by technological limitations relating to the manufacture of larger pumps and tubes of special materials and dimensions. Efforts in this area will continue, however, as raising process capacity represents an excellent means of improving process economics.96 MSF capacities have undergone remarkable growth in the past half century or so; table 5.2 and figure 5.1 indicate an increase from 2,273 m3/d in 1957 to levels ranging between 27,276 and 57,734 m3/d in 1996. Between 1957 and 1965, capacity doubled from 2,273 to 4,546 m3/d, and the number of stages rose from 4 to 24. Further capacity increases took place in the late 1960s, with unit output rising to 18,184 m3/d by 1970. Capacities of between 27,276 and 32,731 m3/d were first achieved in the mid-1980s. Units within this capacity range dominate the MSF market today. Nevertheless, units with a capacity of 57,735 m3/d appeared in 1996 and have been installed in the United Arab Emirates. TABLE 5.2. MULTISTAGE FLASH CAPACITY, NUMBER OF STAGES, AND PERFORMANCE RATIO
Year 1957 1960 1960 1962 1965 1968 1970 1978 1985 1986 1996 Number of stages 4 19 40 40 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 Capacity (m3/d) 2 273 4 546 2 773 4 546 4 546 9 092 18 184 22 730 27 276 32 731 57 734 Performance ratio 3.3 5.7 10 10 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9
96 Recent estimates show that doubling process capacity can lead to a cost reduction of 20 per cent (K. Wangnick, K. Genthner and D.M. Al-Gobaisi, The next size generation of MSF evaporators: 100,000 m3/d; II. design and cost aspects, material selection, Proceedings: IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Madrid, 6-9 October 1997, vol. I, pp. 295-324).
88
Figure 5.1. Increases in multistage flash desalination unit capacity, 1957-1996

60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0
19 57 19 60 19 61 19 62 19 65 19 68 19 70 19 78 19 85 19 86 19 96
Source: Based on H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001.
Similar developments have taken place with regard to SEE and MED processes. The first MVC units had capacities of between 50 and 500 m3/d in the early 1980s; today, standard unit capacities range from 3,000 to 5,000 m3/d. MED unit capacities have increased from 500 to 12,000 m3/d. Conceptual designs for very large MSF and MED plants have been prepared by various investigators.97 A vertical MED system with a capacity of 340,000 m3/d has been proposed,98 and similar large-scale designs have been developed for the MSF process. A design by Borsani and others99 utilizes long condenser tubes, a flashing stage with more than one tube bundle and two trays for flashing brine, allowing production capacities ranging from 1 MCM to 2 MCM/d. In the late 1990s, Wangnick and others100 proposed the manufacture (on-site welding) of tubes around 30 metres in length for a conceptual design intended to produce around 100,000 m3/d. Indications are that such a system would reduce investment costs by roughly 20 per cent and water production costs by almost 24 per cent. Despite these and other advantages, the thermal performance ratio for large-capacity units is similar to that for 27,276 m3/d units, with a value of around 8. A major drawback associated with the larger capacities is the high cost of standby units, which are needed owing to the strategic nature of the product. As unit capacity increases, so must the capacity of standby units, driving up initial investment and possibly offsetting the savings accruing from the increase in unit size. 2. Enhancing multistage flash performance The performance ratio for the MSF system increased rapidly during the early period of its development. As shown in table 5.2, a performance ratio range of 7-9 was registered upon system
A.M. El-Nashar and A.A. Qamhiyeh, Simulation of the steady-state operation of a multi-effect stack seawater distillation plant, Desalination, vol. 101 (1995), pp. 231-243; J. Weinberg and A. Ophir, Ashdod experience and other dual purpose desalination plants based on multi effect desalination with aluminum tubes, a paper prepared for the Symposium on Desalination of Seawater with Nuclear Energy, Taejon, Republic of Korea, May 1997; and F. Pepp and others, The vertical MWD-MED (multieffect distillation) process, Proceedings: IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Madrid, 6-9 October 1997, vol. I.
98 This design was intended to provide a cheap supply of fresh water in arid areas and during extended drought periods in southern California. 97
R. Borsani and others, MSF desalination: the myth of the largest unitsome technical and economical evaluation, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Sciences, Abu Dhabi, November 1995.
100 K. Wangnick, K. Genthner D.M. and Al-Gobaisi, The next size generation of MSF evaporators: 100,000 m3/d; II. design and cost aspects, material selection, Proceedings: IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Madrid, 6-9 October 1997, vol. I, pp. 295-324.
99
89
optimization in 1965. Apparently, 40-stage units designed during the period 1960-1962 with a performance ratio of 10 were less economical than those with a smaller number of stages and a lower performance ratio. A compromise was struck, and the market, to this day, is dominated by 24-stage systems with performance ratios of between 7 and 9. If such units are properly operated and maintained, performance ratios can average very close to 9 over relatively long operating periods (more than two years).101 It has been reported102 that 45-stage MSF units with a capacity of 17,280 m3/d and a performance ratio of 13 are being constructed in Italy. Further field results will offer more precise data, but present indications are that such units could provide more than 50 per cent savings in heating steam; this should take the MSF unit product cost down to around $0.90 m3/d, rendering the MSF process even more attractive in tomorrows market. These systems would be particularly useful for areas in need of installations with higher production capacities. 3. Operation at high temperatures Operating desalination plants at higher temperatures and simultaneously preventing scale formation would enhance the performance ratio considerably. A reduction in specific power consumption and a decrease in the specific heat transfer area, two of the more immediate advantages, would naturally translate into lower unit product costs.103 An analysis conducted by H.T. El-Dessouky, H.I. Shaban and H. Al-Ramadan in 1995104 shows that an increase in TBT from 90o to 110o C results in the following: (a) A 20 per cent decrease in the specific heat transfer area; (b) A 13 per cent increase in the thermal performance ratio; (c) An 18 per cent decrease in the brine recycle flow rate. MSF plants operating in the GCC countries offer examples of developments along these lines. Many such plants were originally designed with a dual capacity of 27,277 m3/d at a TBT of 90o C or 32,732 m3/d at 106o-110o C. Around two decades ago these plants were operated at the lower temperature. Now, however, they all operate within the higher temperature range to meet increasing water demand,105 a shift made possible by the introduction of continuous online ball cleaning and the use of high-temperature polymer antiscaling agents. As indicated above, operation at higher temperatures is associated with a reduction in specific heat transfer area and power consumption and an increase in the performance ratio, which in turn lowers capital investment and operating costs and ultimately the unit product cost. However, increasing operating temperatures to values above 110o C can enhance scale formation and promote corrosion reactions. Efforts to overcome these problems have given rise to a number of innovations, some of which are examined below.
E. Al-Falah and A. Al-Shuaib, Impact of on-site training on performance of MSF plants: a case study, a paper prepared for the Conference on Desalination Strategies in the Southern Mediterranean Countries, Jerba, Tunisia, 11-13 September 2000.
102 103
101
D. Breschi, private communication, 2000.
Operation at higher temperatures should not affect the overall efficiency of the cogeneration plant. This is because the intake steam entering the MSF unit is originally at a high pressure and temperature of 7 bars and 170o C, respectively. This steam is throttled and de-superheated to a temperature range of 90o-106o C. H. El-Dessouky, H.I. Shaban and H. Al-Ramadan, Steady-state analysis of multi-stage flash desalination process, Desalination, vol. 103 (1995), pp. 271-287.
105 This is illustrated in the performance analysis of the brine circulation MSF system reported by H. El-Dessouky, H.I. Shaban and H. Al-Ramadan, Steady-state analysis of multi-stage flash desalination process, Desalination, vol. 103 (1995), pp. 271287. 104
90
(a)
Feed water pretreatment
Feed water pretreatment can be carried out through the operation of a hybrid NF-MSF or NF-MED system, with the filtration unit used to remove double-charged-ion groups such as Mg2+, Ca2+ and SO42-. Test rigs indicate a high level of reliability and the possibility of increasing the operating temperature to values close to 170o C.106 Some drawbacks of this approach include the additional membrane and system modification costs and the limited experience in operating large-capacity membrane systems. (b) High-temperature antiscaling compounds The use of high-temperature antiscale materials allows operation at elevated temperatures. This rather conventional technique has proved quite feasible. Polyphosphate-based antiscaling formulations were once routinely used with a TBT of 90o C; however, new high-polymer-based antiscale formulations allow operation at around 110o C. The benefits associated with high-temperature desalination are summarized in frame 5.1.
Frame 5.1. Advantages of high-temperature desalination Reference is made in various studies to conceptual designs of single and multiple effect distillation systems operating at high temperatures. The merits of such systems are reported as follows: (a) The specific heat transfer area is reduced by about 50 per cent when the TBT is raised from 60o to 100o C for the MED system;a/ (b) A specific heat transfer area reduction in the 15-20 per cent range and a 40-60 per cent decrease in specific power consumption can be obtained if the TBT is increased from around 50o to 85o C for the single effect MVC system;b/ (c) Superior performance for a conceptual design of the forward feed MED system is outlined in the figure below. The scheme indicates special gains with TBTs between 90o and 110o C.c/ Forward feed multiple effect distillation
Feed Seawater Feed Preheater Steam Jet Ejector NonCondensable Gases Cooling Seawater
Demister Spray Nozzles Heating Steam (1) Evaporator Condensate (2) (n-1) (n)
Intake Seawater
Down Condenser Distillate Brine Blow Down
Flashing Boxes
__________________
a/ H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and F. Mandani, Performance of parallel feed multiple effect evaporation system for seawater desalination, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 20 (2000), pp. 1,679-1,706. b/ H.M. Ettouney, H.T. El-Dessouky and Y. Al-Roumi, Analysis of mechanical vapour compression desalination process, International Journal of Energy Resources, vol. 23 (1999), pp. 431-451. c/ H.T. El-Dessouky and others, Steady-state analysis of the multiple effect evaporation desalination process, Chemical Engineering and Technology, vol. 21 (1998), pp. 437-451.
M.A.K. Al-Sofi and others, Means and merits of higher temperature operation in dual-purpose plants, Desalination, vol. 125 (1999), pp. 213222.
106
91
4. Construction materials (a) Metal construction materials
Conventional construction materials in thermal desalination plants include a variety of both steel- and copper-based alloys. A list of the major alloys used in these plants is presented in table 5.3. TABLE 5.3. MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTING THERMAL DESALINATION PLANTS
Material Copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) 70/30 with a wall thickness of 1-1.2 mm Cu-Ni 90/10 with a wall thickness of 1 mm Stainless steel (SS 316L) Carbon steel Cladding materials such as stainless steel, CuNi 90/10, or polyurethane with carbon steel
2001.
Use To construct tubes at operating temperatures above 80o C To construct tubes in lower temperature evaporators For cladding carbon steel in water boxes As partition walls and floors in evaporators To manufacture partition walls, distillate trays, and evaporator parts to be used at temperatures below 80o C to avoid pitting and crevice corrosion To construct steam and condensate piping To construct evaporator partition walls and floors, deaerator shells, water boxes, and seawater, distillate and brine piping
Source: Adapted from H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January
The materials listed in the table have been used in desalination plants for a number of years; all are relatively inexpensive and have proved highly effective in withstanding the harsh seawater conditions. Recent environmental concerns about the adverse effects of dissolved copper ions in the discharged brine have led to a shift towards the use of construction materials devoid of this metal. New trends in this area include the following: (a) The use of titanium for constructing evaporator tubes operating at temperatures below 80o C. Under such conditions, titanium has high corrosion resistance, and the tubes can be as thin as 0.5 mm; (b) Aluminium-brass tubing for evaporators operating at temperatures below 80o C. These tubes have proved highly successful in single and multiple effect distillation units. In the MED process, the use of aluminium alloys is allowing better heat transfer as well as lighter and cheaper constructions. (b) Plastic construction materials
Incorporating new materials in the construction of desalination plants can solve a number of corrosion problems. Care should naturally be taken to maintain, if not improve, heat exchange economics. Finding substitutes for the copper and copper alloys presently used is a top priority among operators. New materials currently under consideration, in addition to aluminium and titanium, include a number of plastics. Improvements on this front will allow the production of thinner-walled components and tubes, resulting in more efficient heat transfer and reduced construction and material costs. One of the more important arguments made in favour of the wider use of plastics is that the energy consumed in the production of a unit mass of plastics is two times lower than that for metal alternatives such as stainless steel or aluminium. This translates into overall environmental benefits. Other advantages claimed for plastic substitutes in desalination plants include the following: (a) Reduced costs in comparison with conventional metallic materials; estimates indicate considerable savings, with plastics priced five times lower than carbon steel and twenty times lower than stainless steel alternatives;
92
(b) Improved tolerance to chemical attack by acids, oxidizing agents and numerous solvents, allowing operation at a higher TBT (around 120o C), a reduction in specific heat transfer area, and the use of acid cleaning; (c) Higher resistance to mechanical erosion, permitting higher fluid velocities inside tubes; (d) Lightweight designs107 effecting reduced transportation, construction and installation costs; (e) Simpler and less costly forming and machining methods that also translate into reduced construction costs; (f) More efficient condensation and collection of condensate owing to the lower wettability of plastic surfaces. Some of the more frequently cited drawbacks associated with the substitution of metal-based brine heaters, preheaters and condensers with plastic equivalents include the following: (a) The lower thermal conductivity of plastics108 necessitates the use of thin-walled tubes (100 microns) to provide comparable overall heat transfer coefficients; this could lead to part failures; (b) Plastic components tend to age faster than their metal-based counterparts, particularly under hightemperature conditions; (c) Field experience in the use of plastics in desalination plants is limited. Table 5.4, figure 5.2 and table L.1 in annex L list some of the principal characteristics of the materials used in thermal desalination plants. TABLE 5.4. VARIATIONS IN MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS FOR A BRINE BOILING TEMPERATURE OF 70O C O AND CONDENSATE TEMPERATURE OF 72 C
Material 90/10 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE Density (kg/m3) 8 927 8 923 4 500 7 920 1 200 Conductivity (W/mo C) 44.7 29 16.5 19.9 0.25
Sources: Extracted from the study by C.D. Hornburg, B. Todd and A.H. Tuthill, Heat transfer tubing section for MSF desalination plants, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Sciences, Abu Dhabi, November 1995, vol. III, pp. 131-148; and G.F. Hewitt, ed., Heat Exchanger Design Handbook (Begell House, 1998).
5. Plate evaporators The use of plate evaporators instead of the shell and tube configuration is considered one of the more positive developments in thermal desalination technology.109 However, scale formation in plate evaporators necessitates frequent and time-consuming unit cleaning procedures. Further R and D is needed to reduce scale formation and to develop systems that allow in-line cleaning using sponge balls or other suitable devices.
107 108 109
Plastics are, on average, four to five times lighter than their metal counterparts. A factor 100-300 times lower than metals (0.1-0.4 W/mo C).
Plate evaporators/condensers operate over the following ranges: temperatures of 35o-150o C, pressures of 10-15 bar, plate areas of 0.02 - 4.45 m2/plate, flow rates of 3,500 m3/hour, and approach temperatures of 1o C.
93
Figure 5.2. Variations in the characteristics of evaporator and plate preheaters for a brine boiling temperature of 70C and condensate temperature of 72C
700 600 500 Cost pe r m2 ($/m2) Surface area pe r 400 kg (m2/kg) 300 200 100 0 90/10 Cost per m2 ($/m2) 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE Cost per kg ($/kg)
5,000 0 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000
90 80 70
C ost per kg ($/kg)
1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 Cost pe r kg ($/kg)
60 Cost per m2 ($/m2) 50 Surface area pe r 40 kg (m2/kg) 30 20 10 0 90/10 Cost per m2 ($/m2) 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE
Surface area per kg (m2/kg)
Cost per kg ($/kg)
(a) Shell-tube evaporator

90 80 70 60 Cost pe r m2 ($/m2) 50 Surface area per 40 kg (m2/kg) 30 20 10 0 90/10 Cost per m2 ($/m2) 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE
500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
(b) Brine preheater
Cost pe r kg ($/kg)
Cost per kg ($/kg)
(c) Distillate preheater Sources: Extracted from C.D. Hornburg, B. Todd and A.H. Tuthill, Heat transfer tubing section for MSF desalination plants, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Sciences, Abu Dhabi, November 1995, vol. III, pp. 131148; and G.F. Hewitt, ed., Heat Exchanger Design Handbook (Begell House, 1998).
In principle, plate evaporators/condensers can be manufactured from a variety of metals, plastics or polymer-coated metals. The material most commonly used for the commercial production of plate evaporators/condensers is stainless steel; however, plastic units are available with heat transfer areas ranging from 5 to 100 m2, and operating pressures and temperatures of up to 10 bars and 100o C respectively. Newer plate heat exchangers have lower hold-up volumes, smaller space requirements, higher heat transfer coefficients and lower fouling resistance, enhancing efficiency by between 5 and 70 per cent.110 6. Adsorption heat pumps Schemes for single and multiple effect distillation systems combined with adsorption heat pumps have recently been proposed.111 The single effect configuration is shown in figure 5.3. The proposed system uses zeolite beds for the adsorption/desorption of water vapour. This configuration has some environmental advantages. Analyses presented in the studies cited above indicate a thermal performance ratio of close to 10 for the single effect system, a value identical to that of a 12-effect system without vapour compression. A 12effect system combined with an adsorption heat pump has a thermal performance ratio of more than 20.
E.A. Foumeny and P.J. Heggs, Heat Exchange Engineering, Volume 1: Design of Heat Exchangers, Ellis Horwood Series in Chemical Engineering (New York, Ellis Horwood, 1991).
111 H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Simulation of combined multiple effect evaporationvapor compression desalination processes, a paper prepared for the 1st IDA International Desalination Conference in Egypt, Cairo, September 1997; F. Al-Juwayhel, H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Analysis of single-effect evaporator desalination systems combined with vapor compression heat pumps, Desalination, vol. 114 (1997), pp. 253-275; and A. Al-Ansari, H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Water-zeolite adsorption heat pump combined with single effect evaporation desalination process, Renewable Energy (2001).
110
94
Figure 5.3. Single effect evaporator driven by an adsorption heat pump

Formed Vapor Md, Tv Compressed Vapor Md, Ts Desorber, bed I
Demister
Spray Nozzles
mf,
Feed Seawater
Evaporator
Motive Steam Mm, Tm Product Md, Td Circulating Fluid
Mf, Tf
Distillate Feed Preheater Product Md, To
Mcw, Tcw Cooling Seawater Mcw, Tcw o Rejected Adsorber, Brine bed II Mb, Tb
Brine Mb, To Brine Feed Preheater Intake Seawater Mf, Tcw
7. Absorption heat pumps An absorption heat pump can be combined with single or multiple effect distillation systems to achieve higher thermal performance ratios. Figure 5.4 presents a schema for the single effect evaporation system combined with an absorption heat pump. This system consists of an absorber, a stripper or desorber, an evaporator/condenser and a down condenser and has the highest known thermal performance ratio112 (see frame 5.2). Figure 5.4. Schematic of a single effect evaporation system with an absorption heat pump
Entrained Vapor Feed Seawater Absorber Intake Seawater Feed brine Dilute LiBrH2O Solution Heat Exchanger Heating Steam Vapor Down Condenser Condensate Cooling Seawater
Distillate Conc. LiBr-H2O Solution Generator Motive Steam Brine Blow Down
112
J. de Gunzbourg and D. Larger, Cogeneration applied to very high efficiency thermal seawater desalination plants: a concept, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 7, No. 4 (1998), pp. 38-41.
95
Frame 5.2. Improved thermal performance ratio using absorption heat pumps A number of reports present findings pointing to performance gains linked to the use of absorption heat pumps. J. Weinberg, A. Ophir and U. Fisher (1980)a/ evaluated the performance of a combined system incorporating MED, vacuum freezing, and a lithium bromide (LiBr) absorption heat pump. The system was considered capable of enhancing the performance ratio of the multiple effect evaporator to values in the 18-20 range at operating temperatures between 0o and 60o C (low-temperature operation minimizes corrosion and scaling problems). G. Alefeld and F. Ziegler (1985)b/ proposed a fully integrated desalination system with a LiBr-H2O absorption heat pump; the system includes three stages for the processing of seawater and production of fresh water. S.E. Aly (1988)c/ and K. Fathalah and Aly (1991)d/ conducted analyses of a solar-powered LiBr-H2O heat pump intended to generate high-grade steam for the operation of MED desalination systems. Emphasis in the evaluations was placed on the performance of the solar power unit and the air conditioning in the evaporator unit. S. Yanniotis and P.A. Pilavachi (1996)e/ modelled the performance of sodium hydroxide heat pumps in MED systems. The model results were found to be in reasonable agreement with experimental results. F. Al-Juwayhel, H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney (1997)f/ studied the performance of single effect evaporation desalination systems combined with various types of heat pumps. The results for ABVC and ADVC configurations indicated thermal performance ratios almost three times higher than those for the single effect TVC system. El-Dessouky and Ettouney (1997)g/ calculated a 50 per cent higher thermal performance ratio for the MED-ABVC and MED-ADVC systems (relative to the MED-TVC system), with values close to 20. A study by F. Mandani, H.M. Ettouney and H.T. El-Dessouky (2000)h/ considers a number of possible layouts for single effect evaporation units combined with a LiBr heat pump. System analysis shows that the thermal performance ratio varies within a range of 2.4-2.8. These values are 50-70 per cent higher than the single effect TVC value.i/ ____________________
a/ J. Weinberg, A Ophir and U. Fisher, Coupling of multi-effect distillation with vacuum freezing to reduce energy cost in sea water desalination, Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Fresh Water from the Sea, vol. I (1980), pp. 283-292. b/ G. Alefeld and F. Ziegler, Advanced heat pump and air-conditioning cycles for the working pair H2O/LiBr: industrial applications, ASHRAE Tech. Data Bulletin (June 1985), pp. 11-24. c/ S.E. Aly, Vapour compression distillation using waste heat absorption systems, Desalination, vol. 68 (1988), pp. 57-68. d/ K. Fathalah and S.E. Aly, Theoretical study of a solar powered absorption/MED combined system, Energy Conversion, vol. 31 (1991), pp. 529-544. e/ S. Yanniotis and P.A. Pilavachi, Mathematical modeling and experimental validation of an absorption-driven multiple-effect evaporator, Chemical Engineering and Technology, vol. 19, No. 5 (October 1996), pp. 448-455. f/ F. Al-Juwayhel, H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Analysis of single-effect evaporator desalination systems combined with vapor compression heat pumps, Desalination, vol. 114 (1997), pp. 253-275. g/ H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Simulation of combined multiple effect evaporationvapor compression desalination processes, a paper prepared for the 1st IDA International Desalination Conference in Egypt, Cairo, September 1997. h/ F. Mandani, H.M. Ettouney and H.T. El-Dessouky, LiBr-H2O absorption heat pump for single-effect evaporation desalination process, Desalination, vol. 128 (2000), pp. 161-176. i/ H.T. El-Dessouky and H.M. Ettouney, Plastic/compact heat exchangers for single-effect desalination systems, Desalination, vol. 122 (1999), pp. 271-289.
8. Reducing the number of pumps Electric power consumption in brine circulating MSF and MED systems amounts to 4 and 2.5 kWh/m3, respectively. This power is used primarily for process pumping operations, including the transportation of intake seawater, cooling seawater, distillate, brine blow-down, and recycling113 and heating steam condensate, as well as for chemical dosing. Reducing the number of pumps offers economic benefits; it also means fewer plant trips and enhanced plant availability, since maintenance calls following pump breakdowns account for more than 30 per cent of all trips to desalination plants.114 Ideas for reducing the number of pumps have been proposed in at least two conceptual studies; the findings may be summarized as follows:
113 114
Only applicable to the MSF process.
E. Al-Falah and A. Al-Shuaib, Impact of on-site training on performance of MSF plants: a case study, a paper prepared for the Conference on Desalination Strategies in the Southern Mediterranean Countries, Jerba, Tunisia, 11-13 September 2000.
96
(a) The construction of large-capacity plants at an elevation of 11 metres eliminates the need for distillate and brine blow-down pumps, which reduces system capital and maintenance requirements;115 (b) When the MSF brine circulation and thermal vapour compression (MSF-TVC) configuration is used, part of the systems thermal load is upgraded in the steam-jet ejector rather than being disposed of into the cooling seawater stream. As a result, the power rating of the cooling seawater may be reduced116 (see frame 5.3).
Frame 5.3. Proposed novel multistage flash configurations Two novel processes that have recently been proposed are MSF with brine mixing (MSF-M) and MSF with thermal vapour compression (MSF-TVC).a/ The MSF-M process is designed to improve the performance characteristics of the conventional brine circulation and once-through MSF processes. The MSF-M layout, shown in figure (a), is similar to that of the MSF-OT process, the main difference being that the MSF-M unit recycles part of the brine blow-down and mixes it with the intake seawater. The recycling rate is adjusted from one season to another to maintain a constant feed seawater temperature, with special care taken during the winter. Recycling the brine by mixing it with intake seawater also reduces the rate of antiscalant and antifoam chemical consumption. The proposed MSF-M process does away with the heat rejection section in the conventional brine circulation process, and associated control loops are eliminated as well. This, it is claimed, reduces capital investment and simplifies system operation. In addition, the proposed MSF-M process can handle brine salinity that is much lower than that encountered in conventional brine circulation configurations; this means reduced rates of scale formation, with a consequent decline in operating costs owing to the decreased need for cleaning balls, acid for acid cleaning, and chemicals for the control of scale. The proposed MSF-TVC process involves the compression of part of the vapour formed in the heat rejection or heat recovery stages, which reduces the energy rejected by the system into the cooling water stream, thereby increasing the performance ratio. As shown in figure (b), separate ejectors are used to entrain and compress vapour from each stage in the heat recovery section or from the heat rejection section. The use of a single ejector is not possible owing to differences in the pressure of the entrained vapour in each case. Preliminary analysis of the proposed MSF-TVC configuration indicates the following: (a) Thermal vapour compression enhances the performance of the MSF system by reducing the specific flow rate of cooling water and the specific heat transfer area and thereby increasing the performance ratio; (b) Vapour compression in stages operating at higher temperatures in the heat recovery section gives a higher performance ratio than vapour compression in the heat rejection section; (c) The specific heat transfer area in the vapour compression mode in the heat recovery section is lower than that in the heat rejection section. ____________________
a/ H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and Y. Al-Roumi, Multi-stage flash desalination: present and future outlook, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 73 (1999), pp. 175-193; and H.T. El-Dessouky and others, Multistage flash desalination combined with thermal vapor compression, Chemical Engineering and Processing, vol. 39 (2000), pp. 343-356.
115 K. Wangnick, K. Genthner and D.M. Al-Gobaisi, The next size generation of MSF evaporators: 100,000 m3/d; II. design and cost aspects, material selection, Proceedings: IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Madrid, 6-9 October 1997, vol. I, pp. 295-324. 116 H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and Y. Al-Roumi, Multi-stage flash desalination: present and future outlook, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 73 (1999), pp. 175-193; and H.T. El-Dessouky and others, Multistage flash desalination combined with thermal vapor compression, Chemical Engineering and Processing, vol. 39 (2000), pp. 343-356.
97
Figure (a). Multistage flash desalination with brine mixing

Heat input Section Heat Recovery Section Condenser Tubes Unevaporated Brine Mr Mixer Intake Seawater Mf Distillate Md Brine Blow-down Mb
Demister
Distillate Trays
Heating Steam Ms
21
22
23
24
Brine Heater Condensate
Unevaporated Brine
Brine Recycle Mr Mf
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Figure (b). Multistage flash desalination with thermal vapour compression including vapour entrainment from the heat rejection stages
Steam Jet Ejector Compressed Vapor Motive Steam
Demister
Distillate Trays
Condenser Tubes
Entrained Vapor Cooling Seawater Intake Seawater
Distillate Product
Feed Seawater Condensate Feed Brine Brine Recycle Brine Blow-down
B. TRENDS IN MEMBRANE PROCESSES Several indicators point to the growing role of membrane technologies, particularly in RO applications. Further advances are needed, however, to decrease costs, enhance product water quality, increase recovery factors and reduce the environmental impact of certain process activities, especially brine disposal. Efforts to improve membrane processes have generally focused on membrane performance, the efficiency of pretreatment processes and energy consumption. Recent innovations have included the development of higher-capacity plants, RO membranes with surface properties designed to reduce the adherence of fouling and colloidal matter, and low-pressure UF membranes to be used in pretreatment prior to the start of the RO process. The pretreatment routine has proved particularly useful, as it has helped reduce membrane fouling and the consumption of chemicals, thereby extending the life of the membrane. These and other developments are summarized in the subsections below.
98
1. Plant capacity and useful life A number of special features distinguish the RO process from thermal desalination processes. RO units are modular, compact and require only electric power. An RO system may simply consist of a single pressure vessel with up to eight spiral wound modules or a single hollow fibre module, or it may consist of a number of parallel banks of parallel pressure vessels with associated membrane modules. In some ways, sizing an RO plant boils down to specifying the module membrane area, the number of modules per pressure vessel, the number of vessels per bank, and the number of parallel banks required. A review of field information on RO plants built during the 1980s and 1990s reveals a number of points relating to installed capacity (see table L.2 in annex L). Three of the more salient points may be summarized as follows: (a) The installed unit capacities of RO plants vary widely; several plants possess capacities similar to those of the huge MSF desalination stations found in the Gulf States; (b) Unit capacities for large plants range from 4,000 to 9,000 m3/d. Capacities are kept within this range because of limitations on the maximum flow rate and pressure delivered by the feed pumps; (c) A continuous increase in total RO plant capacity is apparent. The last two entries in table L.2 in annex L show plant capacities above 90,000 m3/d, identical to medium-sized MSF stations set up in the GCC countries. Plant capacities are expected to increase twofold to threefold by 2015 as a result of present and future advances.117 Limited increases in plant lifetime may be witnessed in the near future owing to recent improvements in efficiency and reliability. The significant extension of operational lifetimes could be a promising area for investigation in the ESCWA member countries, from both a technical and an economic standpoint. In this connection, it should be borne in mind that increased plant lifetime is rarely a first priority for designers and manufacturers; their focus tends to be membrane performance and flow and rejection rates.118 2. Membranes Trends in the development of membranes for water desalination have centred around new membrane material development and membrane characterization. In addition, R and D activity in companies and some public research institutions has focused on enhancing membrane properties. A review of manufacturers data indicates the following improvements: (a) Salt rejection rates have increased to more than 99.5 per cent; (b) Total system recovery has been enhanced by up to 70 per cent; (c) Some advances have been made in the area of chemical resistance, though tolerance to chlorine and other oxidizing agents remains an area of concern, especially for polyamide-based membranes.
H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and Y. Al-Roumi, Multi-stage flash desalination: present and future outlook, Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 73 (1999), pp. 175-193; and H.T. El-Dessouky and others, Multistage flash desalination combined with thermal vapor compression, Chemical Engineering and Processing, vol. 39 (2000), pp. 343-356. Expert inquiry on future of desalination technology, questionnaire round and expert panel conducted by the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies in Seville in May 1996; originally quoted by J. Ribeiro in Desalination technology: survey and prospects (Seville, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, August 1996) (EUR 16434 EN).
118
117
99
(a)
Membrane characterization and modelling
Two different approaches, both based on the in-situ polycondensation technique, are highlighted in recent reports.119 The first involves the development of membranes for brackish water desalination operable at extremely low pressures, and the other involves the development of membranes operable at high pressure to achieve high rates of pure water recovery in seawater desalination. A trend towards the implementation of novel membrane characterization methods is also apparent in recent literature on desalination materials, with particular attention devoted to Raman spectroscopy, electron spin resonance (ESR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). A recent assessment of the benefits of such technologies concludes that Raman spectroscopy appears to be the best option for obtaining information on the crystalline structure of membrane macromolecules and changes in the membranes polymer structures. ESR is found to be useful in providing information on the mobility of molecules in membrane polymer matrixes and membrane pores.120 AFM may be used to facilitate three-dimensional analysis of membrane surfaces. The effects of surface roughness on membrane productivity and membrane fouling can be measured by AFM, enhancing the ability of membrane designers and manufacturers to improve performance.121 Progress in the measurement of pore sizes is also reported in the literature; pores as small as 1 nm may now be dealt with. Membrane transport models developed primarily for charged membranes have helped introduce significant advances, particularly in NF membranes, since most of these membranes possess a surface electrical charge. Transport models that explicitly take into account the effect of pore sizes have been found to be especially useful. (b) Inorganic filtration media
Interest in inorganic filtration membranes has recently increased because of their high chemical, thermal and mechanical stability in comparison with organic membranes. With ceramic membranes, for example, filtration is possible at high temperatures and extreme pH values. Moreover, these membranes can be thoroughly cleaned with aggressive chemicals, organic solvents, hot water or steam. The applicability of the ZrO2 membrane for nanofiltration has been proved; for the filtration of dissolved salts this membrane shows a high rate of rejection of polyvalent ions because of its smaller pore size and narrower pore size distribution.122 (c) Backwashable capillary membranes
Backwashable capillary membranes have been developed for MF and UF applications. Chlorinetolerant hydrophilic polyethersulphone polymers have been used as the basis for the membrane material. Several thousand hollow fibres are incorporated in each module. Operation cycles include 30 minutes of normal separation followed by one minute of regeneration. Membranes thus constructed may be used in conventional UF and MF separation processes and for the removal of colloidal and fouling matter as a form of pretreatment prior to the start of the RO process.
119 T. Matsuura, Progress in membrane science and technology for seawater desalinationa review Desalination, vol. 134, Nos. 1-3 (20 April 2001), available online 11 May 2001; paper presented at the International Conference on Seawater Desalination Technologies on the Threshold of the New Millennium, Kuwait, 4-7 November 2000.
K.C. Khulbe and T. Matsuura, Characterization of synthetic membranes by Raman spectroscopy, electron spin resonance, and atomic force microscopy: a review, Polymer, vol. 41, No. 5 (March 2000), available online 15 November 1999 (Elsevier Science Ltd.); and T. Matsuura, Progress in membrane science and technology for seawater desalinationa review Desalination, vol. 134, Nos. 1-3 (20 April 2001), available online 11 May 2001; paper presented at the International Conference on Seawater Desalination Technologies on the Threshold of the New Millennium, Kuwait, 4-7 November 2000.
121 122
120
Ibid.
S. Benfer and others, Development and characterization of ceramic nanofiltration membranes, Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 22-23 (2001), pp. 231-237.
100
(d)
Reversible spiral wound membranes
Reversible spiral wound (RSW) membranes are low-pressure membranes used for the pretreatment of seawater before the RO process is initiated. These membranes may also be used to treat low-salinity surface water. In actual operation, a backwash mechanism similar to conventional media filters is used. RSW membranes belong to the UF category. They are made of polysulphone polymer and possess a high recovery ratio (up to 95 per cent). Typical feed pressures used in association with RSW membranes are 1-2 bar at flux rates of 1-2 m3/m2.d. Backwashing continues for 30 seconds and is performed every 30 minutes. (e) Low fouling composite membranes
Low fouling composite (LFC) membranes incorporate new technology that is still under development. Their low surface charge and hydrophilic nature give them low fouling potential. LFC membranes possess higher flux but also require slightly higher feed pressures than conventional membranes. (f) Hybrid systems
Preventing membrane fouling remains a challenge. Solutions based on hybrid processes have been introduced with good results, though there is room for improvement. R and D activity in this area does not require prohibitive budgets. Above all, pilot plants are needed for the testing of new materials, as explained in frame 5.4.
Frame 5.4. Pilot facilities for water desalination Pilot facilities are essential for testing water desalination membranes to determine optimal design and operational parameters. Most desalination membrane processes have yet to reach a level of maturity that allows direct implementation in reference to set criteria. Pilot facilities give researchers the opportunity to develop optimal designs and operational methods in situations where feed water presents operators with a set of new parameters, which is almost always the case. The modelling of desalination operations is in many instances complemented by pilot studies, which play an important part in the validation and refinement of the models used. In addition, bench scale tests are often needed to characterize membrane material; in some cases, they may also help predict interactions between membrane materials and feed water. Bench scale and pilot studies are generally able to provide detailed information with regard to the following: (a) Permeability. Although this parameter is specified by membrane manufacturers, it is often necessary to verify claims using actual feed water and a set of ambient conditions; (b) Ageing behaviour. Ageing characteristics are established using artificial or accelerated ageing techniques, often within a pilot plant environment. The intention is to assess the behaviour of membrane materials in relation to a variety of physical, thermal and chemical factors and under different pH conditions; (c) Pore diameter distribution function. Establishing the limits and distribution of pore diameters is an essential task in membrane characterization. This function may be measured using the bubble point technique, direct microscopic observation or the solute passage technique. Testing membranes intended for use in water desalination to assess their retention of bacterial and viral entities is especially useful within pilot and bench scale settings. ____________________
Source: F.J. Mallevialle, P.E. Odendaal and M.R. Wiesner, eds., Water Treatment Membrane Processes (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1996), chapter 14.
Research conducted by the Saline Water Conversion Corporation in Saudi Arabia has demonstrated the possibility of eliminating scale formation in the brine heater and first stage of an MSF plant by
101
pretreating feed seawater using NF membranes, obviating the need for chemical additives.123 Along similar lines, research results indicate that an integrated membrane system consisting of UF pretreatment followed by RO could constitute an effective basis for stable performance in the reclamation of municipal wastewater effluents. Tests have shown that fouling rates for RO membranes are substantially reduced when the membrane combination is used.124 (g) Membrane system configurations
It has been shown that a single SWM element encapsulated in an individual pressure vessel may be cost-competitive with conventional designs, in which six to seven elements are loaded into a single pressure vessel. Recent developments in composite membrane technology have made it possible to produce a new generation of membranes with high specific fluxes, permitting operation at feed pressures typically below 1,400 kPa. This allows inexpensive outer shells to be utilized for individual element encapsulation.125 An MF cartridge housing has been developed that incorporates a pressure-driven membrane module with smaller dimensions but a capacity equal to that of conventional designs. In this design, modules have no connections to the systems manifolds. The new design has smaller dimensions, is simpler to manufacture, and consumes less material than conventional modules. It is also said to require less labour for mounting and replacement, and more rapid detection of module malfunction is possible.126 (h) Novel reverse osmosis membranes for operation at higher temperatures
The amount and intensity of basic and applied membrane research and the steady progress being made in membrane design and manufacturing are such that novel RO membranes with higher fluxes and enhanced salt selectivity, combined with greater tolerance to elevated temperatures (50-60 C), may be expected to reach the market before long. (i) Enhanced salt rejection additives
Recent investigations have shown that the salt rejection of RO, NF and UF membranes can be improved using polymeric additives that form dynamic layers. Unlike coagulating polymers, a noncoagulating polymer or hydrophilized coagulating polymer can be effective at high salt concentrations. The improvement in rejection characteristics occurs with little or no loss in membrane water flux.127
M.A. Al-Sofi and others, Means and merits of higher temperature operation in dual-purpose plants, Desalination, vol.. 125 (1999), pp. 213-222, also quoted by D. Breschi in his Introductory notes on MSF distillation, a paper presented at the Special Session on Water Desalination, Arab School of Science and Technology, Cairo, 23-27 January 2000.
124 M. Wilf and S. Alt, Study of wastewater reclamation using backwashable capillary ultrafiltration and encapsulated reverse osmosis membrane modules, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 42, Contract No. 1425-97-FC-81-30068, prepared by Hydranautics, Oceanside, CA, and published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office (June 1999).
123
This approach exhibits particular merit in applications where membrane barrier integrity is of special importance. This is because an encapsulated element design does not contain interconnectors or adapter O-rings, and thus eliminates the possibility of leakage through O-ring sealing surfaces. Furthermore, the fact that encapsulated elements are connected individually to a permeate manifold allows localized sampling of permeate conductivity and subsequent corrective measures. (See M. Wilf and S. Alt, Study of wastewater reclamation using backwashable capillary ultrafiltration and encapsulated reverse osmosis membrane modules, Water Treatment Technology Program, Report No. 42, Contract No. 1425-97-FC-81-30068, prepared by Hydranautics, Oceanside, CA, and published by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver Office [June 1999]).
126 F.N. Karelin and others, New solutions in pressure-driven membrane equipment construction and making, Desalination, vol. 108 (1996), pp. 315-324.
125
T.V. Knyazkova and A.A. Kavitskaya, Improved performance of reverse osmosis with dynamic layers onto membranes in separation of concentrated salt solutions, Desalination, vol. 131 (2000), pp. 129-136.
127
102
(j)
Reducing pretreatment costs
Improving RO plant design could contribute to cost reduction in ways that are both important and relatively simple. Pretreatment expenses still account for around 60 and 35 per cent of seawater and brackish water desalination costs, respectively, so this is a special area of concern. Substituting the more traditional methods (including sand filtration and flocculation) with MF and UF operations is an approach that is gaining greater currency. Research aimed at improving module configuration, concentration polarization, fouling control and energy recovery (see figure 5.5) may be expected to contribute more significantly to the reduction of overall costs. Figure 5.5. Energy recovery in reverse osmosis (using Sulzer pumps)
Economy of RO process
Multistage feed pump Special design incl. turbine Multistage feed pump and Pelton turbine
Multistage feed pump Reverse running pump as recovery turbine Feed pump only No energy recovery
100
12000
25000
Production m3/day
(k)
Combating biofouling and concentration polarization
Biofouling phenomena constitute a major factor in limiting useful membrane lifetimes and are responsible for the high costs associated with RO systems used in the treatment of bioactive water supplies. Considerable effort has been invested in the development of a novel biofouling resistant (BFR) membrane, which is essentially a chemically modified thin film composite aromatic polyamide membrane used within a spiral wound module. The use of BFR membranes, together with a carefully selected biocide, allows dramatic reductions in chemical cleaning requirements.128 Another approach to the construction of BFR membranes is based on the introduction of structural changes in the polymer network. A comb-like polymer made up of a hydrophobic backbone lined with short hydrophilic bristles is mixed into the bulk polymer solution, resulting in a membrane with a hydrophilic outer surface and a hydrophilic lining on the inside. This appears to discourage fouling. In addition, the increased number of pores on the membrane surface leads to increased trans-membrane flux. The use of polysulphones in the construction of high-performance UF and MF membranes is also expected to afford significant advantages in the near future. Novel methods, including plasma-based techniques, are being used to modify the structure of polysulphone surfaces in order to introduce specific functionalities on the polymer surface. As an example, the use of CO2 plasma to introduce acidic hydrophilic groups has been shown to have a positive impact on membrane performance.129
128 S. Coker and P. Sehn, Four years field experience with fouling resistant reverse osmosis membranes, Desalination, vol. 132 (2000), pp. 211-215.
I. Gancarz, G. Pozniak and M. Bryjak, Modification of polysulfone membranes: 1. CO2 plasma treatment, European Polymer Journal, vol. 35 (1999), pp. 1,419-1,428.
129
103
UV irradiation and UV-assisted graft polymerization of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone have also been employed to modify poly(ether sulphone) and sulphonated poly(sulphone) NF membranes with a view to reducing fouling by naturally occurring organic compounds. Innovative strategies for the reduction of concentration polarization and fouling problems in pressuredriven membrane operations are summarized in table 5.5. TABLE 5.5 NEW MODULES AND STRATEGIES FOR CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION AND FOULING CONTROL
Fouling reduction strategy Counter-current transverse flow hollow fibre module with baffles Spirally wound feed flow channels Coiled modules (tubular/hollow fibre) Gas sparging Backpulsing Dynamic filtration Rotary disk modules Vortex flow filtration Vibratory shear-enhanced processor Immersed membrane with aeration system Effect Increased mass transfer coefficient Dean vortex formation Dean vortex formation Secondary flow and local mixing near membrane surface Periodic removal of particle cakes from membrane surface Generation of high shear rates in fluid near membrane Applications RO RO, UF, MF UF, MF UF, MF UF, MF (with ceramic membranes) UF, MF
Contaminants not forced into membrane pores under high pressure, aeration minimizes settling of solids and both agitates and scrubs the membrane surface
UF, MF, RO
Source: E. Drioli and M. Romano, Progress and new perspectives on integrated membrane operations for sustainable industrial growth, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, vol. 40 (2001), pp. 1,277-1,300. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; UF = ultrafiltration; MF = microfiltration.
Hydrodynamic methods aimed at generating flow instability constitute the most direct approach to fouling reduction. In principle, any technique that interrupts the formation of a continuous boundary layer on the transfer surface and promotes the mixing of fluid across the flow channel is likely to reduce concentration polarization and fouling and to enhance filtration flux. Several procedures have been developed with this end in mind. Recently tested centrifugal methods are of special interest, as they are successful in reducing the thickness of the boundary layer at the membrane surface. This approach has been shown to constitute an improvement over conventional RO, particularly in cases where low-salinity feed water is used. Flux is maximized when the centrifugal force is directed away from or along the plane of the membrane, and fluid flow is directed such that Coriolis forces on the bulk flow are oriented away from the membrane surface.130 H. Ma, C.N. Bowman and R.H. Davis131 recently employed a method combining backpulsing and membrane surface modification for the reduction of membrane fouling. A novel photo-induced polymer grafting technique was used to render polypropylene membranes hydrophilic with neutral, positively charged or negatively charged surfaces by grafting monomers of poly(ethylene glycol-200) monomethacrylate, dimethyl aminoethyl methacrylate, or acrylic acid, respectively. Trans-membrane flux with backpulsing for hydrophilic charged membranes is greater than that for hydrophobic neutral polypropylene membranes, but has values inferior to those for hydrophilic neutral membranes. The long-term flux with backpulsing is approximately twice as high as that without backpulsing.
130 A. Bergen and others, Flux enhancement in reverse osmosis using centrifugal membrane separation, Journal of Membrane Science, vol. 176 (2000), pp. 257-266.
H. Ma, C.N. Bowman and R.H. Davis, Membrane fouling reduction by backpulsing and surface modification, Desalination, vol. 173 (2000), pp. 191-200.
131
104
Biofouling can also be reduced using vortex flow filtration (VFF), whereby feed water is introduced into the annular gap between two cylinders, one of which is rotating. The membrane can be placed on either the inner or the outer cylinder. Taylor vortices are generated between the two curved surfaces, creating high shear at the membrane surface. Generating high shear stresses in order to effect membrane surface cleaning can also be achieved through vigorous vibration of membrane elements in a direction tangential to the membrane surface. The shear waves produced by the membrane vibration cause solids and foulants to be lifted off the membrane surface and remixed with the bulk material flowing through the membrane stack. High shear forces created as a result of the vibration expose membrane pores to fresh feed water, increasing throughput to values between 3 and 10 times those of conventional cross-flow systems. In another technique for inducing the disruption of fluid flow, a helical structure is fitted closely inside tubes to promote helical fluid flow; after every half turn the direction of the helix is changed from rightoriented to left-oriented, regularly interrupting the flow. Helical inserts produce fluxes that are much higher (by a factor of 6) at low cross-flow rates than those produced by membranes without inserts.132 Spiral wound feed flow channels with membrane walls give rise to Dean vortices, mixing bulk feed water with that close to the membrane layers and reducing concentration polarization without moving the membrane or the module or having flow reversal in the feed stream. Although Dean flows satisfy the exigencies of an efficient membrane process, such as high permeate flux by increased wall shearing, radial mixing, and low concentration polarization, modules in current use have low packing densities and higher pressure drops. As a result, operating costs are still higher for this process than for conventional processes.133 The use of fluidized bed techniques in the microfiltration of suspensions on ceramic membranes results in a significant increase in permeate flux. Fluidized solids in the feed water stream ensure significant reductions in concentration polarization as well as continuous mechanical erosion of the particles deposited at the wall of the membrane. Improved permeate flux is also achieved owing to the combined action of turbulence and particle motion.134 C. AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY IN DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES 1. Areas of desalination research One of the main goals of desalination R and D is to reduce the unit product cost of water. Increasing plant availability by decreasing downtime, raising production efficiency, and reducing the consumption of power and chemicals are some of the objectives that may be pursued to achieve this goal. Efforts are currently under way to enhance the performance of existing processes and develop more efficient ones. Figure 5.6 shows the main areas in which desalination R and D is taking place.
B.J. Bellhouse and others, The performance of helical screw-thread inserts in tubular membranes, Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 22-23 (2001), pp. 89-113.
133 M.E. Brewster, K.Y. Chung and G. Belfort, Dean vortices with wall flux in a curved channel membrane system: a new approach to membrane module design, Journal of Membrane Science, vol. 81 (1993).
132
P. Mikulasek and J. Hrdy, Permeate flux enhancement using a fluidized bed in microfiltration with ceramic membranes, Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Quarterly, vol. 134 (1999).
134
105
Figure 5.6. Areas of desalination research
Desalination studies are focusing on the following: (a) Process modelling and analysis; (b) Analysis of operational strategies and development of more efficient procedures; (c) Process control and instrumentation; (d) Development and testing of novel desalination processes based on thermal, membrane or hybrid configurations; (e) Fundamental analysis of mechanisms for the formation and control of scaling, corrosion and foaming; (f) Assessing the performance of new and inexpensive construction materials in thermal and membrane desalination systems; (g) Feasibility of combining multistage flash and VC heat pumps; (h) Testing the performance of novel flashing stages; (i) Development of interactive simulation software for conventional thermal desalination systems; (j) Development of novel RO membranes; (k) Improving the understanding of fundamental phenomena including flow in submerged orifices and allowing for non-equilibrium phenomena.
106
Frame 5.5 highlights issues and areas that need to be taken into account in identifying desalination research priorities.
Frame 5.5. Identifying research and development priorities in desalination A systematic approach to desalination research planning and management requires a proper definition of research areas and topics. A study aimed at identifying R and D priorities for desalination focused on research institutions working in this field, industries presently involved or likely to be involved in desalination, operators of desalination equipment, and water resource planners and managers that may have need of desalination, and highlighted the work being done (or planned) in the areas listed below.a/ Thermal desalination. Thermal desalination process technologies are mature. They are generally used for seawater desalination, and only rarely for brackish water desalination, as they are energy intensive. Research relating to these process technologies is focused on performance improvements and design simplification. Membrane desalination. Research centres around improving the performance of these processes for seawater and brackish water desalination. Topics to be considered further include new membranes, membrane module and process design, energy recovery in RO processes, pretreatment methods, scaling and fouling fundamentals, and process and ancillary equipment design. Non-traditional or alternative desalination processes. Research activities are directed towards the development of new concepts for non-traditional desalination processes, and feasibility studies are prepared to assess the viability of these concepts as well as those that have not been fully explored. Operation and maintenance. Research is focused on improving the operation, efficiency and reliability of the many conventional desalination plants now in service. Intakes and outfalls. The intake and outfall for desalination plants are often neglected when system improvements are being considered. Research is focused on procedures for selecting appropriate intake and outfall systems based on site conditions, and on the development of new systems. Energy issues. Energy cost is the main operating cost component for any desalination plant. Research in this area is focused on the reduction of energy consumption and the use of (cheaper) alternative energy sources, including renewable energy. Environmental issues. Research is focused on improvements in desalination processes used for the reduction and/or disposal of effluents. Work in this area includes assessment of the composition of desalination plant effluents and the development of procedures for assessing the environmental impact of these effluents. Hybrid systems. Studies on the development of hybrid desalination processes generally focus on reducing capital, operation and maintenance costs; identifying the best combinations of power and desalination processes; and providing tools for decision-making for more accessible process options. Certification programmes. Emphasis here is on the development and application of appropriate codes of practice and standards relating to materials, systems, operation and maintenance. Assessment studies. As a precursor to future research, there is a universal need for critical assessments of the current state of the art in the various areas of desalination, and for efforts to identify where the best scope and opportunities for cost-saving lie. ____________________
Source: Excerpted from E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001. a/ J. Ribeiro and I. Spiewak, Desalination research priorities: a European survey (Seville, Spain, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, May 1998) (EUR 18087 EN).
2. Energy recovery in membrane desalination Energy recovery in the principal membrane desalination processes may be based on the conversion of pressure into shaft work and then back to fluid pressure; this process is less efficient than using fluid pressure directly. The shaft work configuration includes turbines, Pelton wheels and reverse running pumps.
107
Another energy recovery mechanism is the work exchanger, which is attached to membrane arrays and requires the inclusion of a high-pressure pump and a booster pump in the system. The high-pressure pump operates on the permeate stream only, while work exchanger pumps deal with the brine stream. Use of a booster pump is necessary to match the fluid pressure leaving the work exchanger to that of the high-pressure pump. A work exchanger could reduce the pumping pressure and electric power consumption by a ratio equal to that of system recovery. 3. Research on thermal desalination processes Research in thermal desalination concentrates on MSF and MED, the two main thermal technologies. MSF research focuses on cross-flow and parallel-flow configurations, also known as cross tube and long tube configurations. Areas of interest include the design and development of preheaters/condensers, brine heaters, and inter-stage devices. Efforts are also being exerted to enhance the layout of once-through and brine circulation processes. Research on the MED process concentrates on particular aspects of the design and rating of vertical and horizontal falling films, low- and high-temperature operation, forward and parallel feed configurations, vertical stack systems, spray units and various types of vapour compression heat pumps. In R and D relating to RO desalination, the main focus is on membrane development. Improving membrane characteristics and hence unit performance and product quality are among the objectives sought. Enhancing membrane permeation properties constitutes an important area of R and D activity. Improving physical properties and mechanical strength are targeted with a view to improving membrane compatibility with high operational pressures, shear and turbulent forces, fouling effects, and chemical and biological attacks. Other R and D areas in RO include module design, feed pretreatment with UF membranes and energy recovery. Field data and modelling considerations Mathematical models constitute an important tool in the design and evaluation of desalination systems. Summarized comparisons of field data and model predictions are provided in the tables included in this subsection.135 Table 5.6 includes comparative model predictions and field data for the single effect MVC system. Model predictions are made at a brine boiling temperature of 60o C, which is consistent with industrial practice. The model predicts a specific power consumption of 8.95 kWh/m3, which is consistent with data in the literature. This value is obtained for a temperature difference of 2o C between the condensate of the compressed vapour and the boiling brine. The evaporator specific heat transfer area is also consistent with the value reported by J.M. Veza in 1995.136 This value reflects a temperature difference of 2o C for (Td-Tb), which is lower than the value reported by M. Lucas and B. Tabourier in 1985.137 Although no values are reported for the specific heat transfer area of the feed preheaters, the predicted values are consistent with the thermal load of each unit.
135 It may be noted here that field data reported in the literature by designers and manufacturing companies are incomplete because of proprietary restrictions. 136 137
J.M. Veza, Mechanical vapour compression desalination plantsa case study, Desalination, vol. 101 (1995), pp. 1-10.
M. Lucas and B. Tabourier, The mechanical vapour compression process applied to seawater desalination: a 1,500 ton/day unit installed in the nuclear power plant of Flamanville, France, Desalination, vol. 52 (1985), pp. 123-133.
108
TABLE 5.6. COMPARISON OF MODEL AND FIELD DATA FOR THE SINGLE EFFECT MECHANICAL VAPOUR
COMPRESSION SYSTEM Matz and Fisher (1981) 17-18 50-500 40-50 Matz and Zimerman (1985) 10 250-450 50-70 Lucas and Tabourier (1985) 10 25-300 Veza (1995) 10-11 500 59 448.9 Ettouney and others (1999) 8.95 60 483 206 50 2 2-4 2-3 2 2.25 1.4-2.4
Parameter Specific power consumption (kWh/m3) Capacity (m3/d) Top brine temperature (o C) Evaporator area (m2/(kg/s)) Brine feed preheater specific area (m2/(kg/s)) Distillate feed preheater specific area (m2/(kg/s)) Td-Tb (o C) To-tcw (o C) Tb-tf and Td-tf (o C)
Tables 5.7 and 5.8 offer comparisons of model predictions against field data for MED-MVC and MED-TVC processes, respectively. Published information indicates that existing MED-MVC units are limited to three or four effects, and their use aims at increasing total capacity rather than decreasing specific power consumption. The two tables show strong agreement between predicted and actual specific power consumption.138 TABLE 5.7. COMPARISON OF MODEL PREDICTIONS AGAINST FIELD DATA FOR MULTIPLE EFFECT
DISTILLATION SYSTEMS WITH MECHANICAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION Parameter n Md (m3/d) Ts (o C) Tn (o C) Tcw (o C) Tf (o C) Xcw (ppm) Xb (ppm)
n
CR sAc (m2/(kg/s)) w (kWh/m3)
Lucas and Tabourier (1985) 4 1 500 62.5 50.7 5 49 36 000 64 800 0.446 11
El-Dessouky and others (2000) 4 1 500 62.5 50.7 5 49 36 000 64 800 0.446 2234 10.7
Ophir and Gendel (1997) 3 3 000 70
El-Dessouky and others (2000) 3 3 000 70
36 000
36 000
6.9
6.3
A comparison of parallel feed and forward feed MED and conventional MSF systems is presented in table 5.9. The performance ratio for an MSF system with 24 stages is 8, while the performance ratio for MED configurations with 8 effects ranges from 4.9 to 5.2, and 12-effect systems have an average performance ratio of 8. The specific heat transfer area for MED systems varies within the range 200-500 m2/(kg/s) as the number of effects is increased from 8 to 12. The specific heat transfer area for the MSF system has a value of 275 m2/(kg/s).139
138 139
Comparison of the specific heat transfer areas was not possible owing to the lack of field data. It should be noted that the MED forward feed system is not yet available on a commercial basis.
109
TABLE 5.8. COMPARISON OF MODEL PREDICTIONS AGAINST FIELD DATA FOR MULTIPLE EFFECT
DISTILLATION SYSTEMS WITH THERMAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION ElDessouky and others (2000a) 12 1.2 x 104 70 38.5 29.5 34.5 36 000 51 730 0.33 6.8 1 385 Weinberg and Ophir (1992) 6 2.1 x 104 62.9 36.3 26 32 42 000 52 900 0.33 11.9 5.7 ElDessouky and others (2000a) 6 2.1 x 104 62.9 36.3 26 32 42 000 52 900 0.33 12.4 734 6.2 ElDessouky and others (2000a) 4 4.5 x 103 62.7 48.4 33 44 47 000 71 500 0.33 4.31 523 9.3 Elovic and Willocks (1998) 12 5.9 x 103 71 40+ 30+ 35+ 36 000+ 52 000+ 0.31+ ElDessouky and others (2000a) 12 5.9 x 103 71 40 30 35 36 000 52 000 0.31 7.2 1 283 11.9
Parameter n Md (m3/d) Ts (o C) Tn (o C) Tcw (o C) Tf (o C) Xcw (ppm) Xb (ppm)

n
Temstet and others (1994) 12 1.2 x 104 70 38.5 29.5 34.5 36 000 51 730 0.33 6.212 13.4
Michles (1995) 4 4.5 x 103 62.7 48.4 33 44 47 000 71 500 0.33 3.79 8.6
CR sMcw sAc (m2/(kg/s)) PR
11.5
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Note: + values assumed.
TABLE 5.9. COMPARISON OF MULTISTAGE FLASH AND FORWARD- AND PARALLEL-FEED

MULTIPLE EFFECT DISTILLATION SYSTEMS MED forward feedb/ 8 42 000 90 350 5.2 212 0.4 70 000 5.6 MED parallel feedc/ 8 42 000 90 35 4.9 335 0.325 62 247 8.9 MED forward feedb/ 12 42 000 90 350 8.3 314 0.4 70 000 2.62 MED parallel feedc/ 12 42 000 90 35 7.9 472 0.325 62 247 4.9
Parameter Number of effects/stages Feed salinity (ppm) Heating steam temperature (o C) Seawater temperature (o C) Performance ratio Specific heat transfer area (m2/(kg/s)) Conversion ratio Salinity of rejected brine (ppm) Specific flow rate of cooling water Sources:
MSFa/ 24 42 000 90 35 8 259 0.4 70 000 2.4
a/ H. El-Dessouky, H.I. Shaban and H. Al-Ramadan, Steady-state analysis of multi-stage flash desalination process, Desalination, vol. 103 (1995) pp. 271-287; b/ H.T. El-Dessouky and others, Steady-state analysis of the multiple effect evaporation desalination process, Chemical Engineering and Technology, vol. 21 (1998), pp. 437-451; c/ H.T. El-Dessouky, H.M. Ettouney and F. Mandani, Performance of parallel feed multiple effect evaporation system for seawater desalination, Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 20 (2000), pp. 1,679-1,706. Note: MSF = multistage flash; MED = multiple effect distillation.
4. Desalination plant automation and control Several recent innovations in the design and implementation of soft computing methodologies for desalination processes incorporate sensory information, computational facilities, human reasoning and decision-making. Methodologies that are referred to in the recent literature140 as intelligent systems include
A. Zilouchian and M. Jafar, Automation and process control of reverse osmosis plants using soft computing methodologies, Desalination, vol. 135, Nos. 1-3 (20 April 2001), available online 25 May 2001.
140
110
fuzzy logic, neural networks, generic algorithms and probabilistic reasoning. One issue addressed by soft computing methodologies is the trade-off between tolerance, precision and uncertainty. A case study141 reporting on the design and implementation of an intelligent system for a seawater RO plant in Florida, in the United States, indicates effective and optimum performance of the system for spiral wound and hollow fine fibre modules under forced diverse operating conditions. The system is said to have achieved consistent recovery of 30 per cent and salt passage of 1.026 per cent, with the concentrations of six major salt species kept below their solubility limits throughout. The use of the intelligent control methodology is said to have led to a 5 per cent increase in plant availability, a reduction in manpower requirements, and a decline in overall chemical consumption. Fuzzy logic techniques have been applied in an 18-stage MSF desalination plant to control the TBT of the brine heater. The fuzzy model reference learning controller utilizes a learning mechanism that registers plant output and accordingly adjusts rules governing a direct fuzzy controller. This allows more satisfactory overall performance within the limits established by an individual set of operating conditions. The control mechanisms currently in widespread use in the unit process industry require considerable retuning as parameters vary. Advantages associated with fuzzy-logic-driven controllers include their simpler design, easier implementation, robustness and adaptation to unstructured and noisy environments. The design of fuzzy logic control systems is based on the formulation of a set of rules describing the desired system performance. These rules, which normally derive from past experience, are programmed on a computer or a dedicated custom-made microprocessor. Following installation, fuzzy logic controllers may be fine-tuned by trial and error or by using newly developed automatic tuning methods.142 D. DESALINATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES Desalination research in the ESCWA member countries has been or is being carried out in all of the areas mentioned previously. Examples of MSF, MED and RO research are presented in tables L.3, L.4 and L.5 in annex L. Annex M reports on R and D activities undertaken by the Research and Development Center in Saudi Arabia. Titles of recent research projects conducted by the Middle East Desalination Research Center in Oman are listed in table L.6 in annex L. A review of the contents of these tables indicates that desalination R and D commenced with the adoption of desalination technology on a commercial scale during the late 1950s. Research activity in the ESCWA member countries has ranged from the development of performance models and systems analysis to experimental investigations of laboratory units, pilot scale systems and full-scale desalination plants. Specific areas addressed include the conceptual design of novel systems, the testing of certain operating regimes, the economic evaluation, optimization and comparison of various designs, and field applications of new chemicals, construction materials and operating strategies. A variety of institutions, including universities, government agencies, research centres, and technical offices in desalination plants, are cited as sources of R and D reports on desalination subjects such as those listed in tables L.3-L.5 in annex L. The volume of R and D carried out by local institutions varies considerably from one area of application to another. Joint research with European and American universities and companies appears to have taken place rather frequently; however, cooperation between R and D and academic institutions in different ESCWA member countries is virtually non-existent. Table 5.10 shows the distribution of R and D publications issued by institutions in selected ESCWA member countries according to area of application in desalination technology.143 A significant volume of R and D material relates to MSF, RO, modelling, scaling and scale prevention, and energy consumption and
141 142
Ibid.
A. Ismail, Fuzzy model reference learning control of multi-stage flash desalination plants, Desalination, vol. 116 (1998), pp. 157-164.
143 The data presented in table 5.10 were compiled from a number of sources including an online database, the journals Desalination and International Desalination & Water Reuse, and the proceedings of the biennial IDA conferences. These data cover a period of more than 40 years. Identification of the local research papers is based on author affiliations.
111
conservation. A smaller amount focuses on MED, materials, corrosion and fouling. Assessing their share of the world total, the table indicates that local institutions have made only minor contributions in the areas of RO membranes and systems, fouling, scaling and construction materials; however, their R and D share has been sizeable in many other areas including MED and MSF systems, modelling, energy and corrosion. The comments in the subsections below are drawn from a review of the data on which table 5.10 is based. TABLE 5.10. DESALINATION RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN THE GULF COUNTRIES AND EGYPT
AS A PROPORTION OF THE WORLD TOTAL Research field MSF MED RO RO membranes Modelling, economics and optimization Process control Construction materials Energy and cogeneration Corrosion Scaling Fouling Percentage 30 29 14 4 23 38 10 22 27 13 8 Total number of publications 266 115 174 180 456 16 79 332 109 259 87
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Notes: Survey covers the period 1966-2000; total number of publications = 2,073; average percentage of research total for the Gulf countries and Egypt = 19.6 per cent; MSF = multistage flash, MED = multiple effect distillation, RO = reverse osmosis.
1. Research focus Research focus is influenced by the degree of technology dissemination; in the ESCWA region, for example, a larger amount of desalination research relates to MSF than to RO or MED because of the dominant position of MSF desalination in the area. Only a small percentage of the worlds research on RO systems and associated membrane technologies is carried out locally, undoubtedly owing to the limited market share of this industry in Kuwait and other Gulf countries. 2. Research orientations Research orientations reflect concern with modelling, optimization and process economics. This is characteristic of research in many fields of industrial technology. Performance modelling and analysis are essential tools for process design and simulation. Mathematical models generally provide bases for optimization and economic analysis. Additionally, process modelling is useful for experimenting with system control and assessing system performance over a wide range of operating conditions and testing conceptual designs of novel configurations. E. CONCLUDING REMARKS Recent trends in the development of thermal and membrane desalination technologies are examined in this chapter. Emphasis is placed on the quest for better materials and process modifications designed to increase production capacity, enhance plant efficiency and address bottlenecks deriving from problems such as corrosion, scaling and fouling. Within the thermal process category, attention is given to developments designed to enhance the performance of the MSF process, the workhorse of thermal desalination technology. The advantages of operating MSF plants at higher temperatures are illustrated, with case material provided from the GCC countries. Efforts and developments aimed at improving feed water quality, plant construction materials, descaling strategies and process design are also considered. Trends in membrane processes are reviewed, with special reference to enhancing membrane quality and useful life and to increasing plant capacity. Brief consideration is given to expected improvements linked
112
to developments such as the use of hybrid systems, novel membranes and membrane module configurations, and new methods for combating membrane fouling and reducing pretreatment costs. Efforts to reduce energy consumption are reviewed in relation to both thermal and membrane processes. In the realm of thermal desalination technologies, reducing the number of pumps appears to be the focus of some attention. For membrane technologies, there is considerable interest in the conservation of mechanical energy used to drive process compressors. The use of modelling in desalination research, development and design operations is dealt with briefly. The chapter provides an overview of R and D activities aimed at addressing some of the main challenges faced by the desalination industry, indicating the type and volume of research being undertaken in this field; particular reference is made to the results of a recent survey of R and D activities being undertaken in the ESCWA member countries, and to the orientations and focus of such research. While significant R and D activity seems to be taking place in selected institutions in the ESCWA member countries, indications are that the duplication of R and D efforts is quite common. Other shortcomings associated with desalination R and D in the region appear to derive from poor research design methodologies and inadequate linkages with industry. Because local desalination plants often lack adequate development and innovation capabilities, desalination R and D activities undertaken by institutions in the ESCWA region might be of greater use to international firms than to local operators. The oft-quoted observation regarding the lack of inter-institutional R and D cooperation in general may be applied, more or less unmodified, in the case of desalination R and D. Efforts in this domain may, from a certain perspective, be considered above average; however, considering the strategic importance of this field for so many ESCWA member countries and the level of commitment shown thus far, it is perhaps more realistic to say that local R and D activity has barely scratched the surface. Creating incentives as well as focus for desalination R and D is an issue of primary importance. Progress in this area can only be achieved with government support and with the opening up of the sector to private enterprise. Making optimal use of R and D capabilities available at universities and national research institutions will require the adoption of new regulations and institutional set-ups. These and other, related issues will be addressed in the final chapter of this study, which focuses on strategies for capacity building in desalination technologies.
113
VI. RENEWABLE ENERGY DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES Many ESCWA member countries have serious water shortages but plentiful renewable energy resources, in particular solar energy. Desalination possibilities in this context should therefore be fully explored. This chapter is organized in two parts. First, a global overview of desalination capacity based on renewable energy resources is presented, with emphasis on capacity in the ESCWA member and other Arab countries. The second part examines, in some detail, specific applications of solar and wind energy conversion technologies in desalination processes. Brief case studies provide field information on existing facilities. A. RENEWABLE ENERGY DESALINATION CAPACITY: A GLOBAL OVERVIEW Table 6.1 provides an overview of the number, capacities and estimated costs of renewable energy desalination units in countries around the world; figure 6.1 shows capacity distribution among the ESCWA members and other Arab countries.144 The Arab countries of Western Asia and North Africa possess around 90 per cent of the worlds renewable energy desalination capacity; the ESCWA members account for nearly 30 per cent of the world total. TABLE 6.1. RENEWABLE ENERGY DESALINATION PLANTS: TOTAL CAPACITY,
NUMBER OF UNITS AND ESTIMATED COSTS ESCWA members 6 1 631 18 13 ESCWA members as Other Arab Other Arab countries Other Other countries % of total countries as % of total countries as % of total 21% 2 7% 20 71% 28% 3 510 60% 688 12% 20% 6 7% 67 74% 69% 4 21% 2 10%
Total Number of countries 28 Total capacity (m3/d) 5 829 Units 91 Estimated cost (millions of US$) 19
Figure 6.1. National renewable energy desalination capacity in ESCWA member and other Arab countries
Libya 69% Tunisia 0.2% Egypt 8% UAE 11%
Jordan 0.1% Kuwait 1%
Qatar 1%
Saudi Arabia 10%
The figures provided in table 6.1 indicate that the renewable energy desalination facilities set up in the ESCWA member and other Arab countries tend to be relatively large; only 24 of the 91 units erected worldwide are located in these countries, but they account for around nine tenths of the worlds renewable energy desalination capacity.
144
Based on K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May
2000).
114
According to the IDA inventory, existing renewable energy desalination plants cost a total of around $19 million. The ESCWA members account for around 69 per cent of this figure and other Arab countries 21 per cent, for a total of 90 per cent. This should provide a clear incentive for optimizing investment returns by setting up research, development and pilot facilities in close proximity to, and in association with, production units. Table 6.2 provides an overview of renewable energy desalination capacity according to desalination process, technology and power source, with reference made to feed water type, area of application, and the use of direct solar versus wind energy. Tables N.1-N.3 in annex N provide more detailed information on the distribution of renewable energy desalination capacity. TABLE 6.2. WORLDWIDE CAPACITY DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO DESALINATION PROCESS, POWER SOURCE, FEED WATER TYPE, AREA OF APPLICATION AND TECHNOLOGY USED (Cubic metres per day)
Total Capacity according to desalination process Reverse osmosis 4 051 Multiple effect distillation 1 215 Freezing 210 Multistage flash 111 Vapour compression 50 Electrodialysis 12 Other 180 Capacity according to power source Solar energy 3 326 Wind energy 2 503 Capacity according to feed water Brackish 3 777 Sea 2 031 River 21 Capacity according to application Municipality 4 104 Demonstration 1 400 Military 300 Irrigation 25 Capacity according to technology used Photovoltaic 1 065 Parabolic 545 Mirror 500 Collector (unspecified type)a/ 253 Heliostat 94 Not specified 3 372 ESCWA Other Arab Other ESCWA members as % Other Arab countries as % Other countries as % members of total countries of total countries of total 770 594 210 52 5 1 206 425 545 1 086 500 831 300 30 45 500 34 1 022 19% 49% 100% 47% 3% 36% 17% 14% 53% 12% 59% 100% 3% 8% 100% 36% 30% 3 000 500 10 1 510 2 000 3 010 500 3 500 5 5 1 000 500 10 2 000 74% 41% 6% 45% 80% 80% 25% 85% 0.4% 20% 94% 92% 4% 59% 281 121 59 50 12 165 610 78 222 445 21 104 564 20 35 243 60 350 7% 10% 53% 100% 100% 92% 18% 3% 6% 22% 100% 3% 40% 80% 3% 96% 64% 10%
Source: Adapted from K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). a/ The source indicates that collectors in Greece, previously producing 68 m3/d (around 27 per cent of the total capacity generated using unspecified collector types), are currently out of use.
Figure 6.2, which shows the capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to the process technology used, indicates the prevalence of RO and MED at both the regional and world levels.145
The fact that the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya has the largest solar desalination plant operating on the basis of RO technology plays an important role in shaping solar desalination statistics in the region as well as worldwide.
145
115
Figure 6.2. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to desalination technology
Multi-stage flash 2% Freezing 4% Multi-effect distillation 21%
Vapor compression 1%
Electrodialysis 0.2%
Other 3%
Freezing 12.9%
Multi-stage flash 3.2%
Other 0.3% Reverse Osmosis 47.2%
Reverse Osmosis 69%
Multi-effect distillation 36.4%
(a) All countries
(b) ESCWA member countries
One point worth noting with regard to the use of desalination technologies is that Saudi Arabia accounts for 100 per cent of freezing technology capacity. 1. Conversion technologies used in renewable energy desalination Photovoltaic (PV) conversion methods are used in 18 per cent of existing renewable energy desalination plants (see figure 6.3). The available reports often fail to furnish details on the solar conversion method used, which hinders efforts to provide a comprehensive analysis of the conversion technologies used in desalination. The likelihood is strong that various types of flatbed and parabolic collectors account for the large proportion of unspecified conversion methods. Figure 6.3. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to solar conversion technology
Photovoltaic 18% Parabolic 9% Mirror 9%
Photovoltaic 2%
Parabolic 3%
Mirror 31%
Not specified 58%
Heliostat 2%
Collector (not specified) 4%
Not specified 62%
Heliostat 2%
(a) All countries
Figure 6.4 indicates that the proportion of plants utilizing direct solar resources is considerably higher than the proportion of those relying on wind power; more than two thirds of the renewable energy desalination plants in the ESCWA region depend on direct sunlight. A more equitable distribution is observed at the worldwide level, with around 43 per cent opting for solar rather than wind energy for desalination.
116
Figure 6.4. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to the renewable resource used
Wind 26%
Wind 43% Solar 57%
Solar 74%
(a) All countries
2. Distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to feed water type Table 6.2 and figure 6.5 indicate that brackish water and seawater treatment respectively account for two thirds and one third of renewable energy desalination capacity worldwide, but that these proportions are essentially reversed in the ESCWA region. Figures for the Arab region as a whole are similar to world statistics, mainly because of the large brackish water facility in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Figure 6.5. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to feed water
River 0.4% Sea 35% Brackish 65%
Sea 67% River 0.0%
Brackish 33%
(a) All countries
3. Renewable energy desalination capacity according to area of application Around one half of renewable energy desalination capacity in the ESCWA region, one fourth worldwide, and one sixth in the Arab region is used for demonstration purposes (again, the figure for the Arab countries reflects the weight of the sizeable Libyan contribution). Almost three quarters of capacity is devoted to municipal use worldwide, but this sector accounts for less than one third of capacity distribution in the ESCWA region. Irrigation accounts for a miniscule proportion of renewable energy desalination capacity, as shown in table 6.2 and figure 6.6.
117
Figure 6.6. Capacity distribution of renewable energy desalination plants according to area of application
Military 5% Demo 24% Municipality 71% Irrigation 0.4%
Military 18% Irrigation 0.0% Municipality 31%
Demo 51%
(a) All countries
B. TECHNO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY DESALINATION PROCESSES A variety of technologies may be applied for desalination using renewable energy resources. Some technological solutions, robust though perhaps somewhat primitive, allow limited and intermittent output; other, newer technologies can provide a steady flow of desalinated water, albeit at a relatively high cost at present. Figure 6.7 illustrates how renewable and conventional energy resources might be combined to power various types of desalination plants. The fact that desalination systems have traditionally been designed to operate with constant power input has tended to discourage the application of intermittent power sources such as solar energy. However, state-of-the-art technologies for utilizing wind and PV energy are now providing some attractive options. The use of geothermal energy for desalination is currently being demonstrated, and combinations of various renewable energy resources may emerge as viable options in the near future. Figure 6.7. Combining conventional and renewable energy resources for desalination
RES GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY RO ED MVC HEAT TVC ME MSF PV ELECTRICITY RO ED MVC HEAT TVC ME MSF SOLAR S.THERMAL ELECTRICITY MVC ED RO SHAFT MVC RO WIND ELECTRICITY MVC ED RO SHAFT MVC RO
Source: E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; ED = electrodialysis; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; TVC = thermal vapour compression; ME = multiple effect; MSF = multistage flash; PV = photovoltaic; S. THERMAL = solar thermal.
118
In the final analysis, the decision to use a particular renewable resource for desalination, whether by itself or in combination with other renewable or conventional energy resources, should be based on criteria such the following:146 (a) (b) (c) (d) The commercial maturity of the technology to be used; The availability of local infrastructure and auxiliary capabilities; The compatibility of the renewable energy system with the technology used in desalination; The simplicity of system operation and maintenance.
These factors, together with available technical information, provide a starting point for technology managers and decision makers. The paragraphs below touch upon some of the main factors and issues that need to be considered in the design and implementation of renewable energy technologies in real-life situations. The application of thermal and PV solar devices for thermal and membrane desalination processes is examined, as is the application of wind power systems in membrane and VC desalination. 1. Thermal solar-powered desalination Solar thermal distillation plants comprise a field of solar collectors providing thermal energy to heat a thermal fluid which is then used to warm the brine circulating through the distillation plant. The heated fluid is used to heat feed water in the evaporator units to temperatures ranging from 70 to 120 C. Solar energy collection may be carried out using flat or parabolic collectors; the choice depends on the temperature required by the desalination process being used. A heat storage facility is also needed to compensate for any reduction in the level (or the absence) of sunlight. Figure 6.8 presents a flowsheet for a solar-powered MED plant. The main parameters to be considered in such systems are the heat efficiency of solar collection (the percentage of solar radiation received and used for heating) and the solar fraction (the percentage of solar energy in overall energy consumption when other energy sources are also used). Figure 6.8. Multiple effect solar-powered plant flowsheet
The performance ratio of the evaporator and the auxiliary electricity consumption are also of interest.147 Both sides of the combination (energy and desalination) are now well developed as far as
146 V. Belessiotis and E. Delyannis, Water shortage and renewable energies (RE) desalinationpossible technological applications, Desalination, vol. 139 (2001), pp. 133-138.
N.H.A. Rahim, Utilisation of new technique to improve the efficiency of horizontal solar desalination still, Desalination, vol. 138 (2001), pp. 121-128.
147
119
equipment is concerned. However, the combination is not widely used, and not many examples can be found. A multiple effect evaporator assisted by solar thermal energy, located in Abu Dhabi, is described below. Solar thermal plant in Abu Dhabi: a case study* A solar-powered desalination plant is situated at the Umm Al-Nar power and desalination station about 20 miles east of the city of Abu Dhabi. The plant design, procurement and fabrication stages were initiated in February 1983, and the plant was commissioned in September 1984. It was designed as a demonstration unit aimed at evaluating the technical and economic feasibility of using this type of technology to provide remote coastal communities in the United Arab Emirates with fresh water (see figure 6.9). Figure 6.9. Abu Dhabi solar-powered multiple effect desalination plant
(i) Plant specifications and design features The plant consists of three subsystems: a solar collector field, a heat accumulator and a seawater evaporator. It is designed for an average annual fresh water output of around 85 m3/d using feed seawater with a salinity of 55,000 ppm TDS. The specifications and design features of the plant are summarized in table 6.3.
Water from the sun, case study: Abu Dhabi solar desalination plant, REFOCUS: The International Renewable Energy Magazine (March 2001), available at http://www.re-focus.net/m2001_1main.html.
120
TABLE 6.3. ABU DHABI PLANT: DESIGN FEATURES

Site data Annual mean daily solar radiation Annual mean ambient temperature Rainfall Design seawater temperature Design seawater salinity Solar collector field Type of collector Total absorber area Absorber area per single panel Selective coating absorptivity Heat accumulator Type of heat accumulator Accumulator fluid Total capacity Number of tanks Tank pressure Insulation Multiple effect stack-type evaporator Rated capacity Number of effects Number of preheaters Performance ratio Product water quality Heating water quantity Seawater requirement Design seawater temperature TDS of seawater 5,000 kcal/m2.day 30o C 18.1-390.1 mm/year 135o C 55,000 ppm TDS Evacuated tube, flat plate 1,862 m2 1.75 m2 0.91, emissivity 0.12 Thermally stratified, sensible heat Water 300 m3 3 Atmospheric pressure 10 cm fibreglass 120 m3/d 18 17 12.1 50 ppm TDS 18.5 tons/hour 42.5 tons/hour 30o C 55,000 ppm
A bank of evacuated tube (flat plate) collectors with a total absorber area of 1,862 m2 is used to provide the thermal energy required by a multiple effect stack-type (MES) evaporator with a rated capacity of 120 m3/d. In order to ensure that the evaporator can run 24 hours per day during sunny periods, a thermally stratified heat accumulator with a capacity of 300 m3 is incorporated in the design to provide the thermal energy required during the night. The electrical energy needed for the pumps used in the plant is provided from the main grid. The solar energy subsystem uses a bank of solar collectors to convert solar energy into thermal energy when solar radiation is available during the day. Thermal energy is stored in the heat accumulator subsystem to keep energy supply fluctuations to a minimum; this is desirable, since steady operation of the evaporator under optimum operating conditions is highly recommended. The basic unit in the bank of solar collectors is the flat-plate-type evacuated tube panel. Each panel contains 10 selectively coated absorber plates enclosed in 10 glass tubes maintained under strong vacuum pressure of between 4 and 10 mm Hg. Along the centre line of each glass tube is a single copper pipe attached to the middle of the absorber plate. Heat-collecting water flows through this central pipe and absorbs the solar energy reflected by the collector. The ends of each glass tube are sealed with a special stainless steel end cap using a ceramic glass material with a thermal expansion coefficient approximately the same as that of the glass tube. The difference in thermal expansion between the copper tube and the glass tube is taken up by bellows installed between the end cap and the copper pipe. Each panel has an absorber area of 1.75 m2, and the selective coating on the absorber plates has an absorptivity of 91 per cent and an emissivity of 0.12. The collector bank consists of 1,064 panels making up a total collector/absorber area of 1,862 m2.
121
Fourteen panels are connected in series to form one array, and two arrays are combined to form a single group of collectors with its own support structure. All the groups are then arranged in a U shape and connected in parallel. Groups of collectors are provided with two isolating valves, one at the inlet and another at the exit, as well as a drain valve and two air vents. The heat accumulator subsystem is designed to provide thermal energy to the evaporator during its 24hour-per-day operation. It consists of three carbon steel tanks with a total capacity of 300 m3 and contains hot water at atmospheric pressure that can range in temperature between 60o and 95o C. (ii) Plant performance Only a fraction of the total amount of solar radiation incident on the solar collectors is converted into thermal energy, while the rest is lost to the environment through reflection, and to the surrounding area through various heat transfer mechanisms. Some of the heat collected is also lost to the environment through heat transfer from the piping system, the accumulator tanks and the evaporator. Heat losses depend to a large extent on the average collector water temperature as well as the ambient temperature. A typical monthly plant energy balance for September 1985 and July 2000 is shown in table 6.4. The table indicates that out of 100 units of solar radiation falling on the collector field, 55.0 per cent (in September 1985) and 63.5 per cent (in July 2000) were actually converted into heat and transmitted to the heat accumulator; collector and piping losses for these two months were 45.0 and 36.4 per cent respectively. Accumulator heat loss amounted to 5.6 per cent in September 1985 and 8.9 per cent in July 2000, so the heat supplied to the evaporator was only 49.4 and 54.8 per cent, respectively, during the two months under review. TABLE 6.4. HEAT BALANCE OF THE ABU DHABI SOLAR DESALINATION PLANT
Energy type Incident solar radiation Collector and piping loss Collected heat to accumulator Accumulator heat loss Heat to evaporator Evaporator heat loss Net heat to evaporator Heat stored in accumulator September 1985 (106 kcal) 268.0 120.7 147.3 15.0 132.3 2.4 129.9 September 1985 (percentage) 100 45.0 55.0 5.6 49.9 0.9 48.5 July 2000 (106 kcal) 79.6 29.0 50.6 7.1 43.6 5.9 37.7 -0.1 July 2000 (percentage) 100 36.4 63.5 8.9 54.8 7.4 -0.1 -0.1
(iii) Economic considerations Capital and operating costs as well as the cost of water produced by the Abu Dhabi solar desalination plant were calculated to assess the economic performance of the system. The determination of product water cost was based on the following economic assumptions: Evaporator lifetime: Heat accumulator lifetime: Solar collector lifetime: Interest rate: Scrap value: Plant availability: 20 years 20 years 20 years 8 per cent
5 per cent (7,446 hours per year)
The following capital costs were based on actual prices provided by the manufacturers: Evaporator: Heat accumulator: Solar collectors: $299,180 $91,304 $1,098,580
122
Local fabrication and installation costs were estimated at $446,719, or 30 per cent of the sum of the three capital cost components listed above, and marine transportation costs amounted to $102,000, bringing the total installed capital cost of the plant to $2,037,783. Water cost, based on an average daily production of 100 m3 and taking into account capital amortization, may be estimated at $6.58 per m3 of distillate. This indicates that solar thermal desalination may not be feasible under these conditions. It should be noted, however, that many cost items might be reduced if local inputs were substituted for imported items, and economies of scale would naturally play an important part in lowering costs further. 2. Solar-powered membrane desalination facilities Electricity from photovoltaics can be used in desalination applications to drive electromechanical devices such as pumps or in DC devices. Electrical power may be produced by a number of PV modules; RO and ED appear to be the most suitable choices for coupling with PV systems, as they require electricity in some form. Energy storage is a matter of concern, and batteries are used for PV output power smoothing and for sustaining system operation during insufficient insolation. The main design parameters for PV-RO and PV-ED include solar energy, PV module efficiency and PV installed capacity. Naturally, the electricity consumption of the desalination process is also a major consideration in assessing the feasibility of these combinations. One advantage is that the process operates at ambient temperatures, reducing scaling and corrosion. Further, all the required energy can be provided by the PV cells; no auxiliary supply is needed. PV systems and membrane desalination units are readily available, and their prices have been declining steadily. RO units are available in small sizes and can provide fresh water for small villages or even single lodgings.148 Typical PV-RO applications are of the stand-alone variety. A brief case study of the Lampedusa plant in Italy is presented below. As mentioned earlier, electrical power is also needed to drive an ED plant. In 1986, a small plant was commissioned in the city of Tanote, in the Thar desert of India, featuring a PV system capable of providing 450 peak watts (Wp) in 42 cell pairs. The three-stage ED unit produces 1 m3 of water per day from brackish water with a TDS content of 5,000 ppm. The unit energy consumption is 1 kWh per kg of salt removed.149 A photovoltaics-driven reverse osmosis plant in Lampedusa, Italy: case study* Lampedusa is a small Italian island situated between Sicily and the Libyan coast (see figure 6.10 for a map of the area). Water resources in Lampedusa are scarce and of very poor quality; only brackish water is available, and the islanders must import 45,000 m3 of fresh water per year.
J. Rodriguez, Water desalination & renewable energy sources, Desalination and Renewable Energies, EURO Course Sustainability Assessment of Water Desalination Technologies (Vilamoura, Portugal, 2000).
149 M.R. Adiga and others, Performance analysis of photovoltaic electrodialysis desalination plant at Tanote in Thar desert, Desalination, vol. 67 (1987), pp. 59-66. *
148
European Commission (THERMIE), Desalination Guide Using Renewable Energies (Directorate General for Energy,
1999).
123
Figure 6.10. Map of Lampedusa, Italy
Source: Expedia.com.
The Lampedusa autonomous PV-RO seawater desalination plant, commissioned in 1990, was built and sized for demonstration purposes. It is capable of supplying 120 m3/hour of desalinated water for eight hours of operation at full load over three consecutive but not necessarily sunny days. The plant, powered by a system of 100 kW PV arrays, batteries and inverters, consists of an RO unit subdivided into two sections with respective product water capacities of 3 m3/hour and 2 m3/hour. Plant specifications and design features Seawater is obtained from a beach well to reduce impurities and organic content. Chemical additives (FeCl and H2SO4) are used in pretreatment to prevent colloidal and alkaline scaling. Additionally, feed water is passed through sand and cartridge filters (5, 20 microns) before entering the high-pressure piston pump; this pump is equipped with an energy conservation system that recovers 15 to 20 per cent of the consumed energy. The energy requirements of the RO plant are around 5.5 kWh per m3 of product water. The two RO unit sections have similar layouts; the one with fresh water flow of 3 m3/hour has three pumps and three permeators (see figure 6.11), and the one with flow of 2 m3/hour has two pumps and two permeators. Figure 6.11. Block diagram of the 3 m3/hour section of the photovoltaic-reverse osmosis plant in Lampedusa, Italy
124
Spiral wound permeators are used in both sections. The salt content of the product water is less than 500 ppm, in compliance with WHO specifications for drinking water. Since the water treated in this plant is blended with water produced by a large VC plant, no post-treatment is required. The power supply system is a 100 kWh PV array; batteries with storage capacity of 2 x 2,000 ampere-hours (Ah) at 220 volts (V) DC are used. The inverters, one for each section, are sized to allow the 22 kW motors to start easily. Design data are reported in table 6.5. TABLE 6.5. DESIGN FEATURES OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC-REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT IN LAMPEDUSA, ITALY
Reverse osmosis unit Product water capacity Feed water type Product water concentration Recovery ratio Nominal pressure Membrane type Number of membranes Number of permeators/vessels Energy consumption Installed power Hours of operation Operation Module arrangement Power supply system Renewable energy source Nominal/installed power PV global efficiency System type (stand-alone/grid) Renewable energy system characteristics Number of modules Number of cells/module Encapsulant Array Vmp (maximum power voltage) Voc (open circuit voltage) Strings Sub-fields Battery characteristics Type of battery Capacity Maximum battery discharge Battery efficiency Type of connection Sizing Nominal voltage Inverter characteristics Inlet voltage Outlet voltage Wave shape Capability 3 + 2 m3/hour Seawater < 500 ppm 30 per cent 55 bar Spiral wound 2 membranes/vessel 3 + 2 vessels 5.5-6 kWh/m3 22 + 15 kW 8 Automatic One stage Solar energy/photovoltaic (PV) 100 kWp 81 per cent Stand-alone with network back-up 2,272 36 MS/C 36 - 5-inch mono square Double glass 264 V 336 V 142 of 16 modules each 2 x 15 strings, 8 x 14 strings Lead acid 2 x 2,000 Ah at 220 V (DC) 50 per cent 80 per cent In parallel Capable of ensuring three days of consecutive back-up of eight hours each 220 V 22 V (DC) (20.0 V minimum to 27.0 V maximum) 380/220 V (AC) Sinusoidal Sufficient to allow easy starting of 22 kW motors
The cost of the water produced by this plant is around $5.70/m3. A breakdown of capital, operational and maintenance costs is presented in table 6.6.
125
TABLE 6.6. COST BREAKDOWN FOR THE PHOTOVOLTAIC-REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT IN LAMPEDUSA, ITALY
Equipment costs Photovoltaic (PV) array Batteries Reverse osmosis (RO) unit Operation and maintenance costs Staff Energy Membrane replacement Spare parts Electricity production cost Total water cost $8,600/kWp $110/kWh $ 16,400/m3.h $17,000/year $0.6/m3 $0.2/m3 $0.04/m3 $0.6/kWh $6/m3
The Lampedusa plant was designed for reliable commercial operation. The battery and PV array were sized so that during the summer most days would be covered solely by PV energy. During bad weather and night operation, support is required from the network. The design also takes the following into consideration: (a) The PV array is the most expensive component of the plant; (b) Summer water production should be maximized and season-specific cost factors minimized; (c) Batteries and inverters should allow easy start-up of any pump in the plant. The Lampedusa PV-RO plant has been operating satisfactorily since 1990, proving that with adequate sizing and no special incentives, it is feasible to produce and sell local water at prices lower than those charged for imported water. 3. Wind energy for membrane and vapour compression plants An increasingly popular option is wind energy conversion devices combined with various desalination units including RO, ED or VC systems. Selection of the appropriate desalination technology depends on the available feed water quality and required product water quality. Membrane systems usually produce higher-salinity water with TDS of around 500 ppm; the TDS of water produced by distillation systems is generally below 20 ppm. ED is commonly used for brackish water desalination and produces water with TDS of up to around 6,000 ppm. For all of these options, energy comes from a single wind turbine or a wind farm. Although nonelectrical power options are possible, the most widespread method for capturing and converting wind energy is by means of a wind turbine generator. The fundamental component of a wind turbine is the rotor. Modern wind turbines are horizontal axis propeller models with two or three blades made from either fibre-reinforced plastics or bonded wood laminates. Various types of wind turbine rotors have been developed, and each design has advantages for certain applications. A popular design for power generation in the 25 kW to 1 megawatt (MW) range that has a horizontal axis and three-blade configuration is illustrated in figure 6.12. One of the most important characteristics associated with wind energy systems is the random nature of the resource it depends on. This may be addressed using appropriate power control and conditioning systems for matching input power to desalination load.
126
Figure 6.12. Modern 1-megawatt wind turbine
Parameters of special interest with regard to system design include the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) Wind velocity distribution; Available power distribution; Desalination unit energy consumption; Feed water salinity.
The Gran Canaria wind desalination facility: a case study A large facility was set up on the Spanish island of Gran Canaria within the framework of a project known as seawater desalination plants connected to an autonomous wind energy system (SDAWES) (see figure 6.13).150 The system incorporates a wind farm, several desalination plants, and water circuits. The wind farm comprises two wind turbines, a flywheel running at 1,500 revolutions per minute (rpm) coupled with a 100 kilovolt-ampere (kVA) synchronous machine, an isolation transformer and an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) of 7.5 kW. The two synchronous turbines are connected in parallel and isolated from the electricity grid; each has nominal power of 230 kW. The wind turbines supply the power necessary for the operation of the various desalination units linked to the project. Ten desalination plants are installed, as follows: (a) Eight RO units with a total capacity of 200 m3/d (25 m3/d each) and specific energy consumption of 7.2 kWh/m3; (b) One vacuum vapour compression (VVC) unit with a capacity of 50 m3/d working at 0.2 bar, specific energy consumption of 16 kWh/m3, and a variable speed compressor (8,400-12,000 rpm); (c) One EDR unit with a capacity of around 190 m3/d, specific energy consumption of 3.3 kWh/m3, and a variable production rate of 35-100 per cent (obtained through the variable feed flow and variable stack voltage).
150
Ibid.
127
Figure 6.13. General view of the Gran Canaria wind desalination facility
8 5 4 7 2 1
Source: E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001. Note: Installations are designated as follows: (1) pumping station; (2) product water tank; (3) brackish water tanks; (4) desalination dome; (5) flywheel building; (6) wind turbines; (7) feed water pipe circuit.
The water circuits comprise two seawater pumping stations, one for the RO units (2 x 13 kW) and the other for the VVC unit (2 x 9 kW). Water is taken from a well around 35 metres deep, located about 100 metres from the coast; this configuration prevents the introduction of pollutants (including marine life) and subsequent fouling. 4. Solar stills The direct use of solar energy for heating or evaporating water inside a solar still is reviewed in this subsection. The solar distillation of brackish water or seawater is based on the same principle as all other thermal desalination processes. Local insolation rates vary from site to site according to the time of day and time of year, introducing an element of uncertainty and perhaps resulting in unsteady output. Heat storage, if such an option is possible, improves productivity and reliability, extending operation during the night or to cover low insolation periods. However, it also affects the economics of the whole process. Nevertheless, solar stills may constitute a reasonable solution in certain locales, particularly remote arid or semi-arid regions, where the application of complex desalination technologies may be economically or technically infeasible.151 The greenhouse-type flat solar still is simple to build and operate (see figures 6.14 and 6.15). The still consists of an airtight space in which evaporation and condensation occur simultaneously. Solar radiation penetrates this space through a tilted transparent cover and is partially absorbed by the water in the basin below. The bottom of the basin in lined in black to promote absorption. The water is heated to a temperature higher than that of the transparent cover but lower than the waters boiling point (normally 50 to 80 C). Convection currents are formed and the air-vapour mixture moves upward, where it comes in contact with the cover and cools, becomes saturated, partially condenses, and drips back into the water being treated. The distillate forms a thin film along the inside of the transparent cover and is collected in gutters.
K. Voropoulos, E. Mathioulakis and V. Belessiotis, Experimental investigation of a solar still coupled with solar collectors, Desalination, vol. 138 (2001), pp. 103-110.
151
128
Figure 6.14. Representation of a greenhouse-type flat solar still
Figure 6.15. A modern greenhouse-type flat solar still
Not all the wavelengths emitted by the sun are useful for solar distillation. The highest useful intensity is 0.47 microns, which is in the range of visible beams. The intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earths surface ranges from 0 to about 1,050 watts per square metre (W/m2) at the equator. Most of this radiation comes directly from the sun, but about 10 per cent comes as scattered light, even on cloudy days. Solar distillation plants have the serious disadvantage of low efficiency deriving from their single effect operation. Efficiency rates for solar stills range from 25 to 40 per cent in the winter and from 30 to 60 per cent during months with high radiation intensity; the actual rate depends on the design, construction and operation of the plant and on the ambient conditions. For example, a distillate flow rate of around 5 kg/m2 is possible with an assumed water temperature of 80 C and mean radiation intensity of 24.5 megajoules per
129
square metre (MJ/m2), conditions typical of insolation in the northern hemisphere in July; under such circumstances, the still has a mean daily efficiency of 50 per cent.152 Certain techniques may be used to improve distillate output; inevitably, however, they adversely affect process economics. Systems such as multiple effect solar stills, cascade solar stills and inclined-type models are associated with higher output, reliability and capital costs. Most of these designs have only reached the laboratory stage; few commercial-sized plants have been constructed.153 Preheated or hot wastewater can be used, if available nearby, to increase the efficiency of conventional solar stills. In remote or arid locations solar collectors may be used. Flat plate collectors are typically a useful option; they are more efficient than conventional stills and therefore contribute to higher overall efficiency, though the increase in productivity is not always sufficient to balance the higher capital cost. Both solar stills and flat plate collectors require large installation areas. Operational costs are much lower for solar plants than for conventional desalination plants. Capital investment per unit of still capacity, interest charges and amortization rate determine the cost of the water produced in solar stills.154 C. CONCLUDING REMARKS An overview of worldwide renewable energy desalination capacity is presented in this chapter, with emphasis given to installed capacity in the ESCWA member and other Arab countries. This is followed by a summary of issues relating to the use of solar and wind energy devices in desalination. The chapter provides a close look at some solar and wind energy desalination facilities to illustrate salient design and operational features. Several ESCWA members and other Arab countries have taken steps to instal industrial-scale renewable energy desalination plants. Roughly half of the installed renewable energy desalination capacity in the ESCWA region is being used for demonstration purposes. A considerable amount of the fresh water produced is made available for municipal and other uses. Data on the energy conversion technologies used in these facilities are inadequate, making it difficult to obtain a clear picture of world developments and trends. However, it appears that PV and thermal technologies are being used in desalination facilities everywhere. In the ESCWA region, the water produced using solar energy resources represents around three quarters of total renewable energy desalination capacity. Mirror collectors account for around 31 per cent of the renewable energy collection devices used in the ESCWA member countries; it appears that PV and heliostat collectors are seldom used. It is difficult to provide actual statistics in this regard, as unspecified collectors account for more than 60 per cent of the total. Seawater and brackish water sources respectively account for around two thirds and one third of renewable energy desalination capacity in the ESCWA region. Renewable energy devices are most often coupled with RO and MED units, which account for around 47 and 36 per cent of total renewable energy desalination capacity, respectively.
E. Delyannis and V. Belessiotis, Solar desalination: Is it effective? Part I: conventional solar distillation, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 4, No. 4 (1994).
153 E. Delyannis and V. Belessiotis, Solar desalination: Is it effective? Part II: solar assisted distillation, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 5, No. 1 (1995).
152
M.R. Kamal, J. Simandl and J. Ayoub, Cost comparison of water produced from solar powered distillation and solar stills, Desalination & Water Reuse, vol. 9, No. 2 (1999).
154
130
At the international level, renewable energy desalination capacity has been irregular during the past few decades. At present, the total installed capacity of plants using solar and wind resources represents a little more than 0.02 per cent of worldwide installed capacity. Desalination processes incorporating the use of renewable energy resources are far from achieving anything close to their full potential. Efforts to disseminate solar- and wind-based desalination technologies are at an embryonic stage in many parts of the world. The excellent position in which the ESCWA member countries find themselves in terms of fossil fuel availability should not deter local efforts to develop renewable energy applications, especially in the field of water desalination. Greater attention must be focused on the incorporation of renewable energy inputs in desalination facilities of all sizes. With appropriate national policies, focused national initiatives and workable coordination modalities, the ESCWA member countries could easily assume a leading position in the development of desalination technologies relying on solar and wind energy in particular. The need to develop renewable energy technology for micro-scale desalination is especially urgent. Solar stills and other available solar and wind devices could be used or adapted as required. The impact of very small and micro desalination systems on the lives of women in remote and certain rural areas in the region would likely be great, with the social and economic benefits far exceeding the apparent costs.
131
VII. STRATEGIC ISSUES IN DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY BUILDING It is essentially because of the strong performance of MSF systems that seawater desalination has become such a popular method of dealing with the water shortage in the coastal ESCWA member countries. The MSF process was developed for implementation in the Gulf States as early as the 1970s and has been used successfully throughout the Arabian Peninsula in large-scale applications. Cumulative water production at the large installations in Shuaiba (Saudi Arabia) and Al-Taweelah B/A2, Jebel Ali K1/K2 and Umm AlNar West (United Arab Emirates) accounts for about 25 per cent of the total contracted water capacity over the past 30 years or so. MSF is still the most widely used method in the GCC countries. However, rapid advances in RO technology have helped bring about considerable cost reductions. Kuwait was one of the first States to recognize the advantages of using RO for seawater desalination. The first demonstration RO units for desalinating seawater were constructed in 1979 at the Doha site and in Kuwait city, each with a capacity of 1,000 m3/d. In 1980, the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) constructed a 1,000 m3/d RO unit at Doha. A unit with a capacity of 1,650 m3/d was installed at Doha East in 1986. In 1999, the Ministry of Electricity and Water built a commercial RO plant able to produce up to 108,800 m3/d at Al-Zour South. Dual-purpose technologies combining power generation and water desalination are rapidly changing approaches to desalination plant design and operation. The next wave of desalination technologies will focus primarily on reducing energy costs by optimizing power and water generation. At present, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates use cogeneration plants on a major scale. The Doha East combined power and desalination facility in Kuwait exemplifies the present trend. The plant has seven steam turbines each producing 150 MW of power, as well as seven 27,600 m3/d MSF desalination units. Other examples include the Medina and Yanbu Phase II MSF-RO plants, which produce 164 MW of electric power and 349,600 m3/d of desalinated water. Recent advances point to possibilities for achieving greater water desalination cost savings through membrane applications than through thermal applications. RO pretreatment costs have declined significantly with the integration of several membrane operations, such as MF, NF and UF, resulting in lower overall operating costs. Increasing desalinated water recovery factors by integrating membrane distillation units into the retentate stage of the RO process is also possibility. Figure 7.1 presents viable combinations of desalination technologies and the various energy resource options available. Several ESCWA member countries are contemplating the privatization of their power and water utilities; some have even taken concrete steps in this direction. If well managed under schemes that ensure effective competition, this process could ultimately lead to improved production practices and lower unit product costs. In some remote locations, renewable energy options may be the key to keeping costs down. Solar and wind power systems are particularly suitable for remote areas where it is difficult or prohibitively expensive to obtain energy from traditional sources or connect to the national grid. The possibilities for small-scale desalination applications are promising, as shown in chapter VI. Building capacity for the adaptation, dissemination and development of small-scale desalination systems for villages and rural communities, whether powered by conventional or renewable resources, should be approached with particular regard for the welfare of the womenfolk living there.
132
Figure 7.1. Viable combinations of desalination technologies

Conventional Energy Sources
Wind ED/EDR MF UF NF Membrane Processes MC RO
Solar PV
MVC MSF ME Thermal Processes
MD
TVC
Energy source Actual approach Emerging interaction
Solar Heat
Source: E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001. Note: ED = electrodialysis; EDR = electrodialysis reversal; PV = photovoltaic; MF = microfiltration; UF = ultrafiltration; NF = nanofiltration; MC = membrane contactor; MD = membrane distillation; RO = reverse osmosis; MSF = multistage flash; MVC = mechanical vapour compression; ME = multiple effect; TVC = thermal vapour compression.
Women, especially those in the rural areas of the region, are primary actors/stakeholders in that they are generally responsible for obtaining fresh water for drinking, cooking, washing and other household tasks. As the quality and quantity of available fresh water resources deteriorate, women often need to travel longer distances to find the water they need. Their access to fresh water has an enormous impact on their wellbeing, safety and contribution to community development. For this reason, the dissemination of small-scale desalination and wastewater treatment systems is crucial. Such systems were reviewed previously, particularly in chapter VI, in relation to renewable energy inputs. Solar stills, mentioned in the same chapter, may have the greatest potential for application in remote areas, so attention should be directed towards their adaptation and development. The dissemination of suitable desalination technologies would give rural women more free time to carry out essential daily tasks, provide better care for their families, and participate in learning and incomegenerating activities. Considerable development work is needed to reduce the cost of small-scale desalination systems, to render them suitable for relatively inexpensive and trouble-free operation, and to train those responsible for system upkeep and servicing. Governments should take a leading role in these efforts. However, partnerships between the public and private sectors should also be initiated with a view to achieving rapid technology dissemination, ensuring a reliable supply of locally manufactured components, and providing or facilitating servicing and preventive maintenance operations. The need for desalination units (mainly for brackish water but also for seawater), auxiliary equipment and support services should provide small and medium-sized enterprises, working together with concerned national and civil society institutions, ample opportunity for involvement in the process. Given the general scarcity of fresh water
133
throughout the region, the development and dissemination of small desalination systems constitute objectives that might be most effectively pursued through regional and subregional cooperation. A. CORE ISSUES IN STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES Improving capacity for the adoption and dissemination of both new and mature desalination technologies, a growing necessity for many ESCWA member countries, can only be achieved through sustained action on a number of levels. A long-term commitment to the adaptation and further development of modern desalination technologies is required for at least two important reasons: to reduce capital and running costs and to lessen the environmental impact of desalination processes. Focused and sustained efforts are needed to achieve both objectives. More precisely, an immense amount of time and energy must be invested in endogenous technological capacity building. The subsections below outline strategic actions to be taken towards this end. 1. Desalination technology selection Desalination technologies are generally characterized by their relatively high capital intensity and energy consumption and their negative, albeit relatively limited, environmental impact. Care should be taken to design desalination plants for maximum output consistent with technical and economic feasibility, and efforts should be made to ensure compatibility with present and future demand patterns as well as environmental requirements. With the public utility privatization trend gaining momentum in many of the ESCWA member countries, especially in the Gulf States, it is likely that more vigorous steps will be taken by the private sector to acquire desalination technology for the construction of new facilities and the renovation and refurbishing of existing plants. Ideally, this should give rise to technology alliances both within the region and between local and outside partners. The full involvement of local science and technology manpower in such alliances should help to reduce costs and promote further technology adaptation and dissemination, but more profound changes are needed before local development capacities are sufficiently mature to allow innovation in the region. New institutional forms and networking arrangements are essential to bring about more effective interaction between concerned science and technology institutions and the desalination industry. Technology parks, technology incubators and high-technology clusters could play an important role in promoting the development of desalination technologies and industries. The choice of technology in a given industry depends primarily on factors such as local conditions, the types of energy inputs and feedstock available for processing, end-use considerations and the availability of support services. It is critically important that concerned local and national bodies be involved in the selection process. In many cases such involvement bodes well for the future implementation and operation of the technology option chosen. Participatory approaches need to be adopted to involve national institutions (including government bodies), enterprises and civil society institutions at a number of levels, ranging from strategic planning, technology acquisition and unit procurement to the provision of technical and auxiliary services and maintenance. 2. Legislative and administrative considerations Extensive legislative and administrative reform is needed to accelerate, harmonize, coordinate and/or regulate project conception, execution, control and supervision. Changes introduced at these levels should be aimed at consolidating the position of private enterprise in the acquisition, adaptation and implementation of desalination technologies, and at creating an environment that allows foreign technology holders to forge effective technology and production alliances with national operators. Reforms will have to extend beyond the water desalination industry itself. Action may be needed with regard to national and municipal water policies and water pricing, licensing requirements and centrally
134
dictated fee structures.155 Reforms should include provisions allowing more intensive involvement by local enterprise, measures to promote a wider scope for partnerships between local enterprises, and modalities that guarantee long-term collaboration with foreign technology suppliers. 3. Regulations Regulations for buying, owning, operating and transferring desalination technology156 should be set up to foster partnerships between concerned government departments and private sector institutions. The ultimate goal should be to improve modalities for identifying and adopting appropriate desalination technologies as well as related operational and management practices. The lack of such regulations makes it impossible for planners to move ahead with the development and adoption of optimal system configurations designed to reduce unit product costs and conserve environmental resources. 4. Standards and codes Standards and codes need to be formulated for desalination operations to increase efficiency, ensure safety and minimize environmental damage. Codes and standards have been developed for the petroleum, petrochemical, utility, air conditioning and other industrial sectors. International associations have an important role to play in this area, in collaboration with concerned national and regional organizations. 5. Networking and cooperation Networking and cooperation arrangements must be given high priority by organizations and associations involved in promoting desalination technology. Activities carried out by these entities are often limited to the organization of conferences and specialized workshops, the publication of specialist reports and conference proceedings, and Web page construction and updating. While such activities are useful, concerned organizations and associations should extend their efforts beyond the provision of information to include operational activities aimed at bridging gaps between industrial and research activities and at establishing or strengthening cooperative links between industrial firms with a view to facilitating precompetitive research and technology development. Concerned international and regional organizations could also cooperate more effectively in setting up networks for the dissemination of information on a variety of subject areas including operation, maintenance and troubleshooting. 6. Innovative research The objective of innovative research is to devise solutions to operational problems and improve performance characteristics, and to design novel configurations incorporating the advances made in this context. Current desalination research tends to focus on achieving a better understanding of existing processes and interactions between process parameters. While this is of immense value, research geared towards the development of innovative designs is needed. A certain amount of such research has to be conducted in areas closer to basic science than to applied science, necessitating closer cooperation at the international and regional levels. Well-formulated research programmes in this domain would provide bases for future technology development and should be supported by concerned stakeholders, since their participation would improve their position with respect to the acquisition of tomorrows technologies. 7. Environmental impact Major changes in legislation may be needed to address the environmental impact of desalination operations, with special attention given to effluent streams, air emissions and thermal pollution, particularly that emanating from certain thermal plants in coastal locations with fragile ecologies. New technology inputs will be required. Frame 7.1 provides a brief outline of some of the more important areas that need to be considered in relation to the subject under review.
155 156
These issues have been the subjects of several ESCWA studies during the past few years. In the areas of both know-how and desalination plant hardware (equipment, instrumentation and so on).
135
Frame 7.1. Environmental impact of desalination technologies Effluent water streams. Streamlined but site-sensitive provisions for the discharge of effluent water from desalination processes should be formulated to address issues such as locating effluent outfall and water effluent quality. Key environmental issues requiring consideration within the legal framework include the discharge of brine blow-down, heavy metal discharge, discharge temperature and pretreatment chemicals. Brine concentrate disposal. The desalination process produces high-salinity waste concentrates that must be disposed of. The composition of the concentrate depends on the desalination process used, plant design, feed water composition and type of concentrate treatment required prior to disposal. All disposal options require a site-specific evaluation of costs and an assessment of potential environmental effects, both direct and indirect. Problems associated with the disposal of brine concentrates have thus far been accorded secondary importance. With the increasing number and capacity of desalination units, however, brine disposal modalities will need to be more closely monitored. The disposal of brine concentrates should become a primary consideration in the construction and operation of future plants. Brine concentrate disposal may cause only limited problems in coastal environments owing to the rapid dilution that typically occurs with the use of appropriate discharge measures. However, in sensitive areas, living organisms may be adversely affected by the combined effects of increased salinity, higher concentrations of pretreatment chemicals or natural contaminants in the effluent, and elevated temperatures. Heavy metal discharges. Heavy metal discharges from desalination plants occur as plant materials corrode. Deaeration and the addition of anti-corrosion chemicals are standard techniques for minimizing corrosion. Corrosion may also result from poor material selection, galvanic action or poor operating practices. Higher operating temperatures accelerate corrosion and, hence, heavy metal discharges. Discharge temperature. The elevated temperature of brine concentrates and cooling water may cause ecological changes in the immediate vicinity of the discharge outlets. As indicated above, the changes may cause critical damage in certain fragile ecological situations. Pretreatment chemicals. Chemicals used in the pretreatment and post-treatment of desalinated water must be subject to approval by the appropriate national authorities. Extreme caution is needed to ensure that emissions do not have a cumulative negative environmental impact over the long term. Air emissions. Special provisions should be adopted to specify sulphur oxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission limits for desalination plants; this is particularly important in cases where cogeneration is practised, or where fuel oil, for example, is being used to generate power for high-pressure RO pumping systems. Such provisions should be formulated in concert with local environmental regulations and should reflect a good deal of site specificity. Emission credits should be considered to encourage environmentally sound desalination technologies and operational practices.
8. Manufacturing components and spare parts Efforts should be made to involve national and regional industrial concerns in the manufacture of plant components and spare parts, especially those items required by the industry on a regular basis. Relying on local sources would reduce operational costs and create employment opportunities. Naturally, such endeavours would need to be coordinated with the development of industrial codes and standards. 9. Operation and maintenance contracts Operation and maintenance contracts should be increasingly directed towards specialized firms in the local private sector. This would create a competitive environment and reduce annual operation and maintenance costs. 10. Human resource development Human resource development programmes should be made more widely available, both on-site and at academic and vocational institutions.157 The adoption of relevant training programmes has been shown to
157 An example of on-site training for MSF desalination is provided by E. Al-Falah and A. Al-Shuaib, Impact of on-site training on performance of MSF plants: a case study, a paper prepared for the Conference on Desalination Strategies in the Southern Mediterranean Countries, Jerba, Tunisia, 11-13 September 2000.
136
lead to enhanced operational safety, economy and product quality. Human resource development constitutes an excellent target for international and regional initiatives and an important aspect of capacity-building strategies. B. CONCLUDING REMARKS Ensuring adequate water supplies for municipal, industrial and agricultural uses has been one of the major challenges faced in development efforts in many of the ESCWA member countries. Water desalination has been an important means of securing these resources. Relatively high desalination costs have traditionally imposed a heavy burden on Governments and consumers, but considerable cost reductions have been achieved in recent years, mainly through technology development. The increased sophistication and wider dissemination of water desalination technologies are linked to reduced unit product costs, the availability of multiple technology options, and more flexible and reliable operation. Many of the developments occurring today have, in no small measure, emanated from the experience gained in the implementation of desalination technologies in the GCC countries. As indicated in the first chapter of this study, desalination capacity in the ESCWA member countries has grown enormously during the past few decades. There is some undocumented evidence that water authorities throughout the region have gained considerable expertise in technology assessment and selection, leading in many cases to appropriate decisions regarding the choice of desalination technology for implementation. There is also evidence indicating that considerable experience has been gained in the operation and maintenance of desalination plants and improving their economics. There is no evidence, however, that sufficient capabilities have been acquired for the manufacture and development of desalination technology equipment and instrumentation. This is true despite indicators pointing to growing involvement by the regions scientists and engineers in research activities relating to different areas of desalination technology. There have been a number of credible claims regarding new processes and significant modifications to existing processes originated by local researchers. Nevertheless, there is little to indicate any substantial or widespread contributions by local scientists and engineers to desalination technology. Evidence of tangible technology contributions from local business institutions is even harder to come by. This situation prevails in spite of the rapidly growing demand for fresh water, and in spite of the fact that endogenous capacity building in desalination technologies is not only a logical option, but also a critical necessity, for the countries of the region. The present state of affairs bears the hallmark of policy, strategy and institutional inadequacies. An important role is foreseen for private enterprise in the promotion and dissemination of desalination technologies in many ESCWA member countries; however, concerned government institutions have an enormous role to play as well. Nowhere is this role more important than in the area of national technological capacity building. Many Governments in the region have prudently embarked on the privatization of their water and power utilities, so the time is ripe for them to play a decisive role in facilitating the creation of national and regional capacity in desalination technology. It is only with the acquisition of such capacity that a constant flow of cost-effective and environmentally friendly technologies, crucial for the health and future performance of national desalination industries, may be guaranteed. Major efforts in terms of policy and strategy formulation, the establishment of legislative and regulatory frameworks, institution building and human resource development are required. Comprehensive national and regional initiatives are needed to achieve tangible results in these areas. The primary objective of any initiative should be to achieve a position in the field of desalination technology that reflects the level of desalination capacity in the region and the crucial nature of this industry for socio-economic development in the ESCWA member countries. The results of R and D activities aimed at producing new methods and materials, coupled with superior automation and control methodologies and plant management and housekeeping practices, promise further important innovations in desalination processes in the not-too-distant future. If the countries of the region are to capitalize on such developments, it is essential that they place a high premium on building
137
relevant scientific and technological capacity. Emerging R and D capabilities in the ESCWA member countries are in need of increased support. It is by building such capabilities, and by reinforcing and expanding research efforts through cooperation with universities, research centres, companies and other sources of technology in both developed and developing countries outside the region, that success may be achieved in further reducing desalination costs and disseminating appropriate technologies.
138
Annex A DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES: TABLES AND FIGURES TABLE A.1. DESALINATION CAPACITY IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES
Country Algeria Eritrea Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Mauritania Morocco Sudan Tunisia Total Installed Planned capacitya/ capacityb/ Total capacity Installed 3 (1,000 m /d) (1,000 m3/d) (1,000 m3/d) unitsa/ 193 50 243 103 1 1 2 703 4 26 1 73 1 002 703 4 36 1 73 1 062 216 3 17 2 44 387 Estimated cost of Estimated cost of Total estimated planned unitsb/ cost (US$ Planned Total number installed unitsa/ b/ (US$ millions) (US$ millions) millions) units of units 2 105 326 72 398 2 3 3 216 3 21 2 44 393 1 370 11 56 4 71 1 840 1 370 11 76 4 71 1 933
10
21
60
93
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). a/ Including plants operational before 31 December 2000. b/ Including plants to be contracted during the period 2000-2003.
TABLE A.2. DISTRIBUTION OF INSTALLED DESALINATION CAPACITY IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO TECHNOLOGY
Process Multistage flash Reverse osmosis Vapour compression Electrodialysis Multiple effect distillation Other Hybrid Total Total capacity (1,000 m3/d) 546 257 109 78 8 3 1 1 002 Percentage 54% 26% 11% 8% 1% 0.3% 0.1% 100%
TABLE A.3. PROGRESS MADE BY THE MULTISTAGE FLASH DESALINATION INDUSTRY IN KUWAIT
Year of operation 1953 1954 1956 1960 1965 1965 1968 1968 1968 1968 1970 1971 1971 1975 1978 1980 1982 1984 1984 1985 1989 1998 Number of units 10 10 4 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 3 4 3 1 4 12 8 4 Unit capacity (m3/d) Number of stages 454.6 4 454.6 4 2 275 4 4 542 30 4 542 30 4 542 30 9 084 24 9 084 24 9 084 25 9 084 25 18 168 26 23 845 25 23 845 25 22 710 26 27 289 26 27 289 26 27 300 24 4 540 28 27 500 24 32 700 24 32 800 24 27 276 24 PR 2.5-3.1 2.5-3.1 3.5 5 8 7.65 8.33 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 8 8 8 8 Location SK SK SK (C, D) SK (E1, E2) SK (F) SN (A) SK (G) SN (B) SN (C) SK (B) SK (A) SN (D) SS (A1-A4) SS (A5, A6) DE (A1-A3) DE (A4-A7) SK (D1-D3) DE (A8) DW DW ZS ZS Status D D D D D S D S S D D S O O O O O S O O O O Manufacturing company Westinghouse, USA Westinghouse, USA Westinghouse, USA Weir Westgarth, GB Weir Westgarth, GB Weir Westgarth, GB Westinghouse, USA Westinghouse, USA Ishikawajima, Japan Ishikawajima, Japan Ishikawajima, Japan Alstom, France Alstom, France Ishikawajima, Japan Ishikawajima, Japan Ishikawajima, Japan Hitachi, Japan Reggiane, Italy Reggiane, Italy Sasakura, Japan Sasakura, Japan Mitsui, Japan
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. Notes: Total installed capacity = 1,314,309 m3/d. Key to abbreviations: D = demolished; O = operational; S = out of service; PR = performance ratio (kg distillate product/kg heating steam); SK = Shuwaikh; SN = Shuaiba North; SS = Shuaiba South; DE = Doha East; DW = Doha West; ZS = Azzour South; USA = United States of America; GB = United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
139
TABLE A.4. DEVELOPMENT AND FEATURES OF MULTISTAGE FLASH DESALINATION PLANTS IN KUWAIT
Location (a) Shuwaikh C and D Features Non-MSF flashing-type evaporators Use of a stainless steel demister in the last stage reduced distillate salinity to 80 ppm. Scale formation limited owing to the use of the Hagevap antiscalant and operation at temperatures below 90o C A fine-hole strainer installed on the intake of seawater make-up used to eliminate tube fouling and plugging First MSF units in Kuwait Increased capacity from 2,273 to 4,546 m3/d Increased number of stages from 4 to 19 Increased performance ratio (PR) from 3.5 to 5 Sixteen stages in heat recovery and three stages in heat rejection Used a control unit for the top brine temperature and flow rate of the feed seawater Increased PR from 5 to 8 The first time aluminium brass used for stages operating at temperatures below 85o C All units operated through a complete remote control system from a central control room Intake seawater temperature to the heat rejection section kept constant throughout the year, achieved by recycling and mixing part of the cooling seawater stream with the intake seawater Brine blow-down flow rate controlled by the brine level in the last stage Flow rate of the heating steam controlled by the top brine temperature Increased unit capacity from 4,546 to 9,092 m3/d Controlled the flow rate of the feed make-up seawater by the salinity of the brine in the brine recycle stream Specifications Westinghouse 1956 4 units 4 stages 2,273 m3/d 3.5 (PR) Weir Westgarth 1960 2 units 19 stages 4,546 m3/d 5 (PR) Weir Westgarth 1965 5 units 24-30 stages 4,546 m3/d 7.65-8 (PR)
(b) Shuwaikh E1 and E2
(c) Shuwaikh F and Shuaiba North A
(d) Shuwaikh G and Shuaiba North B
(e) Shuwaikh B and Shuaiba North C
The 24 flashing arrangements installed in two tiers
(f) Shuwaikh A
Increased the number of stages from 24 to 26 Increased unit capacity from 9,092 to 18,184 m3/d
(g) Shuaiba North D and Shuaiba South A1A4
Decreased the number of stages from 26 to 25 All pumps driven by electric motors rather than turbine drives A separate pump provided for brine blow-down; however, provisions made to allow the circulation pump to discharge the brine blow-down stream Steam ejectors supplied in two separate units Smaller size than previous units Air ejectors used to remove non-condensable gases from first and final stages; non-condensable gases accumulated in the last stage by use of serial extraction orifices between stages Increased unit capacity from 22,730 to 27,277 m3/d Owing to the large volume of this system, it was necessary to vent the noncondensable gases from stage 6 to final stage.
(h) Shuaiba South A5 and A6
(i) Doha East A1-A7
Westinghouse 1968 3 units 24 stages 9,092 m3/d 8-8.33 (PR) Ishikawajima 1968 4 units 24-30 stages 9,092 m3/d 8 (PR) Ishikawajima 1970 5 units 26 stages 18,184 m3/d 8 (PR) Alstom 1971 5 units 25 stages 22,730-23,867 m3/d 8 (PR) Ishikawajima 1975 2 units 26 stages 22,730 m3/d 8 (PR) Ishikawajima 1978-1980 7 units 26 stages 27,277 m3/d 8 (PR)
140
TABLE A.4 (continued)

Location (j) Shuwaikh D1-D3 Features Decreased the number of stages from 26 to 24 Deaeration performed in a separate deaerator Venting heater to 1st stage; 1st and 2nd stages vented directly to the intercondenser; 7th, 13th and 19th stages vented to the last stage; intermediate stages vented to the next stage in cascade through vent pipes; 24th stage vented to the 1st stage ejector, discharged to the inter-condenser, then discharged to the after-condenser and finally to the atmosphere Operating range increased to 70-110 per cent of design capacity First time Taprogge ball cleaning used for brine heater and heat recovery section Specifications Hitachi 1982 3 units 24 stages 27,277 m3/d 8 (PR)
(k) Doha West Phase I
(l) Doha East A8
(m) Doha West Phase II
(n) Azzour South Stage I
Experimental unit Top brine temperature up to 138o C At 120o C, system utilized acid treatment. At temperatures above 121o C, a desulphation unit was used with four anionic resin beds. Unit used to evaluate performance of MSF plants with acid treatment versus antiscalant treatmenta/ Units designed to operate over a top brine temperature range of 90o-110o C; polyphosphate used at 90o C and special polymer antiscalant used at 110o C Performance ratio range: 8 to 8.65 Capacity range: 27,277 to 32,732 m3/d Use of epoxy for coating of carbon steel plates in other stages 316L stainless steel used for: 1. Cladding of carbon steel ceilings in stages 1-12 and 24 2. Ceiling plates in stages 19-23 3. Cladding of carbon steel front and rear plates in stages 1-6 and 24 4. Flash boxes, weirs and orifice plates Features similar to the Doha West plants
Reggiane 1984 4 units 24 stages 27,277 m3/d 8 (PR) Reggiane 1984 1 unit 28 stages 27,277 m3/d 8 (PR) Sasakura 1985 12 units 24 stages 27,277-32,732 m3/d 8-8.65 (PR)
(o) Azzour South Stage II
Features similar to Azzour South Stage I
Sasakura 1989 8 units 24 stages 27,277-32,732 m3/d 8 (PR) Mitsui 1989 8 units 24 stages 27,277-32,732 m3/d 8 (PR)
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001. a/ R. Zannoni and others, Prototype test results for Doha West (Kuwait) 4 x 6 migpd desalination plants: report on the main design data of the above plants, Desalination, vol. 45 (1983), pp. 337-344.
141
Figure A.1. Distribution of plant capacity in the ESCWA member countries according to desalinated water use
Bahrain
Tourism Irrigation 0.2% 1% Industrial 21% Power 0.1%
Military 3% Power 19 %
Egypt
Other 1% Demo 0.1% Municipal 32 %
Iraq
Tourism 0.2%
Municipal 2% Power 35%
Municipal 78%
Industrial 22 %
Tourism 23 %
Industrial 63%
Kuwait
Industrial 1% Irrigation 13% Power 0.4% Military 0.05%
Power 3%
Jordan
Other 1%
Lebanon
Demo 0.01%
Industrial 6%
Demo 0.01%
Industrial 11%
Municipal 86%
Municipal 90%
Power 89%
Saudi Arabia
Power 1% Military 3% Industrial 11% Tourism 1% Irrigation 0.2%
Qatar
Demo 0.01 %
Industrial 13%
Oman
Military 1%
Demo 0.01% Othe 0.02
Industrial 6%
Municipal 84%
Municipal 94 %
Municipal 86%
UAE
Demo 0.05% Industrial 4% Military 0.04% Tourism 0.1%
Discharge 36%
Syria
Industrial 14%
Yemen
Industrial 10%
Powe 54%
Municipal 86%
Municipal 96%
Source: K. Wangnick, 2000 IDA worldwide desalting plants inventory: report No. 16 (Wangnick Consulting, May 2000). Note: Military = fresh water used as drinking water for military facilities, TDS 10 mg/l to < 1,000 mg/l; municipal = fresh water used as municipal drinking water, TDS 10 mg/l to < 1,000 mg/l; power = fresh water used as process water in power stations, TDS < 10 mg/l; tourism = fresh water used as drinking water for tourist facilities, TDS 10 mg/l to < 1,000 mg/l; demonstration = fresh water produced for demonstration purposes; industrial = fresh water used as industrial or process water, TDS < 10 mg/l; irrigation = fresh water used for irrigation, TDS < 1,000 mg/l; discharge = fresh water produced for discharge.
142
Figure A.2. Variations in daily per capita water consumption in Kuwait
600 500 400 liter/d/capita 300 200 100 0 1970
1975
1980
1985 Year
1990
1995
2000
143
Annex B DESALINATION PLANT CASE STUDIES FROM SAUDI ARABIA AND THE SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC A. SAUDI ARABIA: SHUAIBA PHASE II MULTISTAGE FLASH COGENERATION DESALINATION PLANT Located on the Red Sea north of Jeddah, the Shuaiba Phase II plant is expected to enter service in 2001.158 Total capital investment for both water treatment and power generation was initially estimated at around $1 billion; however, delays and cost overruns may have increased capital costs to around $1.2 billion. As shown in table B.1, which includes a summarized economic analysis of the Shuaiba II plant, capital outlays for the power and water plants are similar. The economic factors used to determine the product water cost are listed in table 4.5 in chapter IV of this study. TABLE B.1. SHUAIBA PHASE II MULTISTAGE FLASH COGENERATION DESALINATION PLANT
Cost item Power cost Capital cost Fixed charge rate Fuel (1,631,988 tons/year of crude at US$ 100/ton) Other Revenue: steam Revenue: electricity Net cost Unit cost Water cost Capital cost Fixed charge rate Energy: extraction steam Energy: electrical power Energy subtotal Chemicals: chlorine Chemicals: antifoam Chemicals: antiscalant Other chemicals Chemical subtotal Labour Spare parts Total annual cost Product water cost (US$/m3) Cost (thousands of US dollars) 525 000a/ 67 200/year 171 255/year 27 300/year 56 700/year 23 100/year 178 500/year US$ 0.045/kWh 493 000a/ 63 097 60 921 24 944 85 865 1 899 32 6 242 4 698 12 871 2 438 9 867 172 426 1.12
Source: M. Kayyal, Study on wastewater treatment and water desalination technologies for ESCWA countries, prepared for ESCWA in December 2000. a/ Contract delays and cost overruns are expected to increase the total capital cost to around $1.2 billion.
The cost of producing water depends largely on the size of the plant.159 The overall reduction in cost achieved with the earnings from power generation renders cogeneration facilities economically viable. The Shuaiba Phase II plant uses dual-purpose, brine recycling MSF evaporation technology.160 It is designed to produce around 450,000 m3/d using seawater with TDS of around 35 grams per litre (g/l). The
158 A special report on water in Middle East Economic Digest (vol. 44, No. 4, 28 January 2000, p. 12) does not list the Shuaiba Phase II plant as an active desalination project in Saudi Arabia. However, two other projects, the Shuaiba Phase III and Shuaiba Phase IV plants, are included. These two MSF plants have a total capacity of 480,273 m3/d and are expected to become operational in 2002 and 2003, respectively (see table 1.7 in chapter I of the study). 159 160
Compare, for example, table B.1 with table 4.6 in chapter IV of this study.
The contractors for plant erection and commissioning are the Saudi Arabian Bechtel Co., ABB and Korean Heavy Industries and Construction Company.
144
plant generates 440 tons of steam per hour in 10 evaporators, can handle brine temperatures of around 96 C, and has a performance ratio of 8. Power generation capacity in this dual-purpose plant is rated at 525 MW. B. SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC: THE ORIENTAL PAPER MANUFACTURING
REVERSE OSMOSIS DESALINATION PLANT
The fresh water supply in the Syrian Arab Republic is typically provided from available river and groundwater resources. There are no seawater desalination plants in operation in the country. The desalination units currently in use have small capacities and are based primarily on RO and other filter membrane technologies. They are used mainly in extractive industries (including oil field production) and for other industrial applications. Figures reported in an ESCWA study161 indicate a desalination capacity of 2 MCM/year for the Syrian Arab Republic, one of the lowest among the ESCWA member countries, along with Lebanon. This section provides some information on a brackish water RO desalination unit set up to provide treated water for use in the manufacture of hygienic paper at the Oriental Paper Manufacturing company in Damascus. The plant, designed to produce around 1,200 litres of treated water per day, was installed in May 2000 at a capital cost of around $400,000. The system includes three separate stages, namely, feed water pretreatment, water desalination, and water post-treatment. A brief description of each stage, and of the quality control and assurance measures applied, is presented below. Table B.2 includes performance parameters for the RO process. TABLE B.2. REVERSE OSMOSIS DESALINATION PLANT FOR THE ORIENTAL PAPER MANUFACTURING COMPANY*
System Membrane arrays Vessels in each membrane array Total daily production capacity Feed water rate Membrane configuration Membrane type Pressure applied Pressure out Energy consumption Membrane lifetime Total dissolved solids (TDS) content of feed water System recovery Temperature of feed water Pressure-driven reverse osmosis-type membranes 2 4 1,200 litres/d 66 litres/hour Spiral wound Cellulose monoacetate, non-porous, asymmetric composite 2.5 bar 0.4 bar 1.2 kWh/m3 of product water 5 years 900 to 1,500 mg/l 75 per cent at 900 mg/l TDS, and 62 per cent at 1,500 mg/l TDS 18 to 20 C
Source: M. Kayyal, Study on wastewater treatment and water desalination technologies for ESCWA countries, prepared for ESCWA in December 2000. * Operational costs could not be provided by the plant operator, as no fee structure exists.
1. Design of the treatment plant The design of the RO treatment plant was based on available feed water rates, feed water composition, water temperature, and the required product water output rate. Feed water data were collected and evaluated to determine hardness and total dissolved and suspended solids content, and to obtain a detailed profile of dissolved material including heavy metal ions as well as other anions and cations. 2. Feed water treatment Feed water for the desalination plant comes from 180 m3 underground storage tanks. Feedback water is chlorinated (dosage levels range between 5 and 10 mg/l) to guard against biological fouling. Feed water is
161
ESCWA, Development of non-conventional water resources (E/ESCWA/ENR/1997/9/Rev.1).
145
also pretreated to prevent membrane plugging, with down-flow sand filtration tanks and 5 micron cartridge filters used prior to RO treatment. Dechlorination ensues to protect membrane material, and pH is adjusted in accordance with the measured water hardness. 3. The reverse osmosis process Spiral wound membrane cartridges are used, fitted with non-porous, asymmetric composite membranes made of cellulose acetate. Total production capacity is rated at 1,200 m3/d based on a feed water intake rate of around 66 litres per hour. 4. Post-treatment The post-treatment of product water is essential primarily to bring the pH level back up from 4.5-5.5 to a neutral or slightly alkaline value. Product water is then stored in 180 m3 underground tanks. 5. Quality control and quality assurance measures Sand filters are cleaned by backwashing every four hours to prevent plugging. Pretreatment membranes are cleaned using alkaline washing solutions every two weeks, and an acid wash is used to clean the RO membranes once a month. Membrane scaling is reduced by adjusting the pH of the feed water to values between 5.5 and 6. This RO plant has the ability to shut down automatically when pH, TDS, temperature or pressure levels wander outside set limits.
146
Annex C SCALE FORMATION AND SCALE CONTROL METHODS IN MULTISTAGE FLASH DESALINATION Scale formation and material corrosion are considered the most critical factors affecting the operation and efficiency of desalination plants. Two types of scale build-up are encountered in thermal seawater MSF desalination: alkaline scale and hard scale. Scale formation affects the upper value of the heating system temperature, degrading the performance of MSF plants. A. ALKALINE SCALE Calcium carbonate and, at higher temperatures, magnesium hydroxide constitute the bulk of alkaline scale encountered in desalination units. The rate of scale formation from seawater depends on the temperature, pH, concentration of bicarbonate ions, rate of CO2 release, concentration of calcium and magnesium ions, and TDS. Calcium carbonate is the main scale formed with seawater temperatures of around 90 C, while magnesium hydroxide tends to form at temperatures above 95-100 C. The solubility of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide is inversely proportional to the temperature. When the highest temperature levels are reached and these substances exceed their maximum solubility, they precipitate in crystalline form on the inside surfaces of the exchanger tubes, drastically degrading their heat transfer properties. B. HARD SCALE Hard scale is formed from calcium sulphate precipitation. Calcium sulphate, in all its hydrate forms, is soluble in seawater, but its solubility decreases with rising temperature. Precipitation is not linked to pH; it is affected only by the concentration of the other ions in the solution. As a result, each variant of the sulphate has its own scaling threshold at different concentrations and temperatures. Knowledge of these temperatures is crucial for determining TBT levels in order to keep hard scale formation under control. The fact that calcium sulphate deposits are very difficult to remove in tube exchangers renders scale prevention a prime consideration in MSF plants. C. SCALE CONTROL METHODS Organic polymers and acid dosing are used to control scale formation. The option chosen usually depends on the availability of the required chemical on site, and on accumulated experience. Acid dosing reduces the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the feed water. The reaction of acid with bicarbonate ions results in the formation of carbon dioxide and the precipitation of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. Acid antiscale treatment keeps heat exchange surfaces virtually free from alkaline deposits, and because there is little or no decrease in product water flow owing to fouling during operation, no periodic off-line acid cleaning is necessary. Acid dosing has economic benefits in that it permits the use of higher TBTs (up to 120 C) and higher heat transfer rates, resulting in lower capital costs. Acid dosing also prevents fouling in the demister and flash chambers, reduces the risk of vapour phase corrosion inside the evaporator, and is generally cheaper (in the case of sulphuric acid) than organic polymer antiscale agents. One disadvantage is that prolonged acid overdosing in feed seawater enhances corrosion in the evaporator. However, overdosing and its attendant risks may be avoided through accurate pH control, an easy task given the control and on-line pH measurement technologies now available. Organic polymers operate by allowing calcium and magnesium ions to remain in solution beyond their respective saturation values, while at the same time interfering with the crystallization process of the scaling
147
compounds. The crystals either stop growing or are distorted, making them less likely to adhere to each other or to the metal surfaces. Organic polymer additives in current use include phosphonates, polyacrilates and polymaleates. These chemicals are used either separately or in combination with a mechanical cleaning method such as sponge ball cleaning. The latter technique is effective in removing soft scale deposited on the heat transfer surfaces.
148
Annex D OPERATIONAL CONTROLS FOR MULTISTAGE FLASH PLANTS A. Ismail162 lists a number of factors that affect the operation of MSF desalination plants and the quality of their output. Design specifications identify permissible ranges and limits for operational and quality parameters, including temperature, flow, pressure and level control variables. These four parameters may be described as follows: (a) Temperature control variables (i) TBT affects the rate of distillate production and brine levels in each flash chamber. The maximum permissible value is typically determined by the type of scale inhibitor added to the feed water; Feed seawater temperature directly affects the heat transfer in the rejection section;
(ii) (b)
Flow control variables (i) Brine recirculation flow affects brine levels in each flash chamber and the steam consumption for a fixed TBT. Generally speaking, the higher this flow rate, the shorter the residence time and the higher the brine level in the stages, which translates into lower flashing efficiencies; Make-up flow affects the temperature of the recirculating brine and consequently the flashing process; Seawater feed flow governs fluid velocities in the tubes of the reject section and also affects the heat transfer in the heat rejection section.
(ii) (iii) (c)
Pressure control variable Low-pressure steam temperature dictates the heat content of the system as a whole;
(d)
Level control variables (i) Brine heater condensate is maintained at a certain level to ensure that the heat exchanger tubes are not submerged in condensed steam, since that would adversely affect heat exchange; Brine level in the last stage affects the level of the brine in the preceding stages; maintaining appropriate levels can help prevent system drainage; System level is maintained in the last stage to ensure that no cavitation takes place in the distillate pump.
(ii) (iii)
162
A. Ismail, Control of multi-stage flash desalination plants: a survey, Desalination, vol. 116 (1998), pp. 145-156.
149
Annex E SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF THERMAL DESALINATION PROCESSES Figure E.1. Schematic design of a flash chamber
Figure E.2. Types of flash evaporators
(a) Long tube design
(b) Cross tube design
150
Figure E.3. Falling/rising film evaporator
(a) Falling
(b) Rising
Figure E.4. Evaporator with natural/forced circulation
(a) Natural circulation
(b) Forced circulation
151
Figure E.5. Single-stage vapour compression diagram
Figure E.6. Wiped film rotating disk evaporator (schematic cross-section)

Product T ubes
H eating Steam
D rive
Product
Rotating D isks
V apor
Feed
B low down B rine
Source: M. Kayyal, Study on wastewater treatment and water desalination technologies for ESCWA countries, prepared for ESCWA in December 2000. Note: Wipers not shown.
152
Figure E.7. Schematic diagram of a recently installed thermal vapour compression desalination plant (4 x 9000 m3/day capacity)
153
Annex F A CLOSER LOOK AT SOME ASPECTS OF THE MULTISTAGE FLASH BRINE RECIRCULATION PROCESS From a functional perspective, the MSF distillation system with brine recirculation may be divided into the following sections (see figure 2.2 in chapter II): (a) Heat input (brine heater); (b) Heat recovery; (c) Heat rejection. Heat recovery and rejection are combined in the evaporator, consisting of flash chambers connected in series. Brine or concentrated feed water is flashed at the bottom of each stage. Released vapour condenses on the outer surface of the exchanger tubes installed in the upper part of each stage. Low-pressure steam is used to provide the input for the brine through a tube bundle exchanger. The heated brine then passes into the first evaporator chamber, or the heat recovery section, where low pressure is maintained to cause flashing, or partial vaporization of the brine. Released vapour flows through demisters that separate droplets of entrained seawater in order to minimize dissolved salt levels in the distillate or product water stream. Simultaneously, latent heat carried by the steam produced through flashing is released as the steam condenses and is transferred through the stage condenser to the recirculating brine. Distilled water is thus generated and caught on trays situated below the tube bundle before flowing on to the next phase. This process causes a decrease in the temperature of the flashing brine and a corresponding increase in the temperature of the recirculating brine flowing inside the condenser tubes. Hence, the term heat recovery section is used for this part of the overall process. The foregoing sequence is repeated at decreasing temperatures and pressures through all the stages of the heat recovery section. Unflashed brine is transferred to the stages with lower temperatures and is subsequently flashed in the stages of the heat rejection section using a distillation scheme similar to that described above, the only difference being that the cooling medium for condensation is fresh seawater rather than the recirculating brine. The salt concentration of the recirculating brine is typically maintained at a value in the range of 65,000-70,000 ppm through the continuous blow-down of concentrated brine and simultaneous feed of make-up seawater into the evaporators. Make-up seawater is deaerated and treated with antiscale chemical additives prior to its injection into the system. This is done on the flash side of the last rejection section, where it mixes with the concentrated brine stream. After mixing, brine in the last stage is extracted using the brine recirculation pump and delivered in a direction counter-current to flow along the condenser tubes of the last recovery stage. There, it acts as the cooling medium for the vapour generated by the flashing brine in the same stage; the temperature of the brine progressively increases as it absorbs the latent heat of the condensing vapour. As a result, the temperature of the recirculating brine has to be raised by only a few degrees to maintain adequate thermodynamic conditions. This establishes a temperature profile increasing from the rejection section through the recovery stages to the brine heater. A pressure profile is also established through the chambers that should ideally correspond to the vapour saturation temperature. The main pumping operations required for this process include the following: (a) Condensate extraction, which delivers the steam condensed in the brine heater to the condensate circuit;
154
(b) Brine recirculation, which extracts brine mixed with feed seawater from the last flash chamber and delivers it to the condensers in the recovery section; (c) Brine blow-down, which discharges part of the brine in the last flash chamber; (d) Distillate extraction, which takes distillate from a sump in the last stage and delivers it to storage; (e) Feed water pumping.
155
Annex G HYPERFILTRATION PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS The following equation expresses the relationship between the quantities involved: Fw = A(P - ) where: Fw = the amount of water, in cubic metres, permeating through a unit area of the membranes surface, expressed in square metres, within a unit time, normally taken as one day: m3/(m2.day); A = the water transport coefficient, expressed in metres per second per unit of pressure (kPa); P = the pressure difference across the membrane, in kPa; = the difference in osmotic pressure across the membrane, in kPa. Salt flux, or the amount of salt passing through the membrane, is determined by the following: Fs = B(C1 C2) where: Fs = the amount, in moles, of salt passing through a unit area of the membranes surface, expressed in square metres, within a unit time, also taken as one day: moles/(m2.day); B = the salt permeability constant characteristic of the membrane, expressed in metres per second (m/s); C1 and C2 = the salt concentrations, expressed in moles, across the membrane. Salt rejection is the proportion of salt not allowed to pass through the membrane. It is indicated in percentage terms by the following relationship: R = (1 Cp/Cf) x 100 where: Cp = the concentration of salt in the product water stream, in moles/m3; Cf = the salt concentration in the feed water stream, in moles/m3; The recovery rate is a ratio of the volume of processed water to feed water. It is determined by the following: Rr = 100 (Np/Nf) (4) (3) (2) (1)
where Np and Nf are the volumes, in cubic metres, of processed water and feed water.
156
Annex H COMMONLY USED MODULAR REVERSE OSMOSIS SCHEMES Parallel flow arrangements are used to increase capacity. When modules are arranged to operate in series, recovery of permeate is increased. Tapered or recycle systems are used to maintain an adequate concentrate velocity and permeate recovery rate. A multistage membrane column scheme is used when a single membrane stage does not produce a sufficiently pure permeate (see figures H.1 and H.2). Figure H.1. Common modular configurations for reverse osmosis systems
P
P F C C F P C
C F P P C
F P
Source: C.H. Gooding, Apply the membrane advantage, Chemtech (June 1985). Note: F = feed; C = concentrate; P = permeate.
Figure H.2. Scheme of a multistage membrane column

Permeate product
Concentrate product
Source: C.H. Gooding, Apply the membrane advantage, Chemtech (June 1985).
157
Annex I REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES AND CONFIGURATIONS TABLE I.1. EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL REVERSE OSMOSIS MEMBRANES
Product information Osmonics HR High rejection polyamide Osmonics SW1 825 High rejection polyamide Osmonics LE 823 Low energy polyamide Osmonics PR 704 Potable rejection cellulose acetate Osmonics SR 704 Standard rejection cellulose acetate Osmonics HR 704 High rejection cellulose acetate Osmonics SX300-UP2 Polysulphone Osmonics CG8040F Cellulose triacetate/ diacetate blend Hydronautics 8060-MSY-CAB3 Cellulose acetate Hydronautics 8040-HSY-SWC1 Thin film composite products Ropur SU-820L Ropur FR70-4641-F Test conditions pH range: 3-11 Chlorine tolerance < 0.1 ppm pH range: 3-11 Chlorine tolerance < 0.1 ppm pH range: 3-11 Chlorine tolerance < 0.1 ppm pH range: 3-7 Chlorine tolerance 0.2-2.0 ppm pH range: 3-7 Chlorine tolerance 0.2-2.0 ppm pH range: 3-7 Chlorine tolerance 0.2-2.0 ppm pH range: 1-13 pH range: 5-6.5 Nominal permeate flow 39.75 m3/d at 15.5 bar 15.1 m3/d at 55.2 bar 39.7 m3/d at 9.0 bar 6.73 m3/d at 22.1 bar 6.10 m3/d at 29 bar 6.10 m3/d at 29 bar 0.9 gallons/min Inlet pressure: 80 psig Product pressure: 30 psig 27.59 m3/d 1.000 mg/l NaCl feed at 200 psig net pressure and 7 F 7,000 gal/d 5,000 gal/d 6.2 m2 6.2 m2 6.2 m2 Active membrane area 37.16 m2 29.7 m2 Nominal salt rejection 99.4% 99.5% 98.2% 87% 95% 97.5% > 99% 32.52 m2 85-93% 99% 55.5%
35,000 ppm seawater 10% recovery Tap water, 15% recovery pH range: 4-9
20 m3/d at 52.2 bar 11.8 m3/d at 4.5 bar
97.7% 99%
158
Figure I.1. Cartridge microfilters
(a) Dead-end
(b) Flow-through
(c) Cross-flow
159
Annex J PRETREATMENT AND POST-TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR MEMBRANE SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES* Pretreatment and post-treatment units are used with membrane processes to remove feed water impurities that can interfere with the membrane separation processes. A number of devices are used to achieve this objective; several are briefly described in this annex. A. SCREENS AND RACKS A screen is a device with openings that are generally uniform in size. Screens are used to protect water pumps from clogging and to remove coarse floating solids from feed water. Because of their function, screens are the first units employed in wastewater treatment. A screen may consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or perforated plates. The openings may be of any shape but are generally circular or rectangular. Screen sizes vary, ranging from 100 mm for coarse screens to less than 20 mm for fine screens. They may be housed for protection and to prevent accidents involving operating personnel. Screening devices are usually situated where they are easily accessible, as frequent inspection and maintenance of the installation are required owing to the nature of the materials handled. Cleaning, when done by hand, should be carried out as often as possible; when done mechanically, cleaning may be arranged on the basis of either preset time intervals or head loss across the screen. Mechanical screens should be painted at least once a year and kept properly lubricated. Screen chambers should be hosed at least once a day. Checks should be performed on screens to ensure that grit has not accumulated at the base of the bars, clogging flow. B. SETTLING TANKS The simplest method of removing suspended impurities is plain sedimentation. Water or wastewater is allowed to stand quiescent or to move very slowly through a natural or artificial basin until the suspended impurities settle to the bottom; the relatively clear water is then drawn off the top. Normally, sedimentation tanks are designed to provide a detention period of 90 to 150 minutes at average flow. Tanks with shorter detention periods (30 to 60 minutes) and lower rates of suspended solids removal are sometimes used for preliminary treatment ahead of biological treatment units. Settling devices are classified as horizontal or vertical flow tanks, depending on the direction of wastewater flow. They may be rectangular, square or circular in shape. Depending on the method of sludge collection and removal, settling basins may also be classified as flat-bottom tanks, hopper-bottom tanks, or flat-bottom tanks with mechanical cleaning devices. All flat-bottom tanks must be emptied when the sludge is to be removed. Hopper-bottom tanks taper down to an area from which the sludge is withdrawn. Flatbottom tanks equipped with mechanical cleaning devices have scrapers to shift the sludge to a collection point from where it is withdrawn. Almost all treatment units now use mechanically cleaned sedimentation tanks of a standardized circular or rectangular design. The most common type of sludge scraper in circular or square tanks is a revolving mechanism that has radial arms with ploughs or blades set at an angle just above the floor. The performance of a settling tank is heavily influenced by the inlet arrangement, the objective being to keep down the entrance velocity and to distribute and draw the flow evenly across the basin while ensuring minimal interference with the settling zone. In rectangular horizontal tanks, inlets and outlets are placed opposite each other, separated by the length of tank, with the inlet perpendicular to the direction of
M. Kayyal, Study on wastewater treatment and water desalination technologies for ESCWA countries, prepared for ESCWA in December 2000.
*
160
flow. The outlet is generally an overflow weir located at the effluent end. In circular tanks, the wastewater enters a circular well designed to distribute the flow equally in all directions; the flow is from the center to the periphery, and the outlet is a peripheral weir. Inlets and outlets should be kept clean and hosed at least once a week. Side walls should be periodically brushed and hosed. Sludge should be removed from settling tanks with sufficient frequency to prevent the development of septic conditions and the accumulation of floating scum. Settling tanks with mechanical sludge scrapers may be operated continuously or at predetermined intervals with the automatic starting and stoppage of pumps. Scum and grease is usually removed and directed to a grease trough for disposal. It should be noted that dark floating matter and rising bubbles on the surface indicate improper cleaning and inadequate sludge removal. C. CHEMICAL COAGULATION Coagulation is applied to remove the fine suspended solids that failed to settle during the sedimentation process, as well as soluble organic and toxic substances and trace metals. The coagulants most commonly used are alum, ferric chloride, lime and polyelectrolytes. The addition of these chemicals requires only moderate mixing. However, initial, or flash, mixing is necessary to disperse the coagulant chemical quickly and evenly. Several systems are available for this purpose including diffuser grid, chemical jet, and in-line blender systems. The grid system requires extensive piping and small-diameter injection orifices that tend to clog, so practical use of this option is limited. Chemical jet systems disperse the coagulant throughout the water in a fraction of a second; a vertical turbine pump is used to feed the coagulant through a nozzle into the oncoming flow. In-line blenders are plug flow-type reactors that make use of high-power devices for mixing. They come as standard units manufactured commercially to be fitted in the water pipe itself. In order to prevent the clogging of injection orifices, alum and ferric salts should not be diluted below a concentration of 2.5 per cent solution prior to their addition to water.163 D. FLOCCULATION Flocculation is achieved through slow mixing using mechanical devices such as paddles, turbines or propellers. Flocculation facilitates the agglomeration of particles and minute flocs into large flocs by gradually bringing the particles together. High turbulence promotes the flocculation process but can also break apart the larger flocs. The best results are achieved if the mixing energy is gradually decreased during the flocculation process; often, several flocculation chambers are built in series with successively decreasing mixing velocities. There are two basic types of mechanical flocculators; one has a horizontal shaft with paddles and the other a vertical shaft.164 The selection of one or the other depends mainly on the type of filtration system used. Horizontal-shaft flocculators are typically coupled with conventional rapid sand filtration. A high degree of solids removal within the sedimentation basin is required prior to such filtration. Horizontal-shaft flocculators are generally able to produce large and easily settleable particle masses with alum flocculation. However, they entail more maintenance and expense, mainly because their bearings and packings are typically submerged. The high-energy vertical-shaft flocculator is the unit of choice for high-rate filtration systems. Since high-rate filters allow floc penetration into the filter bed, the flocs should ideally be small in size but physically strong enough to resist the high shear forces in the filter bed. Submerged metal portions of the flocculator assembly can corrode and cause serious maintenance problems. Specifying type 18-8 stainless steel for all submerged portions of the assembly and using a cathodic protection system for structural steel are common solutions.
163
J.M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and Design (New York, John Wiley & Sons, Ibid.
1985).
164
161
Sedimentation has traditionally been used to separate the chemical flocs; however, in recent years, flotation has become an increasingly popular option for floc separation. E. FILTRATION Filtration is an age-old technique used to capture fine particles in water; both slow and rapid methods are applied in desalination. Slow sand filtration includes biological activity in addition to physical and chemical mechanisms to remove impurities from water. Slow sand filters can be used successfully if the water is not highly turbid (more than 50 nephelometric turbidity units [NTU]); in cases of high turbidity, pretreatment is needed prior to slow sand filtration. Basic operation involves passing water through a bed of fine sand at a low velocity, which causes the retention of suspended matter in the upper 0.5 to 2 cm of the filter bed. The principle purification mechanism is a biological process. Scraping off the top layer cleans the filter and restores it to its original capacity. The interval between two successive cleanings ranges from a few weeks to a few months, depending on the feed water characteristics. The intermittent operation of slow sand filters may result in the deterioration of effluent quality, because during stoppages the micro-organisms responsible for the bacteriological degradation of trapped impurities lose their effectiveness. One way to overcome this problem is to allow the filter to operate at a declining rate after a cycle of constant-rate filtration. The declining-rate mode may be applied during the night, resulting in significant savings in terms of labour. The advantages of slow sand filtration derive from the simplicity of its design and operation and the fact that it requires little in the way of power and expensive chemicals. Slow sand filters are appropriate for the removal of organic and inorganic suspended matter as well as pathogenic organisms present in the surface waters of rural areas in developing countries. Sludge handling problems are also minimal. Close control by an operator is not necessary. However, slow sand filters require a large area, large quantities of the filter medium, and labour for the manual cleaning required. In rapid sand filtration, water passes through a filter medium, a supporting layer and an underdrain. The process does not entail any biological action. If water turbidity exceeds 10-20 NTU, efficient flocculation and sedimentation units must be used for pretreatment prior to rapid filtration. Cleaning is required when water head loss through the filter exceeds 1.5-2.5 metres. A process called backwashing is used to break up surface scum and dirt in the filter medium. Gravity flow is more economical than pressure flow as a means of cleaning filters from large storage tanks. The conventional rapid filter generally uses sand with an effective size of 0.6-1.2 mm. Backwashing leads to stratification of the filter media, with the finer medium remaining at the top and the coarser medium settling at the bottom of the filter bed. To avoid this problem, dual-medium filtration can be used, whereby the size and specific gravity of the sand are carefully selected to minimize intermixing. Another alternative is to replace a graded single medium with a coarse, narrowly graded filter medium of greater depth. F. DISINFECTION Disinfection is a unit process whose objective is the destruction or inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, amoebic cysts, algae, spores and viruses. It is normally performed following membrane treatment. Chemical or non-chemical agents can be used. Chemical agents include an array of compounds with oxidation potential including chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine, iodine, bromine chloride and ozone. Energy-related (non-chemical) means of disinfection include UV radiation and gamma radiation. 1. Chlorination Chlorinators are manual or automatic metering devices for chlorine gas and are proprietary components. In small plants with low rates of chlorine usage (less than 25 kg/d), chlorinators may be mounted on or placed adjacent to the chlorine cylinders. In larger plants, chlorinators are generally installed in a room separate from the chlorine cylinders. Chlorine injectors located downstream from the chlorinator
162
create suction in the chlorine supply pipeline, drawing chlorine gas from the chlorinator. Metering is usually effected by controlled pressure and/or variable orifices. The feed rate may be manually or automatically regulated. Chlorinators are available with maximum feed rates ranging from 50 to 3,600 kg/d.165 Injectors are proprietary components that utilize a pressurized water supply and the venturi principle to create a suction in the chlorine supply pipeline. Chlorine gas is drawn into the throat or low-pressure area of the injector and mixed with the carrying water. Chlorine dissolves readily in water to a maximum concentration of 3,500 mg/l. Injectors may be located adjacent to the chlorinators, with the solution transported to the point of diffusion, or adjacent to the point of diffusion, with the chlorine gas conveyed from the chlorinator to the injector. The quantity and pressure of water required to operate the injector depends on the design of the injector as well as the required chlorine feed rate and back-pressure of the solution line. Chlorine gas can be injected directly into the main plant flow by injectors submerged in a basin or conduit. Direct gas injection may be more efficient than chlorine solution addition, especially where ammonia or other chlorine demand components need to be satisfied. Diffusers are used to disperse chlorine rapidly into the main plant flow. In clear filtered water with low chlorine demand, dispersion may not be necessary if the flow is turbulent and undivided for a short distance downstream from the diffuser. In waters with chlorine demand greater than 1 mg/l, diffusion and supplemental mixing should be provided. Supplemental flash or hydraulic mixing should be provided for applications in which high chlorine demand may interfere with disinfection, such as the chlorination of secondary wastewaters and polluted feed water from treatment plants. Chlorine contact basins allow sufficient contact time for disinfection. Contact or detention times of 10 to 120 minutes may be required before the distribution or discharge of the water depending upon the level of residual chlorine. Long conduits minimize short-circuiting; circular, square, or wide and deep rectangular basins are the most prone to short-circuiting. Chlorine contact basins should be covered to prevent sunlight from interfering with disinfection. In most water treatment plants, chlorine is added upstream from the filters, and positive chlorine residual is maintained through the filter media and effluent piping. Chlorine feed systems may be divided into four basic types: (a) (b) (c) (d) Direct solution or dry chemical feed systems; Gas-to-solution systems; Direct gas injection; On-site generation and feeding.
Sodium hypochlorite is the most commonly utilized direct solution for disinfection. It is used extensively and is safer to handle than chlorine gas. It is commercially available in packages ranging from 4litre plastic bottles to 8,000-litre tank trucks.166 Calcium hypochlorite, a material in white granular or tablet form with 70 per cent available chlorine, can be fed directly into the water as powder or converted to a solution and pumped, educted, or gravity-fed to the application point. The clogging of solution piping with calcium carbonate may be a problem. The chlorine gas-to-solution system consists of one or more chlorine gas cylinders, evaporators, chlorinators and injectors, as well as a piping system. The injector is the most important component of the system. The injector creates a vacuum that permits chlorine gas to be metered and handled below atmospheric pressure and ensures the safety and reliability of the entire chlorine feed system. Chlorine gas can also be injected directly into the main flow, obviating the need for a solution phase. This type of system may be much more efficient for killing bacteria or viruses, especially when other soluble constituents in the water (such as ammonia) are competing for the chlorine. However, direct injection is not a common procedure.
165 166
Ibid. Ibid.
163
Finally, hypochlorites and chlorine may be electrolytically generated from brine or salt on-site using specially designed cells and an ordinary power source. Several equipment manufacturers can supply packaged units that include a feeding system. Whenever chlorine is added for disinfection, effluent chlorine residual should be continually monitored. Chlorine residual analysers, proprietary equipment that can monitor free or combined residual matter, are generally used for this purpose. Sampling pumps, which are used to provide a continuous sample stream to the analysers, are normally designed for flows of 0.15 litres per second. 2. Ozonation Ozone is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents with practical applications for water and wastewater treatment. Ozone (O3), an allotrope of oxygen (O2), is a strong oxidant that reacts rapidly with most micro-organisms and organic substances in water and does not impart any taste and odour. The disadvantages associated with ozone use include the high capital and energy costs of an ozone generation system and the lack of a stable residual with which to maintain the bacteriological integrity of the water distribution system over a period of a few days. Most full-scale ozonation plants utilize air as the source of oxygen because pure oxygen is generally uneconomical if used on a large-scale or continuous basis. Spargers, porous piping or plates, or venturi-type eductors or injectors are used for gas injection. Contact basins are typically 3 to 5 metres deep. Ozone transfer efficiencies of 90 to 95 per cent can be achieved. Ozonators, like chlorinators, are proprietary components and are available in capacities of up to 500 kg/d. Ozone residual, unlike that of chlorine, is not directly proportional to the original dose. Ozone has self-destructive or exponential decay characteristics that limit residual and application rates. In waters characterized by low ozone demand, the development of residual is limited because rates of self-destruction are directly proportional to a positive exponent of the residual ozone concentration. Thus, practical concentrations of residual ozone in water are limited to approximately 1.5 mg/l. Several types of ozone generators are available, the most common being plate or tube units. Applied rates of ozone feeding should be established through laboratory tests and full-scale trials. Feed rates for ozone generators may be adjusted using voltage controls, frequency controls or both. Major water treatment plants should have at least two ozone generators. Most plants have four units, with one provided as a standby. Automatic controls are usually set up for manual rate setting, the pacing of total plant flows using electronic signals, and signal splitting to apportion feed rates to the number of ozonators online. Control systems should also include monitors for ozonator safety contacts and alarms. The noise and venting of ozone-generating equipment may represent design challenges. 3. Ultraviolet radiation Micro-organisms are destroyed by ultraviolet radiation when the UV energy is absorbed by the genetic material in the cells. It is assumed that maximum destructive activity occurs at 265 nm, which corresponds with the maximum absorption of nucleic acids.167 When the genetic material absorbs the UV energy, pyrimidine dimers are formed. These dimers cause distortions in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), preventing the proper replication of the DNA strands. Under certain conditions, however, the genetic damage may be reversed. When the injured organism is exposed to visible light energy (310 to 500 nm), photoreactivation occurs, wherein the dimerization is reversed. Although all micro-organisms are susceptible to UV radiation, their sensitivity varies depending on their resistance to the penetration of UV energy. The chemical composition of the cell wall and its thickness
167 R.Y Stanier, M. Doudoroff and E.A. Adelberg. The Microbial World (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1963); originally quoted in J.M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and Design (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1985).
164
determine the relative resistance of an organism. This resistance is measured by the time it takes for a specific UV dose to kill a certain percentage of organisms. Table J.1 shows important characteristics of five types of disinfectants. The selection of an appropriate disinfectant requires the weighted consideration of many factors including germicidal efficiency, process and design characteristics, and environmental impact. TABLE J.1 SUMMARY OF DISINFECTANT CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics Bacterial disinfection Viral disinfection pH influence Free chlorine Excellent Excellent Efficiency decreases with increases in pH Yes Chloramine Moderate Poor Relatively independent of pH Yes Chlorine dioxide Excellent Excellent Slightly more efficient at higher pH Yes Ozone Excellent Excellent Residual lasts longer at low pH No Ultraviolet radiation Good Good Insensitive
Residual in distribution system By-products: Trihalomethanes Other
No
Yes Chloramine, chlorophenols
Unlikely Unknown
Unlikely Chlorinated aromatic compounds, chlorate, chlorite
Unlikely Aldehydes, aromatic carboxylic acids, phthalates
Unlikely Unknown
Source: Adapted from J.M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., Water Treatment Principles and Design (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1985).
165
Annex K DESALINATION COSTS TABLE K.1. UNIT PRODUCT COSTS FOR A NUMBER OF CONVENTIONAL AND NOVEL PROCESSES
(a) Novel processes US$/m3 0.48 0.35 Remarks MED vertical stack, 340,956 m3/d, 30 effects, aluminium alloy, fluted tube MED-ABS, 9,600 m3/d, absorption heat pump and gas turbine Reference Hammond and others (1994) de Gunzbourg and Larger (1998) (b)
Mechanical vapour compression (MVC) 1.51 0.89 5 2.48 0.46 3.22 2.43 1,000 m3/d 750 m3/d 100 m3/d 4,000 m3/d Operating cost, 20,000 m3/d 500 m3/d 4,546 m3/d
Matz and Fisher (1981) Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and others (1990) Leitner (1992) Zimerman (1994) Veza (1995) Morin (1999) (c) Reverse osmosis (RO)
Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and others (1990) Leitner (1992) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Zimerman (1994) Pappas (1997) Leitner (1998) Morin (1999) Morin (1999) Leitner (1999) (d) Multistage flash (MSF) desalination
0.64 0.76 2.37 1.98 1.09 1.39 0.58 1.22 0.83 1.29 0.68 0.55
Single stage Two stage 100 m3/d 4,000 m3/d 37,850 m3/d 32,000 m3/d Operating cost, 20,000 m3/d 20,000 m3/d 40,000 m3/d 4,546 m3/d 45,460 m3/d 113,652 m3/d
Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Leitner (1992) Morin (1993) Wade (1993) Wade (1993) Morin (1999) (e) Multiple effect distillation (MED)
0.77 1.84 1.25 1.61 1.57 1.44 1.498
Dual purpose Single purpose 37,850 m3/d 45,461 m3/d Steam turbine Gas turbine, waste heat boiler 45,460 m3/d
Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Leitner (1992) Wade (1993) Morin (1993) Morin (1999)
0.87 1.95 1.08 1.31 1.24 1.397
Dual purpose Single purpose 37,850 m3/d Gas turbine, waste heat boiler 22,730 m3/d 22,730 m3/d
166
(f)
Multiple effect distillation with thermal vapour compression (MED-TVC) 2.34 1.31 1.55 Single purpose Dual purpose 22,166 m3/d
Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Darwish and Al-Najim (1987) Morin (1993) table 7.
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001, Note: Rows shaded in grey refer to data points not included in figure 4.2, which is based on this table.
TABLE K.2. ESTIMATES OF CHEMICAL COSTS AND DOSING RATES

Chemical Sulphuric acid Caustic soda Antiscalant Chlorine Unit cost (US$/kg of chemical) 0.504 0.701 1.9 0.482 Dosing rate (kg of chemical/kg of water) 2.42 x 10-5 1.4 x 10-5 4.99 x 10-6 4.00 x 10-6 Specific cost (US$/m3 of water) 0.0122 0.0098 0.0095 0.00193
167
Annex L INFORMATION ON DESALINATION TRENDS AND RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES TABLE L.1. VARIATIONS IN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EVAPORATOR AND PLATE PREHEATERS O FOR A BRINE BOILING TEMPERATURE OF 70 C AND CONDENSATE O TEMPERATURE OF 72 C
Material 90/10 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE 90/10 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE 90/10 70/30 Titanium S44660 PTFE Cost (US$/m2) 57.1 82.8 63.8 59.21 10 57.1 82.8 63.8 59.21 10 57.1 82.8 63.8 59.21 10 Surface area (m2/kg) 233 259 232 241 682 14.6 15.2 9.2 9.86 30.8 5.3 5.6 3.3 3.5 12.1 Cost (US$/kg) 13 304.3 21 445.2 14 801.6 14 269.61 6 820 833.7 1 258.6 587 583 308 302.6 463.7 210.5 207.2 121
Shell-tube evaporator Shell-tube evaporator Shell-tube evaporator Shell-tube evaporator Shell-tube evaporator Brine preheater Brine preheater Brine preheater Brine preheater Brine preheater Distillate preheater Distillate preheater Distillate preheater Distillate preheater Distillate preheater
Sources: Data relating to cost and physical and mechanical properties are extracted from C.D. Hornburg, B. Todd and A.H. Tuthill, Heat transfer tubing section for MSF desalination plants, Proceedings of the IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water Sciences, Abu Dhabi, November 1995, vol. III, pp. 131-148; and G.F. Hewitt, ed., Heat Exchanger Design Handbook (Begell House, 1998).
TABLE L.2. VARIATIONS IN REVERSE OSMOSIS UNIT CAPACITY AND TOTAL PLANT CAPACITY AT
DIFFERENT LOCATIONS AROUND THE GLOBE Year 1983 1983 1984 1987 1989 1990 1990 1990 1994 1995 1996 2000 Number of units 18 66 7 4 8 3 1 1 6 6 15 10 Unit capacity (m/d) 1 277 4 192 6 571 9 000 5 625 3 960 18 925 4 500 4 600 5 000 6 061 9 463 Capacity (m/d) 22 984 276 672 46 000 36 000 45 000 11 880 18 925 4 500 27 600 30 000 90 909 94 625 Feed water Brackish water Brackish water Brackish water Brackish water Seawater Pure water Brackish water Seawater Seawater Brackish water Seawater Seawater Country Japan United States Bahrain Saudi Arabia Bahrain Japan United States Oman Malta Spain Saudi Arabia United States Manufacturer Toray Fluid Systems DuPont DuPont DuPont Toray DuPont DuPont DuPont Filmtec DuPont DuPont
168
TABLE L.3. EXAMPLES OF MULTIPLE EFFECT DESALINATION RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN THE GULF COUNTRIES AND EGYPT
Author(s), year Darwish and others, 1984 El-Dessouky and Assassa, 1985 Darwish and others, 1989 Fathalah and Aly, 1991 Hamed, 1992 El-Nashar, 1994 Al-Juwayhel and others, 1997 El-Dessouky and others, 1998 Al-Sofi and others, 1999a El-Dessouky and others, 2000a Institution/country King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia University of Zagazig, Egypt Kuwait University, Kuwait King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia Al-Ain University, United Arab Emirates Water and Electricity Dept., United Arab Emirates Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Study Comparison of MED and MED combined with VC MED performance Performance of a single effect system MED combined with solarpowered LiBr absorption VC MED performance MED stack driven by solar power Single effect VC High-temperature MED Plastic single effect MVC MED-TVC and MED-MVC systems Contribution Models for system design and performance Models for system design and performance Design of experimental unit and performance evaluation over a wide set of operating parameters Performance improvement Model of MED system design and performance System performance Novel systems for single effect TVC, ABVC, ADVC and MVC Reduction of heat transfer area and capital cost Comparison of specific material costs for plastic components versus common metals and alloys Increase in performance ratio; reduction of specific heat transfer area at higher temperatures
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001, table 16. Note: MED = multiple effect distillation; LiBr = lithium bromide; VC = vapour compression; TVC = thermal vapour compression; ABVC = absorption vapour compression; ADVC = adsorption vapour compression; MVC = mechanical vapour compression.
TABLE L.4. EXAMPLES OF MULTISTAGE FLASH RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN THE GULF COUNTRIES AND EGYPT
Author(s), year Serageldin and others, 1978 Institution/country Cairo University, Egypt Study Experimental investigation of flashing process in MSF System control of MSF Performance of MSF plants Effects of scale formation in oncethrough MSF Inter-stage gate design MSF simulation MSF simulation Vapour-side corrosion of copper base condenser tubes in MSF Energy and exergy optimization of large MSF plants MSF combined with LiBr VC Contribution Development of a mechanism for the flashing process Development of a computerbased system control Evaluation of MSF plant performance Analysis of scale effects on performance and power consumption Experimental validation of design equations Accurate model for system design and analysis Accurate model for system design and analysis Analysis of the phenomena, causes, characteristics, and mode of action Model for plant optimization Low top brine temperature operation
El-Saie and others, 1985 Al-Sofi and others, 1985 El-Dessouky and Khalifa, 1985 Hilal and others, 1987 Al-Mutaz and Soliman, 1989 Darwish, 1991 Al-Sum and others, 1994
Private consulting firm, Egypt Desalination Institute, Saudi Arabia University of Zagazig, Egypt Cairo University, Egypt King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Kuwait University, Kuwait Water and Electricity Dept., United Arab Emirates Water and Electricity Dept., United Arab Emirates King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
El-Nashar, 1993 Aly, 1994
169
TABLE L.4 (continued)

Author(s), year Aly and Marwan, 1995 Malik and others, 1996 Al-Bakeri and El-Hares, 1993 El-Dessouky and Bingulac, 1996 El-Dessouky and others, 1999a El-Dessouky and others, 2000c Institution/country Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt Saline Water Conversion Corporation, Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Study Dynamic modelling of MSF Failure of MSF plants Optimization of MSF sponge ball cleaning MSF modelling and analysis MSF brine mixing MSF VC Contribution Determination of plant performance under transient conditions Unit failure, causes, and recommendations Determination of optimum parameters Models of the heat transfer coefficient and thermodynamic losses A novel MSF system to improve thermal performance ratio A novel MSF system to improve thermal performance ratio
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001, table 17. Note: MSF = multistage flash; VC = vapour compression; LiBr = lithium bromide.
TABLE L.5. EXAMPLES OF REVERSE OSMOSIS RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN THE GULF COUNTRIES AND EGYPT
Author(s), year Al-Adsani and others, 1977 El-Nashar and Kutbi, 1981 Jawad, 1989 Alatiqi and others, 1989 Ebrahim and Darwish, 1989 Al-Zahrani and others, 1989 Ebrahim, 1994 Marwan and others, 1995 Al-Mutaz and others, 1997 Al-Sofi and others, 1999 Institution/country Kuwait Water Development Centre, Kuwait Water and Electricity Dept., United Arab Emirates Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait Kuwait University, Kuwait King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Saline Water Conversion Corporation, Saudi Arabia Study Membrane performance Plant performance RO prospects Process control of RO Scaling in RO RO modelling Membrane cleaning and regeneration Modelling of RO scaling RO modelling Combined systems for nanofiltration and MSF Contribution Comparison of the performance of three different membranes Evaluation of large plant performance Projections on the future of RO seawater desalination Identification of system variables and development of control model Performance of RO membranes under harsh conditions Analysis of the RO process Applications in seawater desalination and wastewater treatment Analysis of scaling in RO processes Effects of dispersion on system performance Removal of double-charged ions allows for high-temperature operation of the MSF system
Source: H. El-Dessouky and H. Ettouny, Study on water desalination technologies, prepared for ESCWA in January 2001, table 18. Note: RO = reverse osmosis; MSF = multistage flash.
170
TABLE L.6. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS: SOME EXAMPLES FROM THE MIDDLE EAST DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH CENTER
Research topics Novel material selection to improve corrosion resistance Development of new technologies for the reduction of fouling and improvement of performance in seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) systems Identification of critical flux and cross-flow conditions for the control of bacterial and organic fouling of SWRO membranes VARI-RO solar-powered desalting study: principal investigator Feasibility study on greenhouse development for Oman: thermodynamic modelling and economic analysis Investigation on the use of evaporation ponds for brine disposal in inland desalination plants Hybrid desalination systems: effective integration of membrane/thermal desalination and power technologyaward (a) Hybrid desalination systems: effective integration of membrane/thermal desalination and power technologyaward (b) A novel method for permanently improving the rejection of reverse osmosis desalination modules to significantly lower the cost of desalination and prevent bacterial and viral passage Innovative small desalination systems: hybrid fossil/solar-heated multiple effect stills Small solar desalination systems Small thermal water desalination systems using solar energy or waste heat Photovoltaic-powered desalination: matching technology options with market requirements Data bank of seawater compositions Study of the interactive effects of inorganic and biological fouling in reverse osmosis desalination units The release of CO2 in multiple effect distillers Spirulina culture using reject brine water from desalination plants Development of a logistical model for the design of an autonomous desalination system using renewable energy sources Source: E. Drioli and E. Curcio, A study on modern water desalination technologies in the Gulf ESCWA member countries, prepared for ESCWA in July 2001. Note: VARI-RO = trademark for variable flow pumping and energy recovery technology for reverse osmosis.
171
Annex M RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES UNDERTAKEN BY THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER IN SAUDI ARABIA* The Research and Development Center, associated with the Saline Water Conversion Corporation in Saudi Arabia, was inaugurated in 1987. The Center has five sections dealing with thermal processes, RO, corrosion, chemistry, and ecology and marine biology, respectively. The facility houses sophisticated equipment and includes one MSF and a number of RO pilot plants. The Center was conceived as a means of achieving the following: (a) Solving problems faced by existing plants with a view to attaining higher operational efficiencies; (b) Developing optimal modalities for the selection of materials and chemicals, ultimately reducing costs; (c) Conducting studies with the aim of ensuring environmental protection.
The Center is reported to have completed more than 100 desalination projects. Recent efforts have purportedly yielded a patented method for using NF for pretreatment in both RO and MSF processes. Other areas of research being pursued by the Center include: (a) The design, commissioning and operation of large-capacity distillers; (b) Desalination process hybridization; (c) The use of alternative energy sources in desalination; (d) The development of cost-effective alternatives to the chemicals, alloys and synthetic materials presently used; (e) The design of housings for a large number of membrane elements; (f) (g) The design and testing of an elevated-TBT MSF process; The treatment and safe disposal of desalination plant wastes;
(h) The magnetically enhanced separation of substances causing seawater hardness.
M.A. Al-Sofi, Seawater desalinationSWCC experience and vision, Desalination, vol. 135, Nos. 1-3 (20 April 2001), available online 25 May 2001.
172
Annex N INFORMATION ON DESALINATION PROCESSES USING RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES TABLE N.1. CAPACITY DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE,
FEED WATER AND APPLICATION
(Cubic metres per day)

Capacity according to type of National capacity, renewable Capacity according to Capacity according to application number of units and cost energy used feed water Cost (US$ Total capacity Units million) Solar Wind Brackish Sea River Municipality Demo Military Irrigation United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia Egypt Kuwait Qatar Jordan Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Tunisia Spain United States Japan France Greece Mexico Germany Pakistan Italy Canada Chile Australia India Indonesia China Russia Bulgaria Cape Verde Grenada Haiti Total Other Arab ESCWA members countries 580 500 425 77 44 5 3 500 10 124 123 73 72 68 62 26 24 22 17 17 16 13 12 7 4 2 2 2 2 5 829 2 5 4 4 2 1 3 3 3 7 6 2 11 5 2 2 3 4 2 6 5 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 91 10.22 1.34 1.14 0.14 0.11 0.01 4.30 0.01 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.09 0.18 0.16 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 18.77 580 500 425 77 44 5 1 500 2 000 10 74 50 123 73 60 12 68 62 20 6 24 22 7 10 17 16 13 12 7 4 2 2 2 2 3 326 2 503 45 500 80 500 425 32 44 5 500 74 44 73 12 68 60 26 24 22 17 2 6 2 7 4 2 2 2 2 2 031 500 80 500 125 77 44 5
300
3 000 10 50 60 60 2
3 500 5 124 123 53 72 31 4 26 24 17 17 17 16 9 12 7 4 2 2 2 2 1 400 5
19
20
37 58
Non-Arab countries
15 10 9 12
3 777
21
4 104
300
25
173
TABLE N.2. CAPACITY DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO DESALINATION TECHNOLOGY

Reverse osmosis United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia Egypt Kuwait Qatar Jordan Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Tunisia Spain United States Japan France Greece Mexico Germany Pakistan Italy Canada Chile Australia India Indonesia China Russia Bulgaria Cape Verde Grenada Haiti Total 96 35 72 26 6 17 17 72 19 28 50 10 68 2 24 5 17 16 11 7 4 2 2 2 2 180 276 425 45 24 ESCWA members Multiple effect distillation 580 14 Freezing 210 32 20 5 3 000 500 10 2 8 Multistage flash Vapour compression Electrodialysis Other
Other Arab countries
Non-Arab countries
34 20
2 12
4 051
1 215
210
111
50
12
174
TABLE N.3. CAPACITY DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic Other Arab ESCWA members countries United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia Egypt Kuwait Qatar Jordan Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Tunisia Spain United States Japan France Greece Mexico Germany Pakistan Italy Canada Chile Australia India Indonesia China Russia Bulgaria Cape Verde Grenada Haiti Total 6 45 24 1 000 500 10 2 8 16 60 68 12 24 12 7 17 10 11 7 2 2 2 2 253 10 10 6 Parabolic Mirror 500 34 Collector (not specified) Heliostat Not specified 80 460 425 32 20 5 2 000 122 55 57 12 48 26
60
Non-Arab countries
2 12
2 2
1 065
545
500
94
3 372
175
Annex O INORGANIC SALTS IN SEAWATER Seawater is a complex mixture of water, salts, and smaller amounts of other substances including dissolved inorganic and organic materials, particulates, and a few atmospheric gases. The six most abundant ions in seawater are chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), sulphate (SO24-), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+) and potassium (K+). The amount of these salts in a volume of seawater varies because of the addition and removal of water locally through precipitation and evaporation. Seawater concentrations differ from one location to another as a result of dilution by currents and rivers, temperature gradients and rainfall. Hot and dry weather increases evaporation rates and causes seawater salinity to rise in certain locations. Examples of this effect abound in areas such as the Red Sea and the Gulf, where water circulation to effect mixing with larger bodies of water (an adjoining sea or ocean) is limited (see table O.1). TABLE O.1. VARIATIONS IN SEAWATER SALINITY
Sea/ocean Baltic Sea Black Sea Adriatic Sea Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Mediterranean Sea Gulf Red Sea Dead Sea Source: A.A. Rjoub, Water resources in UAE (1999). Total dissolved substances (parts per million) 7 000 13 000 25 000 33 600 23 800 39 400 42 100 41 200 > 50 000
Salt content in seawater is indicated by its salinity index, defined as the amount of salt, in grams, dissolved in 1 kg of seawater (also measured in milligrams per gram). Salinity is generally expressed in ppm. Inorganic carbon, bromide, boron, strontium and fluoride constitute the major portion of the dissolved matter in seawater. Seawater also contains dissolved compounds of an organic nature, including carbohydrates and amino acids. Inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are present as well. The most notable dissolved atmospheric gases in seawater are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.168 Because of its saline content, seawater possesses a number of physical properties that are substantially different from those associated with fresh water. For example, seawater has a higher viscosity and density, a lower freezing point and a higher boiling point. Despite the variations in salinity among the worlds seas and oceans, the chemical composition of saline inclusions is fairly constant. Table O.2 presents a list of typical seawater components and their concentrations. Ion concentrations exceeding 1 ppm are listed in table O.3.
Seawater constitutes a rich source of various commercially important chemical elements. In many parts of the world, sodium chloride is still obtained by evaporating seawater.
168
176
TABLE O.2. TYPICAL SEAWATER COMPOSITION

Compound NaCl MgCl2 Na2So4 CaCl2 KCl NaHCO3 KBr H3BO3 SrCl2 NaF Total Concentration (parts per million) 23 476 4 981 3 917 1 102 664 192 96 26 24 3 34 481 Percentage 68.08 14.44 11.36 3.20 1.92 0.56 0.28 0.08 0.07 0.01 100.00
Source: A.A. Rjoub, Water resources in UAE (1999).
TABLE O.3. IONS WITH CONCENTRATIONS EXCEEDING ONE PART PER MILLION
Positive ions Na Mg Ca K Sr Cations Na+ Mg++ Ca++ K+ Sr++ Total Parts per million 10 556 1 272 400 380 13 12 621 Negative ions Cl SO4 HCO3 F Br Anions ClSO4HCO3FBrTotal Parts per million 18 980 2 649 140 1.4 65 21 835.4
Source: A.A. Rjoub, Water resources in UAE (1999).
177

UN Paper (2001)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

UN Paper (2001)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR WESTERN ASIA

WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES

WATER DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ESCWA MEMBER COUNTRIES

United Nations New York, 2001

Mervat Tallawy Executive Secretary of ESCWA

Feed Sea or Brackish Water

Separation Unit Thermal or Membrane

Product Fresh Water

Figure 1.2. Classification of thermal and membrane desalination processes

See chapter VI of the present study.

Saudi Arabia 21%

See annex O, relating to inorganic salts in seawater.

2 185 359 242 284 282 9

494 3 444 (b) Number of desalination units 3 10 55 4 22 10 9 11 3

Iraq 3% (324) Bahrain 4% (473) Qatar 5% (573)

Kuwait 14% (1,527) UA E 23% (2,521)

Saudi A rabia 46% (5,139)

2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 -

Iraq 1.2% (274)

Egypt 1.6% (349)

Jordan 0.4% (86)

Saudi A rabia 45% (7,471)

Capacity per unit (m3/d/unit)

(Thousands of cubic metres per day)

MSF 74% (8,213)

MSF 74% (11,153)

HFM 7% (1,038) SWM 8% (1,175)

FM 1% (192) VT E 1% (102) OT HER 3% (439)

FLASH 75% (8,213)

FLASH 73% (11,062)

2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 -

(a) Multistage flash

(b) Reverse osmosis

(c) Vapour compressiona/

Waste 2% (313) Brackish 10% (1,500)

Brine 0.1% (8)

Pure 0.04% (6)

Sea 83% (9,265)

Sea 86% (12,871)

(d) Saudi Arabia

(e) United Arab Emirates

Power 1% (220) Irrigation 2% (265) Industrial 9% (1,343))

Demonstration 0.03% (5) Discharge 0.01% (2) Other 0.03% (4)

Municipal 84% (9,300)

Municipal 86% (12,906)

Oman, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait

Lebanon, Iraq, S yria, Jordan, Yemen and Egypt

TradePort International Trade, www.tradeport.org.

There are also two RO plants fed from groundwater.

Abu Dhabi 55%

Abu Dhabi 62%

Figure 2.4. Parallel feed multiple effect distillation

World Wide Water (www.world-wide-water.com).

Intake Seawater Distillate Motive Steam Condensate Brine Blow Down

Figure 2.7. Multiple effect distillation with mechanical vapour compression

Distillate Feed Preheater Distillate, Md

Compressed Vapor Ms, Ts

Brine Blow Down Mb

Intake Seawater Mcw, Tcw

Ultrafiltration Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis

10 to 1,000 1,000 to 500,000 daltons 2 to 70 180 to 10,000 daltons 1 to 70

200 to 1,000 550 to 1,400 1,400 to 7,000