Purpose of Stress Analysis The designer after careful consideration, prepares most economic layout he can undertake within

parameters available to him only to find that further alterations, dictated by Stress Engineer will be required. It is the stress analysts function to a) Decide on which set amount of of conditions govern the that must be provided in flexibility layout, and b) To establish, by one method or another, that the required flexibility has been provided in layout. Under the heading (a), there are number of criteria defining the minimum acceptable flexibility and these fall into two main categories: i) Maximum allowable stress range in the pipe ii) The limiting values of forces amd moments which piping is permitted to impose on connected equipment. The flexibility required in those cases where the piping reaction on connected equipment governs, invariably overrides that required to satisfy the maximum stress range condition. Under the heading (b), the stress analyst, having decided which criteria applies, has the choice of: i) Accepting a layout based on past experience, ii) Analysing a layout by an approximate method, and iii) Performing comprehensive stress analysis. Code and Regulation The stress engineer's first charge is to ensure the compliance with all applicable code regulations, both national and local, apart from satisfying other conditions required. For a particular, contract, the piping specification/design specification will state. which code is to be used for the purpose of design and in case of anomaly, which document is to take precedence. Code sets forth engineering requirements deemed necessary for safe design and construction of pressure piping. While safety is the basic consideration, this factor alone will not necessarily govern the final specification for any piping system. Code is not a design hand book. It does not do away with the need of designer or for competent engineering judgement. The code requirements for design are stated in terms of basic design principles and formulas. These are supplemented as necessary with specific requirements to assure uniform application of principles and to guide selection and application of piping elements. The code prohibits design and pratices known to be unsafe and contains warnings where caution, but not prohibition, is warranted. Some codes and standards in present use are: American National Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B 31. On global basis this is tne most widely used code and compliance with its requirements will almost certainly be accepted as dem Qnstrating the structural integrity of a piping system. It has its origins in a document issued in 1935 as An American Tentative Standard Code for Pressure

Piping. In order to keep the code abreast of current developments in the various fields of Engineering and Technology, several revisions and supplements and new editions were published since the first Americal Standard Code for Pressure piping ASA - B31.1appeared in 1942. -In order to deal with specia1ised requirements with different categories of-piping, following Codes are presently used. B 3.1 - Power piping B 31.3 - Petroleum refinery piping B 31.4 - Oil transportation piping B 31.5 - Refigeration piping B 31.8 - Gas transmission and distribution piping B 31.9 - Building services piping B 31.11 - Shirry transportation piping systems Code Requirements

(A) Design Pressure: The design pressure of each component in a piping system shall not be less than the pressure at the most severe condition of coincident internal or external pressure and temperature (minimum or maximum), expected during service. The most severe condition is that which results in the greatest required component thickness and the highest component rating. (B) Design Temperature The design pressure of each component in a piping system is the temperature at which, under coincident pressure, the greatest thickness or highest component rating is required. (i) Uninsulated Metallic Components: - For fluid temperatures below 100F (38 C), the component temperature shall be taken as the fluid temperature. - For fluid temperature 100 F (38 C) and above, unless a lower average wall temperature is indicated by test or heat transfer calculations, the temperature for uninsulated component shall be no less than following. (a) Valves, pipe, lapped end welding fittings and other components having wall thickness comparable to that of pipe: 95 % of fluid temperature (b) Flanges~ (except lap joint) including those on fittings and valves: 90% of fluid temperature (c) Lap joint flanges :85% of fluid temperature (d)B~lting:80t of fluid temperature. (ii) Externalli Insulated Piping: The component design temperature shall be fluid temperature unless calculations, tests or services experience based on measurement supports use of another temperature. When the piping system is heated or cooled by tracing or jacketing, this effect shall be considered in establishing component design temperature.

(iii) Internally Insulated Piping: The component design temperature shall be based on heat transfer calculations. Scope of Code Rules

Let us consider various aspects of design of piping system which must be dealt with by any code worthy of such a description and which are of importance to stress engineer in exercise of his duties. Every such piping code will contain recommendations, or mandatory requirements on the following design topics. (a) The thickness of pipe -to withstand internal pressure (b) The thickness of pipe to withstand external pressure (c) Reinforcement requirement of branch connection (d) Minimum flexibility requirements for external expansion (e) Allowable stresses for various piping materials It is the matter of stress analysist demonstrating compliance with the requirement coming under heading of (c), (6) and (e). We shall now consider the above three topics in turn to see how these affect the piping system. (c) Reinforcement requirement of branch connection When a pipe which is subjected to an internal pressure has a hole cutin it for branch connecti6ns, a disc of material which would normally be carrying tensile stresses in the _hoop direction is removed and some alternative path must be - provided for loads which were originally carried via: the disc. Most of the code for design of piping system adopts the area replacement or compensation approach whereby with~n a specified distance from the edge of the hole, an additional area of material is provided equal to the area of material removed. The replaced material may take a form of a doubler pad or of one of the proprietar y forged fittings (e.g. weldolet etc.) depending on service requirements. The notion is illustrated in the sketches of fig. 1 for the case of simple pipe replacement.

Occasionally, reinforcement has to branch intersections which is to cater for which arise from thermal expansion effects. the stress engineer shall specify the same if by piping specification for pressure purpose. In various codes, the sketches of fig. 1 appear as single drawing at section AA, showing the cross section of the material to be replaced and boundary within which the replacement material must be located. Where the wall of the pipe is thicker than the minimum required for internal pressure, credit may be taken for excess material when calculating replacement material but always within boundary sets in fig. 2. The fig. 2 is essentially fig. 304.3.3. of Occasionally, reinforcement has to branch intersections which is to cater for

Th, Tb -> Nominal thickness of header and branch

th, tb -> Thickness of pipe required for pressure design L4 -> Height of reinforcing zone outside of run pipe = 2.5(Th - C) Or 2.5(Tb - c) + Tr whichever is less T -> Minimum thickness of reinforcement ring or saddle Th To -> Minimum thickness of header and branch (Nominal thickness - mill tolerance) d2 =d1, or (Tb - C)+(Th - C)+ d1,/2 whichever is greater The required reinforcement area The reinforcement area A required for a branch connection under internal pressure is A1 = t d (2 - sin ) For branch connection under external pressure, area Aa is one and half of the area required for internal pressure. Available area The area available for reinforcement A2 + A3 + A4- A1 All the above area are within reinforcing zone. In the above expression, A2 is the area resulting from excess thickness of header pipe A2 = (2d2 - d1) (Tb - th - c) A3 is the area resulting from excess thickness of branch pipe. A3 = 2L4(Tb - tb - c) Example A 10" nom. dia. pipe has design condition of 65~F and 400 psig., It is made from seamless material to specification. A53GRB Sch20. The corrosion allowance is 0.03. inch. It has a 4" nom. branch, sch40 of same material. What are suitable dimension of reinforcement to be made from material of equal quality to that of pipe material. The minimum thickness required for both 10" and 4" header from the basic equation: The minimum thickness required for both 10" and 4" header from the basic equation:

The nominal thickness: Th, = 0.219 Tb = 0.207 The thickness in excess = 0.219 - 0.1418 - 0.03 (For header) = 0.0472 inch The thickness in excess = 0.207 - 0.0593 - 0.03 (For branch) = 0.1177 inch d1 = 4.5 - 2 (0.207 - 0.03 - 0.0593) = 4.2646 inches d2 = d1 = 4.2646 inches L4 is min.of 2.5(Th - c) or 2.5(Tb - c) + tr i.e. 2.5 ( 0.22) or 2.5 x 0.207 + 0.2 5 (say) Hence L = 0.55 inch The required area for replacement = th x d1 A1 = 0.1418 x 4.2646 A1 = 0.6047 inch2 The compensation area available in header A2 = (2 d2 - d1) x excess thickness = 4.2646 x 0.0472 = 0.2012 inch The compensation area available in branch A3 = 2 L4 x excess thickness = 2 x 0.55 x 0.1177 inch = 0.1294 inch Total area for compensation area available

A2 + A3 = 0.2012 + 0.1294 inch = 0.3306 inch Hench cross section area of pad A = A1 - (A2 + A3) = 0.6047 - 0.3306 = 0.2740 inch Hence the width of ring section of 1/4" thick

Here the cross section of fillet weld is neglected. For more conservative calculation, this area also may be considered. Minimum Flexibility Requirements A pipe is erected at ambient temperature, say between 4ff F - 800 F, in different climates . (700F (210 C), - is normally used~ The same pipe when in operation in a modern petrochemical plant could well be at a temperature in excess of 10000 F if it were reactor piping system or it could be down near -200~F if it were associated with an Ethylene refrigeration system. If pipe is made of carbon steel or low alloy steel, it will expand with a rate of 3/4"-1" for each l000 F temperature rise. This means the pipe running between two equipment 100 ft. apart may well expand by 3 to 4 or more inches as it heats up,- but as ends are not free to-move, this increase in length can only be accommodated by straining the pipe. This straining produces a stress in pipe. However, when the pipe is next taken out of service, it cools down to ambient temperature, the expansion returns to zero and hence the stress. Every time that the pipe is put into or taken out of service, the same cycle of event occurs. The pipe starts from stress free condition when dold and has stresses imposed which reach a maximum at operating condition and reduce to zero when the pipe is taken out of service. The type of straining described, if repeated often enough will cause the pipe to crack. The cracking will start at a point or points where the stresses is maximum. This is what is called fatigue failure. The various codes and standards covering the design of piping system puts a limit to maximum stresses which the system can be subjected when put to use. This limit is called the allowable stress range for expansion and generally denoted by SA. 1. Internal Pressure/External Pressure Stress: As you have already learnt, the stresses due to internal pressure is considered safe when the thickness including reinforcement are adequate (using the value SH the allowable stress at the operating temperature). 2. Longitudinal Stresses (SL): The sum of longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight and other sustained loading shall not exceed the basic allowable stress (SH). Pipe thickness for calculation of SL must be reduced by

allowance such ascorrosion, erosions, manufacturing tolerance and grove depth. (1.33 times in case of occasional loads such as wind/earth quake) 3. Allowable displacement stress is-given by SA = f (1. 25 Sc + O. 25 Sf-{) Sc - Basic allowable stress at min. temp. SH - Basic allowable stress at max. temp. f - stress range reduction factor for cyclic condition for total number of full temperature cycles over expected life

Stress range reduction factor When SW-is greater than the calculated value of SL the difference between them may be added to the term 0.25 SH in the above equation. In that case, the revised formula becomes; S = f [ 1.25 (SC + SM) - SL ] Analysis of Metallic Piping No formal analysis of adequate flexibility is required for a piping system if; (a) it duplicates or replaces without significant change, a system with a successful service record, (b) it can be readly judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed system, (c) it is of uniform size, has no more than two point of fixation, no intermediate restrains and falls within limitation set by the equation;

D - outside diameter of pipe in rnm. Y - resultant total displacement strains in mm to be absorbed by the system L - developed length of piping system in metre U - anchor distance, straight line between anchors, metre The above equation is always conservative but care shall be taken for abnormal condition such as unequal leg, U bends, to large diameter thin wall pipe (where the stress intensification factor is 5 or more) or to condition where the extraneous motions other than the direction connected to anchor point constitutes a large proportion of expansion duty.

User must be aware of the other fact that above equation does not ensure that the terminal reaction will be satisfactory. The weight effect is also not considered in the equation. In Plane and Out Plane Bending Moment As per code ANSI B3l.3, code defines ir.-?lane and out-plane bending moments which are shown in figure 2.3. In Plane and Out Plane Bending Moment

Figure 2.3 After application of the in-plane bending moments Ml, the bend or branch remains in the original plane. But when out-plane bending moment Mo is applied, the bend or branch connection goes out of original plane. The torsional moment about axis of pipe is denoted by Mt. Flexibility (Guided Cantilever Method) Suppose we have 2 vessels T-l and T-2, say 50 ft. apart and that we have to run pipe between 2 Nozzles at same elevation. Obviously the most economical way of doing is as shown in figure 2.4. Flexibility (Guided Cantilever Method)

Figure 2.4 Now further suppose that every thing is carbon steel and the vessel T-l has its temperature raised to 350 F. when the valve is opened, there will be an expansion between centres of T-l and T-2 and that will be;

To absorb the above expansion, one of the following tow things may happen. (1) Pipe will dent the vessel at two nozzles as shown in figure 2.5 (2) The pipe may buckle as shown in figure 2.6

It is possible to calculate the stresses in pi?e and vessel and even if these stresses are within allowable limits, still this will not be cor.sic~red as good engineering practice. Hence, for the similar connection, the plot has to be laid differently and provided in two sections perpendicular to each other as shown.

With the above configuration for the piping, as point B moves by out to B1, it is able to bend the leg BC into new position BIC. The onger leg is easier to bend use to the expansion of BC. We will calculate the minimum length 1 required forBC to absorb the expansiond. As per the elastic theory (Guided cantiliver method); Maximum bending moment

Now if the stress range is 16000 psi and considering Youngs modulus of elasticity at ambient

temperature value of carbon steel,

So when locating the equipment T-2, be minimum of 16.5 ft. The above method can be applied for the location of guides in L shape configuration.

Flexibility in Tortion Let us now consider the deflection of a beam when it is subjected to bending and tortion. In Flexibility in tortion case of a beam subjected to moments as .shown in figure, the angle (The change in slope) is given by;

- Angle in radians Homent, 1b inch M - Moment, 1b inch I - Moment of inertia, inch4 L - Length in inches If the same length of pipe is subjected to torsion, the rotation of one end relative to other is given by,

- Angle of twist in radians T - Tortion moment, lb/inch L - Length in inch G - Modulus of rigidity, Ib/inch2

J- poler moment of inertia, inch4

This result in very important consideraing 3-D layouts. It shows that a given length of pipe will given 30% more rotation if moment from adjacent leg produces torsion instead of bending. Tortion deflection alone is rare as means of obtaining flexibility, but the fact demonstrated above may influence the stress engineer in choice of alternative routes for a pipe. Piping Auxiliaries Those elements other than straight pipe which go to make up a complete piping system are described as piping Auxiliaries. These are important to know to the extent of knowing their individual effects on the flexibility of piping system and the stresses in it, before going for a analysis of complicated piping system. The common auxiliaries used are bends, tees, reducer flanges, etc. Elbows These are used when change in direction of pipe is required, .they can be of the type short radius, long radius, or pipe bends. Now let us consider bending of elbows. image We know in case of a straight pipe the deflection is given by;

and the maximum bending stress

The earlier analysis of piping systems containing elbows and results of experiment showed deviations. The practical piping system was found far more flexible than what the theory predicted and the discrepancy was shown to lie in the flexibility of the elbows. The first theoretical analysis of the behaviour of pipe bends when subject to a bending moment was made by Theodore Von Karman, who showed that when curved pipe is subjected to a bending moment in its own plane, the circular cross section undergoes changes and is flattened and this results in increased flexibility. The ratio of the flexibility of a bend to that of a straight pipe havirig the same length and cross section is known as flexibility factor and usually denoted by letter "K". Now let us examine how this flattening of elbow ox chanqe in cross section occurs. Let us consider a elbow with AB as neutral axis is subjected to a bending moment of M (see figure 10).

The outer fibre of elbows shall be subjected to tensile stress and the inside surface to a compressive stress. Let us take a thin cross section and study in detail. The resultant tensile load on outer fibre results in inward radial load in the element. Similarly, the compressive load C on inside fibre also produces a resultant inward radial load on the element. If we now take a slice as a cross section of pipe and draw the loading diagram for the ring which is in effect, we arrive at view (a) in Fig. 10 (iv). Under the loading, the ring flattens into an ellipse with its major axis horizontal. If we now reverse the sign of bending moment the cross section w i l l e l o n g a t e instead of flattening. If we now consider the element in more detail, we see that the flattening produces bending moments in the ring which are maximum at the end of the horizontal diameter. These moments produce a stress which varies from tension to compression through the thickness of pipe wall. and which is circumferential in direction. If we consider the half of the ring (Fig. 10 (v, we can illustrate the same in a simplified way. The circumferential stress in pipe wall due to moment M can be many times the value calculated as (My/I) as per ordinary bending theory for structural members. The factor by which the circumferential stresses exceed the longitudinal stresses in bend is called the Stress intensification factor often denoted as S.l.F. One of the practical manifestations of the existance of these circumferential stresses is that when an elbow is subjected to repeated in-plane bending, it ultimately develops a fatigue crack along its sides. When we take into account the elbows of a piping system, we are therefore able to claim additional flexibility due to this flattening, but at the same time we must also take into account the induced circumferential stresses by multiplying the stresses at the bends due to overall bending moment in the piping system by appropriate stress intensification factor. The expression for calculating both factor and stress intensification factor given oodes such as B3l.3 etc. are as follows. The flexibility characteristic

Circumferential stress in pipe wall

stress intensification factor

Effect of Pressure on Stress Intensificaition Factor and Flexibility Factor Some of the piping codes give fomulas for correcting the values of SIF and flexibility factor for elbows and bends. When the pressure effects are considered, SIF values are lower thus actually reducing the value of thermal stress. However, the terminal forces increase because of reduced flexibility at elbows. Pressure can affect significantly the rnagnitude of flexibility factor and SIF in case of large diameter and thin wall elbows. The correction factor CKF for flexibility factor due to preseue on elbows is given by,

The correction factor CFI for SIF

where, T - Nominal wall thickness of the fittings for elbows and miter bends, inches r2 - Mean radius of matching pipe, inches R1 - Bend radius, inches P - Gauge pressure in psi EC - Cold modulus of elasticity, psi Stresses in a Piping System The equation for expansion stress S is given by equation using as installed modulus of elasticity Ea;

(1) The equation for resulting bending stress is given by

(2) And the torsional stress

For branch connections, the resultant bending stress requires a bit more attention as the section modulus Z for header and branch is slightly different. The pipe wall thickness has no significant effect on bending stress due to thermal expansion but it affects the end reactions in direct ratio. So overstress cannot be remedied by adding thickness; on the-contrary, this tends to make matter worse by increasing the end reactions. The values of S calculated shall not exceed the values calculated by equation SE = f ( 1.25 SC - 0.25 SH) or SE = f [1.25 SC - 1.25 (SH - SL)] Refer to the in-plane and out-plane bending moment sketch for elbows. FOR Elbows

where, ii - In plane intensification factor io - Out plane intensification factor Mi - In plane bending moment Mo - Out plane bending moment z - Section modulus of pipe ze - Effective section modulus for branch = r2 2TS

r2 - Mean branch cross section area Ts - Effective branch wall thickness (lesser of tb and (io) Tb) Tb - Thickness of branch pipe Cold Spring A piping system may be cold spring or prestressed to reduce anchor forces and moments. Cold spring may be cut short for hot piping and cut long for cryogenic piping. The CDt short is accomplished by shortening overall length of pipe by desired amount but not exceeding the calculated expansion. Cut long is done by inserting a length (making a length longer than required). The amount of cold spring is expressed as percentage of thermal expansion. Credit for cold spring is no.t allowed for stress calculation. Different codes state the same. Code - Sets forth the engineering requirements deemed necessary for safe design and construction of pressure piping - Safety is the main consideration - The above alone will not govern the final specification for any piping installation. - Code is not a designs hand book. - It does not do away with the need of designer or competent engineering judgment. basic design principles formulas supplemented by specific requirements to assure uniform application of principles and guide selection of piping materials code prohibits designs and practices known as unsafe and contains warnings where caution, but not prohibition is warented. Code Section Includes (a) Reference to acceptable material spec. and compo. std including dimensional std 8 pr./ temp rating. (b) Requirement of or design of component, assemplies, supports (c) Requirement and data for evaluation and limitation of stresses, reactions and movements. Dug to pressure changes, temp. changes and other forces. (d) Guidance and limitation on selection of materials (e) Req. of fabrication, assemblies, and erection of piping (f) Requirement for examination, inspection and testing. of piping. ASME B 31 Code for Pressure Piping B-31.1 (1998) Power piping. Electric power generation station.

Geothermal heating systems Central district heating systems. B-31.2 Process piping

(1999) -

petroleum refineries

chemical pharmaceutical textile paper cryogenic plants B-31.4 (1998) B-31.5 (1992) B-31.8 B-31.9 (1996) pipeline transportation system for liq. hydro car-bons and other liquids Refrigeration piping for refrigerants and scondey coolants Gas transportation and distribution piping. Building services piping industrial

institutional / commercial public buildings B-31.11 (R1998) 1926 Slurry transportation piping system aqueous slurries American standards association initiated project

March B.31 at req. of a.s.m.e. 1935 American tentative standard code for pressure piping

To accommodate current development in piping design, welding, stress computation new dimensional standards and specification, and increase in the severity of service condition, revisions, supplements and new edition of code was published as 1942 1955 1952 1955 industries 1959 A new section of code for gas transmission and distribution Decision was taken to develop and publish separate code sections for other To supersede section 3 of B-31.1 ASA-B-31.1

ASA B-31.3 was published Revisions in 1962 1966 1967-1969 - American standard association became united states of America standards institute then American standards institute. And code became. American national standard code for pressure piping. 1973 1974 ANSI B-31.3 adenda through 1975. code for chemical plant piping (B-36.6) was ready for approval.

1976 B-31.3 was published to combine req. of B-36.6 and published as chemical plant and petroleum refinery piping.

Addenda upto 1980. Dec 1978 - American national standards committee B-31 was reorganized as asme code for pressure piping, B-31 committee. All addenda and new addition was developed as ANSI / ASME B-31 1980 Published 1981 Code for cryogenic piping (B-36.10) was ready approved. Addenda of B-31.3 1980 was published to cater for B-36.10 1984 1987 Chapter for cryogenic piping added. New edition B-31.3 New edition ANSI / ASME B-31.3

26th October 1990 ANSI/ASME was adopted.

Design Pressure Shall not be less than the pressure at most severe condition of coincident internal / External and temperature min / max expected during service. Design Temperature The coincident temp. at severe condition. Consider - fluid temp. - ambient temp - heating or, cooling medium. Design Minimum Temperature Lowest component temp during service. Design Temperature of Uninsulated Piping (a) fluid temp. below 100o F (38OC) component. Temp. as fluid temp. (b) fluid temp. above 100OF (38OC) unless lower temp. is determined by test or heat transfer calculation. (a) values pipes, B N fitting - 95% of fluid temp. (b) flanges (except lap joint) - 90% of fluid temp. (c) L.T. flanges - 85% (d) Bolting - 80% Externally Insulated Piping

Fluid temperature Internally Insulated Piping To be determined by heat transfer calculation limitation of calculated stresses due to sustained load and displacement strains. (a) Internal pressure stresses: The selected pipe thickness T The mill tolerance 12.5% Min. thickness = T mill tol. > t + C C - Sum of mechanical allowance (thread) + corrosion allowance. t- Pressure design thickness.

where, P - Internal design pressure gage. D - Outside diameter S - Stress value for material. From table A-1 E - Quality factor table A-1A / A-1B Seamless pipe E = 1.0 ERW E = 0.85 Furness butt welded E = 0.6 Electric fusion welded E = 0.95 (double butt.) 100% radio graphed E = 1.0 Y - Coefficient from table 304.1.1 t < D/6 tD/6d inside dia. (max.)

function of material and design temperature 0.4 to 0.7 Thickness Cal. Pipe Bends

And at side wall on bend center line I = 1.0

The thickness req is at the midspan. Miter Bends Angular offset more than 3 deg are req. to be checked

Branch Reinforcement branch reinforcement

Figure 2.14 L4 min of Or 2.5 (Thk of pipe Mill tol. Corr.AL)branch + Tr d1 = OD of branch excess thk in branch. Required Reinforcement Area A1 = th d1 (2 sin ) d1 = Effective length removed = [Db 2 (Tb C)]/ sin th/tb thickness req. for external pressure. Available Area A2 Area resulting excess thick ness on run pipe (header) = (2d2-d1) (Th - th- C) d2- half width of reinforcement zone = d1 or (th-C) + (th-C) + d1/2 which ever is greater but no case 2.5 (Thk of pipe Mill tol. Corr.AL) for header

more than Dn A3- Area resulting from excess thickness on branch = 2 L4 (Ta-tb-C)/ sin Tr. bs min thick of branch reinforcement L4- 2.5 (Th-c) or 2.5(Th-C) + Tr A4 Area of rein forcement Appendix D Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors

Flexibility and Stress Intensification

Table D3001 (Cont'D) flexibility factor, k and stress intensification factor, i

Bending stress in L-shaped piping.

Bending stress in symmetrical loop

Longitudinal Stresses (SL) Due to pressure, weight and other sustained loading, sl, shall not exceed sn for calculation of sl. Will be based on nominal thickness mechanical, corrosion and erosion allowance. Allowable Displacement Stress Sh SA = (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh) When SH > SL SA = {(1.25 sc + 1.25 sn) SL} f. Stress Range Reduction Factor

f. Stress Range Reduction Factor

Flexibility in Tortion Inbending

Inbending

Intortion

Guided cantilever method

Guided cantilever method