Alexandria university Faculty of engineering Naval architecture and marine engineering department Third year 2010

Gas turbine cycle

Student name: Waleed Mohamed talaat Abdullah No: 98 presented to eng / Nader supervised by DR /adel banawan

Table of contents

Summary....

Introduction..

Historical back ground. Brayton cycle processes.. Main components of a gas turbine... - Compressor. -Combustion/Combustor... - Turbine.... The constant volume gas turbine cycle according to Karavodine (Nasa project)... Characteristics and Performances of Constant Volume Combustion Turbine Engine.. Types for operating cycles in gas turbines (constant pressure)...... Air-standard assumptions .. Internally reversible processes.. Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones.. Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbines... References....

Summary
Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed isentropically, combustion occurs at constant pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs isentropically back to the starting pressure. In this report we are going to discuss the gas turbine main elements, besides the utilization of gas turbine in the marine. Here we will take an overview on the main components of gas turbines, the cycle processes, the types used, the thermal efficiency and the main differences between the constant volume and constant pressure cycles, open or closed.

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Introduction
Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high powerto-weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly. The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009 (formerly MGB 509) converted in 1947. Metropolitan-Vickers developed the "Beryl" engine equipping an existing F2/3 jet engine with a power turbine. As the test was successful, the Fast Patrol Boats Bold Pioneer and Bold Pathfinder built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion. The first large scale, gas-turbine powered ships, were the Royal Navy's Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates, the first of which (HMS Ashanti) was commissioned in 1961.The Germany Navy launched the first Kln class frigate in 1961 with 2 GTs from BBC in the worlds first combined diesel and gas propulsion system.The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica class torpedoboats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282, each delivering 4300 hp. They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrkping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005.[20]The Finnish Navy issued two Turunmaa class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in 1968. They were equipped with one 22,000 shp Rolls-Royce Olympus TMB3 gas turbine and three Wrtsil marine diesels for slower speeds. They were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved 35 knot speeds, with 37.3 knots on sea trials. The Turunmaas were paid off in 2002. Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku, and Turunmaa serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College.The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ships were the U.S. Coast Guard's Hamilton-class High Endurance Cutters the first of which (USCGC Hamilton) commissioned in 1967. Since then, they have powered the U.S. Navy's Perry-class frigates, Spruance-class and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers. USS Makin Island, a modified Wasp-class

amphibious assault ship, is to be the Navy's first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels.

Historical background
The basic gas turbine cycle is named for the Boston engineer, George Brayton, who first proposed the Brayton cycle around 1870. Now, the Brayton cycle is used for gas turbines only where both the compression and expansion processes take place in rotating machinery. John Barber patented the basic gas turbine in 1791. The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and electric power generation. Gas turbines are used as stationary power plants to generate electricity as stand-alone units or in conjunction with steam power plants on the high-temperature side. In these plants, the exhaust gases serve as a heat source for the steam. Steam power plants are considered external-combustion engines, in which the combustion takes place outside the engine. The thermal energy released during this process is then transferred to the steam as heat. The gas turbine first successfully ran in 1939 at the Swiss National Exhibition at Zurich. The early gas turbines built in the 1940s and even 1950s had simple-cycle efficiencies of about 17 percent. This was because of low compressor and turbine efficiencies and low turbine inlet temperature due to metallurgical limitations at the time. The first gas turbine for an electric utility was installed in 1949 in Oklahoma as part of a combined-cycle power plant. It was built by General Electric and produced 3.5 MW of power. In the past, large coal and nuclear power plants dominated the base-load electric power generation. However, natural gas-fired turbines now dominate the field because of their black start capabilities, higher efficiencies, lower capital costs, shorter installation times, better emission characteristics, and abundance of natural gas supplies. The construction cost for gas-turbine power plants are roughly half that of comparable conventional fossilfuel steam power plants, which were the primary base-load power plants until the early 1980s. More than half of all power plants to be installed in the foreseeable future are forecast to be gas-turbine or combined gas-steam turbine types. In the early 1990s, General Electric offered a gas turbine that featured a pressure ratio of 13.5 and generated 135.7 MW of net power at a thermal efficiency of 33 percent in simple-cycle operation. A more recent gas turbine manufactured by General Electric uses a turbine inlet temperature of 1425C (2600F) and produces up to 282 MW while achieving a thermal efficiency of 39.5 percent in the simple-cycle mode. Current low prices for crude oil make fuels such as diesel, kerosene, jet-engine fuel, and clean gaseous fuels (such as natural gas) the most desirable for gas turbines. However, these fuels will become much more expensive and will eventually run out. Provisions must therefore be made to burn alternative fuels. There have been a number of experiments in which gas turbines were used to power seagoing commercial vessels. The earliest of these experiments may have been the oil tanker "Auris" (Anglo Saxon Petroleum) - circa 1949.

The United States Maritime Commission was looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships and heavy duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the "John Sergeant" was lengthened and installed with a General Electric 6600 SHP HD gas turbine, reduction gearing and a variable pitch propeller. It operated for 9700 hours using residual fuel for 7000 hours. The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels. The "John Sergeant" was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA. Between 1970 and 1982, Seatrain Container Lines operated a scheduled container service across the North Atlantic with four 26,000 tonne dwt. container ships. Those ships were powered by twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named "Euroliner", "Eurofreighter", "Asialiner" and "Asiafreighter". They operated a transatlantic container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in North West Europe. Following the dramatic OPEC price increases of the mid-nineteen seventies, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e., marine diesel). The modifications were partially successful. It was proved that particular fuel could be used in a marine gas turbine but, savings made were less than anticipated due to increased maintenance requirements. After 1982 the ships were sold, then re-engined with more economical diesel engines. Because the new engines were much larger, there was a consequential loss of some cargo space. The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet, built in 1977 and powered with two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55 MW and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After just four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to allow less costly operations during off-season. Another example of commercial usage of gas turbines in a passenger ship are Stena Line's HSS class fast craft ferries. HSS 1500-class Stena Explorer, Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use COGAG setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68 MW. The slightly smaller HSS 900-class Stena Charisma uses twin ABBSTAL GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW gross. The Stena Discovery was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs. In July 2000, the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in a Combined Gas and Steam Turbine configuration. The RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a Combined Diesel and Gas Turbine configuration.

Brayton Cycle processes

Figure 1 T-s and P-v Diagrams of an Ideal Brayton Cycle

Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle, as shown in Figure 2. Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The high-pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to the atmospheric pressure through a row of nozzle vanes. This expansion causes the turbine blade to spin, which then turns a shaft inside a magnetic coil. When the shaft is rotating inside the magnetic coil, electrical current is produced. The exhaust gases leaving the turbine in the open cycle are not re-circulated. The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed cycle as shown in Figure 3 by utilizing the air-standard assumptions. Here the compression and expansion process remain the same, but a constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air replaces the combustion process. The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

Figure 2 An Open Cycle Gas-Turbine Engine

Figure 3 A Closed Cycle Gas-Turbine Engine

Main components of a gas turbine

Schematics of a typical military gas turbine engines

Compressor:

(See Figure 4) Efficient compression of large volumes of air is essential for a successful gas turbine engine. This has been achieved in two types of compressors, the axial-flow compressor and the centrifugal or radial-flow compressor. Most power plant compressors are axial-flow compressors. The object of a good compressor design is to obtain the most air through a given diameter compressor with a minimum number of stages while retaining relatively high efficiencies and aerodynamic stability over the operating range. Compressors contain a row of rotating blades followed by a row of stationary (stator) blades. A stage consists of a row of rotor and a row of stator blades. All work done on the working fluid is done by the rotating rows, the stators converting the fluid kinetic energy to pressure and directing the fluid into the next rotor. The fluid enters with an initial velocity relative to the blade and leaves with a final relative velocity at a different angle.

Figure 4 An Axial-Flow Compressor

Combustion/Combustor:

(See Figure 5) Combustion is the chemical combination of a substance with certain elements, usually oxygen, accompanied by the production of a high temperature or transfer of heat. The function of the combustion chamber is to accept the air from the compressor and to deliver it to the turbine at the required temperature, ideally with no loss of pressure. Essentially, it is a direct-fired air heater in which fuel is burned with less than one-third of the air after which the combustion products are then mixed with the remaining air. For the common open-cycle gas turbine, this requires the internal combustion of fuel. This means the problem of fuel operation, mixing and burning, must be addressed. Fuel is commonly gaseous or liquid. Solid fuel has not yet advanced beyond the experimental stage. Gaseous or liquid fuels are usually hydrocarbons. Gases usually being natural gas, mostly methane, and butane. Liquids may range from highly refined gasoline through kerosene and light diesel oil to a heavy residual oil (Bunker C or No. 6 fuel oil). Combustion itself is seldom difficult. The difficulty arises in the combination of combustion with low-pressure loss in a size of combustor compatible with the high power-weight, high specific output potentialities, or the rotating elements. Almost any fuel can be burnt successfully if sufficient pressure drop is available to provide the necessary turbulence for mixing of air and fuel and if sufficient volume is available to give the necessary time for combustion to be completed.

Figure 5 A Combustion Chamber Can

Turbine:

(See Figures 6 and 7) Gas turbines move relatively large quantities of air through the cycle at very high velocities. Among the mechanical characteristics of gas turbine engines are very smooth operation and absence of vibration due to reciprocating action. The high rotational speeds utilized require very accurate rotor balancing to avoid damaging vibration. Rotor parts are highly stressed with low factors of safety. Blades are very finely tuned to avoid resonant vibration. Gas turbines have relatively few moving (and no sliding) parts and are not subjected to vibratory forces. As a result, they are highly reliable when properly designed and developed. The gas turbine in its most common form is a heat engine operating through a series of processes. These processes consist of compression of air taken from the atmosphere, increasing of gas temperature by the constant-pressure combustion of fuel in the air, expansion of the hot gases, and finally, discharging of the gases to atmosphere, in a continuous flow process. It is similar to the gasoline and Diesel engines in its working medium and internal combustion, but is like the steam turbine in the steady flow of the working medium. The compression and expansion processes are both carried out by means of rotating elements in which the energy transfer between fluid and rotor is affected by means of kinetic action, rather than by positive displacement as in reciprocating machinery.

Figure 6 Inside a Turbine Chamber

Figure 7 A Turbines 1st Stage Blades

In practice, friction and turbulence cause:

1. Non-isentropic compression: for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor delivery temperature is higher than ideal. 2. Non-isentropic expansion: although the turbine temperature drop necessary to drive the compressor is unaffected, the associated pressure ratio is greater, which decreases the expansion available to provide useful work. 3. Pressure losses in the air intake, combustor and exhaust: reduces the expansion available to provide useful work.

The constant volume gas turbine cycle according to Karavodine (Nasa project)
The basic distinction between the constant volume cycle and the well known constant pressure cycle for gas turbines is the method of heat supply, which necessitates a system of combustion chamber valves to contain the fluid. The object of the proposed cycle analysis, which is mainly based on the fundamental laws of mass and energy, will consider a solution for the discrepancies between the former theory and practice of constant volume gas turbines. The overall performance characteristics which emerge from this analysis show the distinct superiority of the one-valve Karavodine cycle. Evaluation by experiment for this cycle variant shows, however, besides a refinement of the model, a marginal superiority in performance for the Brayton gas turbine at low pressure ratios. Any application could probably be justified by incorporating it in Brayton turbines to diminish starting power and to improve part load performance.

Characteristics and Performances of Constant Volume Combustion Turbine Engine

The constant volume combustion gas turbine is a particular gas turbine engine that joins together some features of gas turbine and piston engine. In fact, instead of constant pressure combustion chamber utilized in gas turbine engine, the combustion process takes place in a closed volume (constant volume), similar to that of piston engines. So the pressure rise of working fluid occurs in two times: first by means of the compressor, second as consequence of the closed volume combustion. In this way, once fixed the maximum cycle pressure, the power adsorbed for compression is less of that of a gas turbine engine. Consequently the output power available and the efficiency are greater. This idea is not new, and some efforts were made in the first years of last century to build an engine according to these principles. Most of them failed or did not exit the doors of the laboratory. The main realization was the Holzwarth turbine, built in different models. In figure 8, It is showed a section of a Holzwarth turbine with horizontal shaft and 10 combustion chambers, and details of the combustion chamber of a another model. A 1000 hp version with vertical shaft for driving a dynamo was built, and different experiences were made.

Figure 8 Section of Holzwarth turbine, with horizontal shaft and 10 combustion chambers, and details of combustion chamber.

Types for operating cycles in gas turbines (constant pressure)

We will typically represent the components schematically, as in Figure 2, 3 In practice, real Brayton cycles take one of two forms. Figure 9(a) shows an ``open'' cycle, where the working fluid enters and then exits the device. This is the way a jet propulsion cycle works. Figure 9(b) shows the alternative, a closed cycle, which recalculates the working fluid. Closed cycles are used, for example, in space power generation.

a- Open cycle

b- closed cycle

Figure 9 Options for operating Brayton cycle gas turbine engines

Air-standard assumptions:
Assumptions that the compression and expansion processes are adiabatic (insulated) and reversible (isentropic), that there is no pressure drop during the heat addition process, and that the pressure leaving the turbine is equal to the pressure entering the compressor.

Internally reversible processes:

Thermodynamics states that, for given temperature limits, a completely reversible cycle has the highest possible efficiency and specific work output, reversibility being both mechanical and thermal. Mechanical reversibility is a succession of states in mechanical equilibrium, i.e. fluid motion without friction, turbulence, or free expansion. Thermal reversibility is a consequence of the Second Law of thermodynamics, which states that heat must be added only at the maximum temperature of the cycle and rejected at the minimum temperature.
Isentropic: Processes held at constant volume or constant pressure.

The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown in Figure 1. All four processes of the Brayton cycle are executed in steady flow devices so they should be analyzed as steady-flow processes. When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected, the energy balance for a steady-flow process can be express, on a unitmass basis, as

Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are

and

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold air-standard assumptions becomes

. Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and P2 = P3 and P4 = P1. Thus,

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give

where

is the pressure ratio and k is the specific heat ratio. Under the cold-air assumptions, the thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle depends on the pressure ratio of the gas turbine and the specific heat ratio of the working fluid (if different from air). The thermal efficiency increases with both of these parameters, which is also the case for actual gas turbines.

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones:

The actual gas turbine cycle differs from the ideal Brayton cycle. Some pressure drop during the heat addition and rejection processes is unavoidable. The actual work input to the

compressor will be more, and the actual work output from the turbine will be less because of irreversibilities. The deviation of actual compressor and turbine behavior from the idealized isentropic behavior can be accurately accounted for by utilizing the adiabatic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor defined as

where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the compressor and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case.

Advantages of gas turbine engines

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines; Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating. Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines. Low operating pressures. High operation speeds. Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

Disadvantages of gas turbine engines

1. Cost 2. Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle 3. Longer startup than reciprocating engines 4. Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating engines

References http://web.me.unr.edu/me372/Spring2001/Brayton%20Cycle.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine#Maritime http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node28.html http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMJPC2005_1177/PV2005_4215.pdf http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982gatu.conf.....V